Health, Physical education & Sport science

Bsc 1st semester

Hpess-313
BASIC HUMAN ANATOMY
Assignment # 01-05
Submitted to: Professor Humaiyun Imran Azeemi
Submitted by: MahnoorKhan (320037)
 Assignment: 01

Study of Anatomy and Physiology

in the field of
health, physical education and sports
sciences
Before highlighting the concept of Anatomy and Physiology, we all should know that in physical
education and sports the only elements that in use is nothing but human body itself.
It is from Human body that performs in various sports and physical activities, exercises etc. It
means that no physical activities, exercises, performances etc., can be performed with the help of
human body.

Anatomy and Physiology are interrelated with each other and without understanding anatomy
and physiology, we cannot even think of physical education and sports.

In order to study physical education and sports from scientific point of view, one should have
familiar with anatomy and physiology. The studies of human bodily movements and effects of
exercises on human body are performed only with the help and knowledge of anatomy and
physiology.

The knowledge and conscience of anatomy and physiology is therefore, essential for any
physical educator, coach or sport scientist.

The study of anatomy and physiology are essential to know physical education and sports from
scientific point of view.

Anatomy is the study of the structures associated with the human body. Physiology is the study
of the function of each of these structures. The human body is often thought of as a complicated
machine. In order for the machine to work, it must have all of its parts but in addition each of
these parts must function optimally. If organs or organ systems are not functioning properly, then
the patient is described as having disease. Let’s discuss a specific example. Some patients have a
thinning (weakening) in the wall of an artery. This is referred to as an aneurysm. The blood in
arteries is under very high pressure. This pressure becomes even greater when we are undergoing
activity such as exercise. If the wall of the artery is weak and the pressure on the blood increases
too much, then the vessel may rupture (burst aneurysm) and the patient may bleed to death. The
structure (vessel wall) has changed so that the artery can no longer carry out its function.
Importance of knowledge of Anatomy & Physiology:

A sport trainer should have an ample knowledge of anatomy and physiology because it is only
with the knowledge of anatomy and physiology, the sport trainer can improve the performance of
his player by knowing the effects of exercises on the various bodily parts of his player.

Anatomy and physiology helps sport trainer and physical educator to evaluate the performance
of his player. If a sport trainer is doing not have knowledge of anatomy and physiology, he
cannot able to get best results out of his player.

Not only sport trainer but a player should also have knowledge of anatomy and physiology, he
can improve his sport skill according to the sport event by knowing the capacity of his body.

The study of anatomy and physiology is essential from the point of view of player as:

 It helps in evaluation of a player’s capacity.

 It helps in study the effects of exercises on human body.
 It helps in positioning of body during training session.
 It helps in preventing sports injuries.
 It helps in providing adequate information of sports nutrition.
 It helps in speedy rehabilitation from sports injuries.
 It helps in improving the sports performance of a player.
 It helps a player to choose any sport event as per his bodily capacity.
 It helps in recovery of fatigue occurred during training session.
 It helps in study the ill-effect of alcohol to human body.
 It provides information of positive or negative aspects of a player’s bodily structure.

Reasoning for study of Anatomy & Physiology:

Study of anatomy and physiology plays very important role in the field of sports because of
following reasons. 

i. Helps in physical fitness: Strong and fit body is an inevitable asset in the field of sports. Study
of anatomy and physiology helps a sport person to understand the structure and function of
different parts of human body and to acquire a fit and healthy body. 
 ii. Provides knowledge about body structure: on the basis of knowledge of body structure, a
sport person knows about the strength and weakness of his body and accordingly they can
develop forte in the field of game which is suitable for the sport person as per their body
structure. 

iii. Helps in selection of games: on the basis of knowledge of body structure, the coach and
player can choose an appropriate sport/ game which is suitable for a particular sport. Like tall
students can be selected for basketball and volleyball. And short and stout students can be
selected for weight lifting.

iv. Protects from sports injuries: on the basis of anatomy, sports equipments are designed that
help in safe play. 

v. Helps in the process of rehabilitation: knowledge of ligaments, tendons and muscles helps in
rehabilitation from the injuries sustained during the game or sport.  vi. Helps in maintaining
healthy body: study of anatomy and physiology provides detailed knowledge about all body
parts, their nature and functions. This helps the player to adopt good, safe and healthy use of
body. 

vii. Helps to know about individual differences: there is a lot of difference between the body of
male and female. The knowledge of anatomy and physiology helps in understanding these
individual differences. On the basis of these differences, the size of the court, time of game and
equipment are designed differently for male and female players.

Thus, it is quite evident from the above points that the knowledge of anatomy and physiology are
essential in Physical Education and Sports.

Assignment: 02

Importance of blood,
 components and process of
Haemopoesis
along with their structure

BLOOD
The red liquid that circulates in the arteries and veins of humans and other vertebrate animals,
carrying oxygen to and carbon dioxide from the tissues of the body is called blood. In
vertebrates, it is made out of platelets suspended in blood plasma. Plasma, which constitutes 55%
of blood liquid, is for the most part water and contains disseminated proteins, glucose, mineral
particles, hormones, carbon dioxide. The blood cells are mostly RBC's, WBC's and platelets. The
most copious cells in vertebrate blood are red platelets. These contain Hb, an iron-containing
protein, which encourages oxygen tape drive by reversibly official to this respiratory gas and
significantly expanding its solvency in blood. Interestingly, carbon dioxide is generally
transported extracellular as bicarbonate particle transported in plasma.

The importance of Blood

Blood assumes an essential part of controlling the body's frameworks and looking after
homeostasis. It performs many capacities inside the body, including:
 Providing oxygen to tissues (bound to hemoglobin, which is conveyed in red cells)
 Providing supplements, for example, glucose, amino acids, and unsaturated fats either
broken down in the blood or bound to plasma proteins (e.g., blood lipids)
 Evacuating waste, for example, carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic corrosive
 Immunological capacities, including dissemination of white platelets and identification of
remote material by antibodies
 Coagulation, which is one a player in the body's self-repair component (blood thickening
by the platelets after an open injury with a specific end goal to quit dying)
 Dispatcher capacities, including the vehicle of hormones and the motioning of tissue
harm.
 Directing body pH
 Directing center body temperature
 Water powered capacities, including the control of the colloidal osmotic weight of blood

Haemopoiesis
It is the process whose specific outcome is the progression of the myeloid and lymphoid derived
organ/tissue systems of the blood and other parts of the body over time, from formation to the
mature structure. The site of hemopoiesis is variable during development, but occurs primarily in
bone marrow or kidney in many adult vertebrates.
Mature blood cells have a relatively short life span and must be continuously replaced with new
cells from precursors developing during hemopoiesis (Gr. haima, blood + poiesis, a making). In
the early embryo these blood cells arise in the yolk sac mesoderm. In the second trimester,
hemopoiesis occurs primarily in the developing liver, with the spleen playing a minor role.
Skeletal elements begin to ossify and bone marrow develops in their medullary cavities, so that
in the third trimester marrow of specific bones becomes the major hemopoietic organ.
Production of new blood cells is called haemopoiesis. From a general point of view this term
could also be taken to include the formation of the complex solution of inorganic and organic
substances, the plasma, in which the blood cells are suspended. The blood plasma continuously
exchanges substances with the tissues. The liver manufactures most of the plasma proteins, but
immunoglobulin are produced by plasma cells, widely distributed in the organism, and minor
protein components of the plasma such as certain enzymes may be produced by extra hepatic
cells or tissues. Lysozyme, a glycosidase with antibacterial activity, is produced by
granulocytes and monocytes.
It may seem obvious, but blood is made from many things. Blood plasma, for instance, is mostly
made of water, carrying proteins and cells along with various chemicals diluted within the
plasma or bound to proteins. For instance, sodium bicarbonate – baking soda – is, in fact, a vital
chemical that our bodies use to maintain a healthy level of blood acidity.

Other than the plasma, there are the “formed elements” of the blood: the red and white blood
cells along with the clot-causing platelets. These are created mostly in the bone marrow when we
are adults, and they circulate for a while before being broken down and recycled in the spleen.
Components and process of Haemopoiesis
Within the bone marrow, there are ‘haematopoietic’ (blood-making) stem cells. These are
generally long-term hematopoietic stem cells, but each of them can leave the bone marrow and
change its gene expression before dividing to form one short-term hematopoietic stem cell and
one long-term one, which is returned to the bone marrow, keeping the number of long-term cells
constant.

Various hormones in the blood can then interact with the short-term hematopoietic stem cells,
causing it to form either a common myeloid progenitor cell, which makes most blood cells, or a
common lymphoid progenitor cell, which makes most immune cells, depending on the hormones
that the cell detects.

At this point, the two types of cells can change (differentiate) into all of the blood cells in the
circulatory system, depending on what further hormonal ‘instructions’ they are given.
Formation of new cells:

The loss of stem cells is a hallmark of aging. The number of hematopoietic stem cells in the bone
marrow decreases with age, as does their activity. This makes the formation of new blood and
immune cells more difficult, decreasing the body’s ability to fight disease or recover from blood
loss.
The reduced amount of blood cells also reduces the amount of oxygen that the body can take in,
causing shortness of breath and making exercise difficult. Perhaps to compensate for this, the
percentage of haematopoietic stem cells which are focused on creating red blood cells increases
in comparison to the amount of immune cell-making stem cells. This reduces the number of
hematopoietic stem cells focused on maintaining the immune system, leading to the immune
system weakening. This prevents the repair of other forms of damage and allows opportunistic
infections to appear in the body, leading to illness, disease and discomfort. All of this contributes
to the growing frailty and disability that is associated with old age.

A possible solution
Recently, researchers have succeeded in producing new hematopoietic stem cells from a
population of common myeloid and lymphoid progenitor cells through chemicals known as
Yamanaka factors, which induce pluripotence. This allows cells descended from hematopoietic
stem cells to become hematopoietic stem cells again.

This makes it a plausible approach to take cells from a subject, turn them into hematopoietic
stem cells, and then return them. This might be a possible solution to replenishing the dwindling
pool of hematopoietic stem cells and avoiding the age-related diseases associated with stem cell
depletion.
 Assignment: 03

Different branches of Anatomy

and relationship between them
Anatomy
Anatomy is the study of the structure of human body. Term anatomy comes from Greek words:
ANA means apart and TOMY means to cut. It is because anatomy was first obtained through
dissection
Anatomy is the branch of biology which studies how various parts of an organism are connected,
and how they are related to other body parts both spatially and functionally. Anatomy has many
sub-disciplines, and is used in many different fields. In general, there are two main types of
anatomy: gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy.
Imaging Anatomy:

Study of the body structures that can be visualized with techniques such as x-rays, MRI, and CT
scans

Embryology:

Study of the first eight weeks of development after fertilization of a human egg

Developmental Biology:

Study of the complete development of an individual from fertilization to death

Cell Biology:

Study of cellular structure and functions

Histology:

Study of the microscopic structure of tissue

Gross Anatomy:

Study of the structures that can be examined without a microscope

Systemic Anatomy:

Study of the structure of specific systems of the body such as the nervous or respiratory systems

Regional Anatomy:

Study of the specific regions of the body such as the head or chest
Surface Anatomy:

Study of the surface markings of the body to understand internal anatomy through visualization
and palpation (gentle touch)

Pathological Anatomy:

Study of structural changes associated with disease

Comparative anatomy:

The comparative study of the anatomy of different organisms.

Cadaveric anatomy:
Identify disease sites, determine causes of death, and provide tissue to repair a defect in a living
human being
Anatomy is a science older than science itself. Vision is fundamental to humans, and is the basis
of our understanding of the world. As we advanced in thought and organization, early thinkers
began to try to classify organisms. Without any other information, anatomy was often the only
evidence available to bind organisms into groups. Aristotle was among the first to attempt
serious organization of living things and used many attributes of their anatomy to group them
together. His two main groups were plants and animals, two groups we can still easily
distinguish today based on their gross anatomies.

 With the advent of better imaging technology brought the emergence of microscopic anatomy,
and really started to change biology. Once it was understood that DNA was the principle mode
through which organisms inherited traits, revolutions in many disciplines occurred. The inner
workings of the cell were being pieced together, and the functions of the many different
organelles understood. Many aspects of evolutionary biology were rediscovered or overturned as
microscopic anatomy and DNA revealed different relationships than were once assumed. This
revolution continues today, as new developments in microscopic anatomy and physiology
continually reshape our understanding of organisms Together with both gross and microscopic
anatomy the advancement in the field is possible and we get to know structure and their link
together.
 Assignment: 04

Cell Anatomy

and function of each part

with its importance

The cell is the smallest self-sustaining unit of any living organism. The human body is made up of
trillions of cells.

Composition of Cells :

     The major elements that make up cells are C, H, O and N. About 60 percent of the cell is
  H2O, and the cells are surrounded by an aqueous (watery) environment similar to seawater.
Most of cell structure is due to protein.

     Other elements present in smaller quantities but equally important for life include:

– found in bones and teeth, required for muscle contraction, nerve cell
Ca (calcium)
communication and blood clotting.

P (phosphorus)– found in bones and teeth, found in nucleic acids and part of ATP

– major cat-ion inside the cell, necessary for nerve impulses and muscle
K (potassium)
contraction.

  S (sulfur) – component of many protein molecules.

– major cat-ion outside the cell, necessary for nerve impulses and muscle
Na (sodium)
contraction.

Cl (chlorine) – major anion in the cell.

– component of hemoglobin (the molecule that carries oxygen throughout the

Fe (iron)
body).

I (iodine) – part of thyroid hormone, the hormone that controls metabolism.

Anatomy of the Cell
     There is no such thing as the “typical” cell. Cells are very diverse in structure and function.
We will use an imaginary cell to explore the structures that can be found in cells in general.

 Major regions of the cell:

     The major regions of the cell are the nucleus, plasma membrane and the cytoplasm. Each of
these will now be examined in greater detail.

  Nucleus:

     The nucleus is the command center of the cell. It contains the genetic material encoded in
the form of DNA that provides the basic instructions for all cellular activity. The nucleus has
three major regions:

Nuclear envelope:

       The nuclear envelope is a double membrane with a fluid-filled space in between. The
double membrane fuses in places to form openings called nuclear pores that permit the
passage of large molecules.

Nucleolus:
 
     This is a dark-staining center within the nucleus where ribosomes are assembled.

Chromatin:
       When the cell is not dividing the genetic material, the DNA and its associated protein, is
loose and spread out. In this form the genetic material is called chromatin.

  Plasma Membrane (cell membrane):

     The plasma membrane forms the boundary between the cell and its environment. It iss
essentially only two molecules thick! Phospholipids, molecules that possess charged (thee
head) and uncharged (the tail) parts, arrange themselves in water so that the part that isis
attracted to water, the head, face outward, and the part that is not attracted to water, the taill,
face each other. This arrangement of molecules forms a membrane (sheet) that blocks
penetration by water and any substance dissolved in water. Cholesterol molecules also aere
a part of the membrane and help to stabilize it.

     Although lipids are essential to the structure of the membrane they only make up about 50%
of the membrane by weight. The other essential components of membranes are protein
molecules.

     Proteins are scattered within the bi-layer of the plasma membrane. Proteins perform a
variety of functions including:

  Structural – such as anchoring the cell to extracellular structures or other cells.

  Receptor – cells receive signals from other cells by means of proteins.

– proteins may facilitate the passage of materials across the membrane by

  Transport
acting as channels or carriers.

  Enzymatic – proteins acting to speed up reactions may be attached to the membrane.

    
Glycolipids and Glycoproteins:

       Although most of the molecules in the cell membrane are lipids or

 proteins, carbohydrates become attached the outward-facing lipids and the outward-facing
parts of protein molecules to form glycolipids and glycoproteins, respectively. Glycolipids
and glycoproteins play an important role in cellular interactions. For example, blood type
is determined by glycoproteins in the cell membrane of red blood cells.

    Cytoplasm:

     The cytoplasm is all the material between the plasma membrane and the nucleus.
Cytoplasm includes:

  Cytosol – is the fluid in which other components of the cytoplasm are suspended.

Inclusions – refer to the non-functioning aggregates of stored nutrients or cell products that
 
are suspended in the cytosol.

  Organelles – are functional structures within the cytoplasm. Organelles may be bounded by
their own membranes, similar to the plasma membrane, which creates a compartment within
the cell where a specialized function can be performed.
      The organelles include:

Mitochondria: 

     The mitochondria have two membranes, an outer smooth membrane and an inner

    
membrane with a larger surface area that is thrown into shelf-like folds called cristae.
 
     The mitochondria have enzymes that break down glucose and other high energy
molecules and convert the energy that is released into ATP molecules. Ninety-five
      
percent of the ATP produced by the cell is produced in mitochondria and mitochondria
have been referred to as the powerhouse of the cell.

Ribosomes:
  Ribosomes are tiny structures composed of protein and ribosomal RNA. Ribosomes are
    
the protein-assembly sites of the cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

     The endoplasmic reticulum has about half of the membrane present in the cell. This
  membrane encloses a continuous, fluid-filled compartment within tubules and shelf-like
spaces formed by the membrane.
 
     The endoplasmic reticulum provide a site for protein and lipid synthesis and
  modification of these molecules, creates a transportation network for moving molecules
around the cell, and serves as a compartment for storage of calcium ions.

       There are two kinds of endoplasmic reticulum:

 Rough ER

    Rough ER is “rough” because ribosomes attach to the outer surface of the

membrane. Because ribosomes are protein-assembly sites, rough ER is associated
with protein synthesis.

Smooth ER

  Smooth ER is continuous with rough ER and lacks ribosomes. It is not involved

  with protein synthesis but functions in lipid metabolism (both synthesis and
breakdown of cholesterol and fats) and detoxification of toxins. Steroid
hormones (testosterone, estrogen, cortisol etc.) are synthesized in smooth ER.

Golgi Apparatus:

     The Golgi apparatus consists of a stack of flattened membranous sacs. The Golgi
  apparatus is the site where proteins delivered to it by transport vesicles from the ER
are modified, sorted and packaged.
 
     The product produced by the Golgi apparatus leaves it in the form of a vesicle. These
vesicles form secretory vesicles that dump their contents to the outside of the cell and
 
fuse with the cell membrane to add to its surface area. Vesicles may form that also
contains enzymes that are destined for use by lysosomes.

Lysosomes:

     The lysosome is a membrane enclosed compartment that contains digestive

enzymes that are capable of breaking down unusable cell structures and engulfed foreign
 
  material. The enzymes lysosomes contain are produced in the endoplasmic reticulum
and are packaged by the Golgi apparatus.

Peroxisomes:

     Peroxisomes are membrane enclosed compartments that contain oxidative

  enzymes which use O2 to detoxify harmful or poisonous substances including alcohol
  and formaldehyde. Peroxisomes help the cell get rid of harmful free radicals which are a
byproduct of cell metabolism. In the process they produce H 2O2 which is broken down
into H2O and O2 by catalyses.

Cytoskeleton:

     The cytoskeleton consists of a network of proteins within the cell that serves to

  maintain its shape, move organelles within the cytoplasm and stabilize their positions,
and enable cellular movements. In a sense it is the “bones and muscles” of the cell.

       The proteins that make up the cytoskeleton include:

 Intermediate filaments

       Intermediate filaments are intermediate in size and include a variety of proteins

that are similar in structure. These filaments enable the cell to maintain its physical
structure by resisting pulling and stretching forces.

Microfilaments

       Microfilaments consist of actin molecules. Microfilaments provide structural

support for the cell but are also involved in cell motility and changing the shape of
the cell.

Microtubules
       Microtubules are tube-like and determine the overall shape of the cell and the
distribution of organelles.

Centrioles

     Centrioles made up of microtubules that form two cylindrical structures that are
oriented at right angles to one another. Centrioles are the organizing center for
 
  microtubules and form the spindle apparatus. Centrioles also migrate to the plasma
membrane where they form cilia and flagella.

     Cilia and flagella are both involved in movement. Cilia move materials across thee

 
surface of the cell and flagella propel the cell itself (in humans, the sperm cell).

Assignment: 05

Process and importance of

Digestive system
& its effect on health of individual
The Digestive System

The proper functioning of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract is imperative for our well being and life
-long health. A non-functioning or poorly-functioning GI tract can be the source of many chronic
health problems that can interfere with your quality of life.

The two main functions of the digestive system are digestion and absorption.

Digestion:

The gastrointestinal tract is responsible for the breakdown and absorption of the various foods
and liquids needed to sustain life. Many different organs have essential roles in the digestion of
food, from the mechanical breakdown of food by the teeth to the creation of bile (an emulsifier)
by the liver.
Bile production plays a important role in digestion: it is stored and concentrated in the
gallbladder during fasting stages, and discharged to the small intestine. Pancreatic juices are
excreted into the digestive system to break down complex molecules such as proteins and fats.

Absorption:

Absorption occurs in the small intestines, where nutrients directly enter the bloodstream.

Each component of the digestive system plays a special role in these complimentary processes.
The structure of each component highlights the function of that particular organ, providing a
seamless anatomy to keep our body fueled and healthy.

Components of the Digestive System

The digestive system is comprised of the alimentary canal, or the digestive tract, and other
accessory organs that play a part in digestion—such as the liver, the gallbladder, and the
pancreas. The alimentary canal and the GI tract are terms that are sometimes used
interchangeably.

The alimentary canal is the long tube that runs from the mouth (where the food enters) to the
anus (where indigestible waste leaves). The organs in the alimentary canal include the mouth
(the site of mastication), the esophagus, the stomach, the small and large intestines, the rectum,
and the anus. From mouth to anus, the average adult digestive tract is about thirty feet (30′) long.

Processes of Digestion

Food is the body’s source of fuel. The nutrients in food give the body’s cells the energy they
need to operate. Before food can be used it has to be mechanically broken down into tiny pieces,
then chemically broken down so nutrients can be absorbed.

In humans, proteins need to be broken down into amino acids, starches into sugars, and fats into
fatty acids and glycerol. This mechanical and chemical breakdown encompasses the process of
digestion.

1. Mechanical digestion: Larger pieces of food get broken down into smaller pieces while
being prepared for chemical digestion; this process starts in the mouth and continues into
the stomach.
2. Chemical digestion: Several different enzymes break down macromolecules into smaller
molecules that can be absorbed. The process starts in the mouth and continues into the
intestines.
Moistening and Breakdown of Food:

Digestion begins in the mouth. A brain reflex triggers the flow of saliva when we see or even
think about food. Enzymes in saliva then begin the chemical breakdown of food; teeth aid in the
mechanical breakdown of larger food particles.
Saliva moistens the food, while the teeth masticate the food and make it easier to swallow. To
accomplish this moistening goal, the salivary glands produce an estimated three liters of saliva
per day.

Amylase, the digestive enzyme found in saliva, starts to break down starch into simple sugars
before the food even leaves the mouth. The nervous pathway involved in salivary excretion
requires stimulation of receptors in the mouth, sensory impulses to the brain stem, and
parasympathetic impulses to salivary glands. Once food is moistened and rolled and ready to
swallow, it is known as a bolus.

Swallowing and the Movement of Food

For swallowing to happen correctly a combination of 25 muscles must all work together at the
same time. Swallowing occurs when the muscles in your tongue and mouth move the bolus into
your pharynx.

The pharynx, which is the passageway for food and air, is about five inches (5″) long—a
remarkably small space. A small flap of skin called the epiglottis closes over the pharynx to
prevent food from entering the trachea, which would cause choking. Instead, food is pushed into
the muscular tube called the esophagus. Waves of muscle movement, called peristalsis, move the
bolus down to the stomach.

While in the digestive tract, the food is really passing through the body rather than being in the
body. The smooth muscles of the tubular digestive organs move the food efficiently along as it is
broken down into easily absorbed ions and molecules.

Large-scale Breakdown in the Stomach:

Once the bolus reaches the stomach, gastric juices mix with the partially digested food and
continue the breakdown process. The bolus is converted into a slimy material called chyme.
Major digestive hormones:

There are at least five major digestive hormones in the gut of mammals that help process food
through chemical digestion in the gall bladder, duodenum, stomach, and pancrease. These
hormones are cholecystokinin, gastric inhibitory polypeptide, motilin, secretin, and gastrin.

The stomach is a muscular bag that maneuvers food particles, mixing highly acidic gastric juice
and powerful digestive enzymes with the chyme to prepare for nutrient absorption in the small
intestine. Stimulatory hormones such as gastrin and motilin help the stomach pump gastric juice
and move chyme. The complex network of hormones eventually prepares chyme for entry into
the duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine.

Absorption in the Small Intestine

During absorption, the nutrients that come from food (such as proteins, fats, carbohydrates,
vitamins, and minerals) pass through the wall of the small intestine and into the bloodstream. In
this way nutrients can be distributed throughout the rest of the body. The small intestine
increases surface area for absorption through tiny interior projections, like small fingers, called
villi.
Waste Compaction in the Large Intestine

In the large intestine there is absorption of certain minerals as feces are formed. Feces are the
waste parts of the food that the body passes out through the anus.

Effects on health of individual:

We have many bacteria in our body. The ones found in gut not only help digest foods, they work all
over body and can be good for our physical and mental health. 

Gut Microbiome:

This is home base for the bacteria in your digestive tract. Here, they help you break down food and
turn nutrients into things your body can use. They stop growing when they run out of food, so you'll
only have what you need. 

In the gut microbiome, the “good” bacteria do more than just help with digestion. They help keep
your “bad” bacteria in check. They multiply so often that the unhealthy kind don't have space to
grow. When you have a healthy balance of bacteria in your gut, it’s called equilibrium.  

Gut Bacteria and Your Heart:

Some kinds of gut bacteria may be part of the link cholesterol has to heart disease. When you eat
foods like red meat or eggs, those bacteria make a chemical that your liver turns into something
called TMAO (trimethylamine-N-oxide). TMAO may help cholesterol build up in your blood
vessels. Researchers are studying a natural substance called DMB that’s in olive and grapeseed
oil. They think it might keep your bacteria from making TMAO.

Gut Bacteria and Your Kidneys:

Too much TMAO also may lead to chronic kidney disease. People who have the disease don’t
get rid of TMAO like they should. That surplus can lead to heart disease. Researchers think it’s
possible that too much TMAO might make you more likely to have chronic kidney disease in the
first place.

Gut Bacteria and Your Brain:

Your brain sends messages all over your body. Researchers believe your gut may talk back.
Studies show that the balance of bacteria in the gut microbiome may affect your emotions and
the way your brain processes information from your senses, like sights, sounds, flavors, or
textures. 
Scientists suspect that changes in that balance may play a role in conditions like autism spectrum
disorder, anxiety, and depression, as well as chronic pain. 

Gut Bacteria and Obesity:

An unhealthy balance in your gut microbiome may cause crossed signals from your brain when it
comes to feeling hungry or full. Researchers think there may be a link to the pituitary gland,
which makes hormones that help set your appetite. That gland can affect the balance of bacteria
in your gut, too. Some studies on treating obesity are exploring this link.

You get your gut microbiome at birth, and the world around you affects it as you grow up. It’s
also influenced by what you eat. That’s why it can be different depending on where you live --
and why you may be able to tilt the balance a bit.

Probiotics:

Found in some foods, these are “good” bacteria like the ones already in your gut. They can add
to the bacteria in your intestinal tract and help keep everything in balance. But they’re not all the
same. Each type works in its own way and can have different effects on your body.

They can make immune system stronger. They may boost gastrointestinal health, too, especially
if you have something like irritable bowel syndrome. Some probiotics also may help ease allergy
symptoms and help with lactose intolerance. But because our gut microbiomes are unique, if and
how they work can be different for everyone. And some experts feel more research is needed.

You can find them in dairy products like yogurt and aged cheeses. Look on the ingredients list
for live cultures of bacteria like bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. They're also in fermented
vegetables, like kimchi and sauerkraut, and pickled vegetables, like onions and gherkins.

There may be other ways to change your gut microbiome and treat things tied to its balance. For
example, fecal transplants (exactly what it sounds like) change your gut bacteria to treat things
like C. diff and ulcerative colitis. A device called deep transcranial magnetic stimulation (DTMS)
uses a coil put on the scalp to stimulate the brain and change gut bacteria. It shows promise for
treating obesity.