FACTS AND FALLACIES OF FITNESS TA YA Loe trae Oe.) KD Mel C. SiffFACTS AND FALLACIES OF FITNESS Mel C Siff PhD, MSc© Copyright 2003 Mel C Sif Sixth Edition All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced by any means or in any form whatsoever without the written permission of the author. Alll enquiries concerning this book should be directed to the following e-mail address: mcsiff@aol.com This book has been written solely for the purposes of education and information. It is not intended to be used as a practical manual by the unguided trainee or trainer who may not be sufficiently aware of the efficient and safe ways of implementing any methods of training discussed in the text. While every effort has been made to stress the importance of safety and correctness of skill, there are many technical subtleties inherent in all of these methods which need to be learned with the assistance of a highly qualified instructor. Before implementing any of the exercises or advice presented in this book, you are strongly advised to obtain medical clearance for strenuous physical training and to consult a specialist fitness professional. Always be aware that any form of exercise inappropriately executed can lead to injury, for which the author and the publishers cannot be held responsible. ‘Typeset in Palatino for the main text and Bookman for headings. Design and layout by M C Siff Printed in Denver, USA First Edition 1995 Second Edition 1997 Third Edition 1998 Fourth Edition 2000 Fifth Edition 2002 ISBN 1-868-183-8Facts and Fallacies of Fitness —_—_—_———— — — ——— CONTENTS 1, INTRODUCTION 1 2. ALL THOSE FALLACIES 4 ‘A Compendium of Popular Fitness Fallacies 5 Before You Go Any Further 12 |. ADISSECTION GUIDE 13 Rules of Exercise? 13 How to Distinguish Fact from Fallacy 14 Techniques of Persuasion 15 4, DISSECTING THE EXERCISES 17 Our First Dissection 17 Fallacies Among General Fundamentals 17 Fallacies of Cardiovascular and Aerobics Fundamentals 21 Strength Fallacies 25 Postural Fallacies 30 5. SOME MORE DISSECTIONS 33 s Fallacies of Warming Up and Stretching 33 Fallacies of General Popular Exercises 35 Fallacies of Aerobics Classes 36 Fallacies of Resistance Exercise 40 Fallacies of Equipment and Apparel 52 Fallacies of Special Population Training 59 6. FUNDAMENTAL ISSUES 63. What is Fitness? 63 Fitness in Sport 64 Are the Fit Healthier? 65 Fat and Fit? 66 Is Exercise Testing Necessary? 67 What Research does not Tell You 67 Pain and Gain 69 What is Stability? 71 ‘The Specificity of Movement Patterns 71 Is Lactic Acid a Toxin? 72 Spinal Terminology 73 What is Fatigue? 73 Is Muscle Fibre Typing Valuable? 75 ‘Types of Muscle Action 78 7. CARDIOVASCULAR ISSUES 80 Matters of the Heart 80 An Irregular Heart may be Healthier 81 Oxygen Debt? 82 Heart Rate and Cardiovascular Fitness 83 How Strenuous is that Exercise? 84 The Heart is not just a Pump 85 8. BIOMECHANICAL ISSUES 87 ‘Myths of Antagonistic Muscles 87 AFlat Back? | 87 Back Facts and Figures 88 Back Pain and the Mind 90 Strength and Connective Tissue 91 Back Pain and Evolution 92Facts and Fallacies of Fitness _—_ Foot Mechanics and Shoes 92 The Effect of Head Position on Strength 94 What is Hyperextension? 94 ‘The Dogma of Isokinetics 95 Strength Training and Muscle Tension 99 What Newton really Said 100 Correct Pelvic Tilt? 100 Safe Lifting 101 Correct Lumbar Lifting Posture? 101 Lifting Revisited 102 Weight Training and the Back 104 Lumbar Pelvic Rhythm 106 Inflexibility or Spurious Muscle Tension? 107 ‘Triphasic Muscle Action 108 Diaphragm and Stabilising 109 Correct Sitting Posture? 110 9. AEROBICS ISSUES 112 What is Aerobics Really? 112 Is Low Impact Safer? 113 Dumbbells in Aerobiés Classes 114 Plyometrics in Aerobics? 114 Heart Rate in Low or High Impact Aerobics 115 Elastic Band Aid for Aerobics 116 Structural Exercises? 116 Callanetics? 117 PNF Aqua-Exercise 117 ‘Toe-Heel Doctrine in Aerobics 119 Mind-Body Aerobics 119 10. FLEXIBILITY ISSUES 121 Is Flexibility Training Necessary? 121 Active, Passive and Other Stretches 122 Do You need a Warmup? 123 Facts on Warming Up 124 11, GENERAL TRAINING ISSUES 125 Progressive Overload? 125 Structural vs Functional Training 126 The Bodybuilding Paradigm 127 Is Symmetric Training advisable? 128 Autoregulating Progressive Resistance Exercise 129 Hybrid Training - A Strength Training Innovation 131 Loadless Training 133 Using PNF in Training 134 What is Periodisation? 135 ‘Comparison of Training Regimes 136 Design of Sports Training Programmes 136 Gorilla Power 138 12. STRENGTH AND RESISTANCE ISSUES 140 Scientific Resistance Training in Sport 140 Resistance Training for Different Purposes 146 Bigger, Faster, Stronger? 147 Speed-Strength Training 148, Eccentrics and Muscle Soreness 149 Strength and Size 150 Closed vs Open Chain Exercise 150 Slow Training and No Momentum? 151Facts and Fallacies of Fitness ee Strength and Gender 153 Peripheral Heart Action 154 Competitive Lifting for Juveniles? 154 Muscle Hypertrophy Formulae? 156 The Hardgainer 157 Muscle Pain for Gain? 159 13. SAFETY ISSUES 160 Exercise Readiness Questionnaire 160 Dangerous Exercises: Fact or Fiction? 161 Safety Mania 162 Safety in Exercise 163 Contraindicated Exercise May Protect 165 Muscles may not Protect _ 166 Are Ballistics Dangerous? 166 ‘Types of Overtraining 168 Personal Liability 170 Safety in the Health Club 171 Equipment Safety 171 14. PERSONAL TRAINING ISSUES 173 The Personal Trainer 173 Becoming a Successful Personal Trainer 175 Instructions and Performance 179 The Art of Public Speaking 180 Fitness Guru Kit 184 Skinfold Champions 184 Bodybuilding Anorexia 185 Rules of Treatment 185 18. SPECIFIC EXERCISE ISSUES 187 Abominable Abdominals 187 AbMania 188 Abdominal and Trunk Exercise 191 Beyond Bent Knee Situps 193 Straight Leg Situps 194 Leg Raises -Sane or Insane? 195 Why Situp Testing? 197 Isolated Muscle Testing? 198 Is there a Bicep Curl? 199 Special Rotator Cuff Exercises? 200 All Squats the Same? 202 16. EQUIPMENT ISSUES = -204 Training Machines 204 Safety and Machine Training 205 Machine Testing? 207 Equipment Purchase Questionnaire 209 Passive Exercise Systems 210 Lifting, Belts and Breathing 212 Shoes and Safety 214 Ball Balance Training 216 17. PLYOMETRICS ISSUES 219 What is Plyometrics? 219 Understanding Plyometrics 222 Powermetrics, Not Plyometrics! 223 Non Impact Plyometrics 226 Asymmetric Plyometrics 227 Plyometrics and the Brain - The Missing Dimension 228Facts and Fallacies of Fitness ————————— 18. BRAIN AND MIND ISSUES 231 The Brain-Mind Link 231 Neural Changes with Training 231 Mental Preparation in Sport 233 ‘The Mind and Body Shaping 240 The Endorphin Story 241 Auto-Mind Training 242 19, HEALTH ISSUES 243 Exercise and Stress 243 AIDS Tales 244 Losing Weight? 245 Spot Reduction Revisited 246 Slimming with High Carbohydrate Diets 247 Bouncing for Life? 248 X-Rays and Your Health 248 The Greatest Medical Challenge? 249 20, NUTRITION AND DRUG ISSUES 251 The Cholesterol Debate 251 Butter or Margarine? 252 Fat Substitutes 252 Fad Diets 253 Food Consumption to Test Fitness? 253 Low Fat Dairy Substitutes? 253 Slim Before Breakfast 254 Sugar for Energy? 254 Calorie Counting 255 Health Watch: Paracetamol, IUD, Inderal and Other 256 Left Handed Food 257 Nutrition for Performance 257 Synchronised Sports Nutrition 259 TheSteroid Game 262 Steroids for Endurance? 265 ‘The Farce of Steroid Testing 264 Food and Behaviour 266 Eat Right For Your Blood Type 266 The Creatine Story 269 21, EASTERN TRAINING ISSUES 271 ‘The Chinese System of Quantal Training 271 Chinese Secrets 274 Adaptogens and Other New Ideas 276 Kinaesthetic Manipulation 276 Sports Restoration and Massage 277 22. CURRENT FITNESS FADS 281 The Pilates Cult. 281 The Balance and Core Stability Cult 287 The Functional Training Fad 289 The Periodisation Proclamation 292 Bikram Yoga 297 The Occult Health Market 300 ‘The Normal Spine and Spinal Adjustment 303 The Fitness Marketing Epidemic 305 Transversus Abdominis in Wonderland 307 23, CONCLUSION 311 24, SOURCES OF INFORMATION 313 ivFacts and Fallacies of Fitness 1. INTRODUCTION Toe-touching is dangerous. Squats damage your knees. Never hold your breath during exercise. Aerobic training is essential for cardiac health. Ballistic stretches are harmful. Straight knee situps damage your lower back. Weight lifting slows you down and makes you stiff. Lactic acid causes stiffness. Resistance training is bad for children. And so on and so forth. If you are in the fitness, wellness or physique professions, you will have heard these declarations and many more. The emergence of fitness and personal training as a discrete profession has bred a host of rules and guidelines, many of which are contradictory and confusing for the personal trainer, aerobics instructor, bodybuilder and sports coach. The newcomer Is THIS how I \ and veteran alike are justified in not knowing what to accept and what to discard. Much of the time they opt for the information disseminated in popular fitness magazines and at fashionable fitness conventions. Even then, information which disagrees with existing dogma usually is ignored ‘or dismissed because the majority or commercialised view tgs Geen firmly entrenched as the reigning fitness or physique religion. The ‘thou shalts and thou shalt nots’ of fitness are blindly adhered to with greater fervour than the Ten Commandments of the Bible. Few practitioners ever question the source or validity of this fitness religion, nor are they ‘encouraged to do so, because this would undermine the authority of many fitness organisations, sports equipment companies and fitness professionals. ‘The position in bodybuilding is just as confusing, since the newcomer has to choose between thousands of different routines promoted by hosts of prominent champions of gargantuan proportions, glossy bodybuilding magazines and persuasive equipment manufacturers. In many respects, the world of fitness, bodybuilding and sports training has yet to emerge from its Dark Ages, despite the fact that modern science is applying highly sophisticated methods to produce some extremely exciting findings about the human body and mind. Why this apparent paradox? Why is fitness and physique training so primitive in so many respects? Why does it incorporate so few of the discoveries of modern science? Why is the fitness profession regarded as a low level profession, practised by those who cannot pass a serious degree at a university or could not make it in the real world of business? Why is there a huge collection of damaging fallacies that rarely seem to reach the public? Why is so much hidden from the fitness professional or physique athlete? Is there a conspiracy which prevents one from finding out what is fact and fallacy? Does it suit mass circulation magazines, equipment manufacturers and medical groups to allow most of us to remain in relative ignorance? Many of the answers to these questions lie in the image projected by high profile individuals, sports heroes, companies and organisations who talk on behalf of the fitness, physique and sports professions. Very often these self-appointed authorities become shining examples of the saying that "a little knowledge is a dangerous thing", yet, sadly, most of their intended audience become committed disciples because they generally are not interested in scratching any deeper than the surface. Many exercise scientists and medical professionals do not fare much better in this department, even though they have the training and the means to dispel many of the myths and misconceptions associated with fitness and health. Some of them extol the virtues of isokinetic or constant velocity machines for rehabilitation or testing, even though it is scientifically impossible to construct a constant velocity machine. Others warn against breath-holding even during heavy weight lifting, despite the fact that the Valsalva manoeuvre protects the back during lifting. Many accept incorrect concepts such as isotonic exercise (which implies constant muscle tension). Or they believe that shoes diminish the likelihood of impact Injuries or that aerobic training is the best way of reducing the risks of heart disease. Some still consider that resistance training is contraindicated for children and older adults. ‘The majority tend to regard strength training as being far less important than cardiovascular training, even though most adults in the world require far more strength-related fitness and agility than aerobic fitness for executing their daily tasks. Many accept the contention that agonist piusceaaicanee always, controlled by opposing action by the ‘antagonists’, Few realise that the heart serves as an endocrine gland as well as a pump. The majority are unaware that the hypertrophy produced by bodybuilding can be different from that produced by weightlifting. For that matter, many of them do not even know the difference between weightlifting, powerlifting and bodybuilding. Indeed, many fallacies abound in the apparently objective and scientific world of medicine as well!Facts and Fallacies of Fitness _—— Part of the problem lies in the fact that much of the research funding in exercise science and health is derived from the commercialisation of pharmaceutical products, ergogenie aids and sporting goods, such as. shoes and technical equipment. This funding, as well as grants from government and corporate sources, is often based on combating rampant heart disease by means of endurance activities or costly drugs. Often the results of research commissioned by sporting and drug companies have to be presented in such a way that any findings detrimental to the sponsors are either omitted or qualified with gentle explanatory notes. Much research based on highly limited ‘protocols’ using highly selected samples i often the result of the ‘publish or perish’ syndrome which is an accepted type of forced academic labour to ensure that research scientists remain employed or obtain academic rewards. What emerges is a body of information which is regularly skewed by personal prejudices, pet theories, financial interests and fear of ridicule. This research has a powerful effect on what published, what university courses teach and what message is spread by medical and fitness organisations. We shake our heads at Flat Earth theories, an Earth-centred solar system and the inguisitions of Galileo and Copernicus, but even today, any scientist who questions the status quo puts himself in a similarly dangerous professional position. The findings of critical scientists often have been forced into obscurity just in case existing power structures, personal reputations or commercial rewards are undermined or destroyed by their disclosure to all. Is it then surprising that the world of fitness and sports training is. strewn with countless beliefs, myths, misconceptions and fallacies? This book examines some of the ‘facts’ and fallacies in this burgeoning field of work, research and play. The items have been selected from many years of intriguing research and practice in this field, which has exposed me to a fascinating group of practitioners and scientists from all around the world. In various roles as a biomechanist, university lecturer, competitive weightlifter, powerlifter, sports coach, aerobics instructor, aerobics judge, sports administrator and competitor in several other sports such as karate, track-and-field, trampolining and cricket, I encountered a daunting encyclopaedia of do's and don'ts which acts as the Bible for most fitness and’ sports training. Heaven help you if you deviate from its contents! A few short words of ancient advice: “Prove all things” (1 Thessalonians 5:21) changed all this for me and set me off on « path of discovery which still appears tolhave na.end. Some very basic applications of university training in research and logic, coupled with some obliging intuition, very soon revealed that most of these fitness dogma needed serious reappraisal. During the 1980s, largely as a consequence of my PAD research in biomechanics and exercise physiology at the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa (where I was lecturing in Mechanical Engineering), this led me to lecturing widely on issues of safety, exercise ergonomics, injury rehabilitation and scientifically-based training and being requested by the South African Association for Sports Science, Physical Education & Recreation (SAASSPER) to write a small text on the physiology and biomechanics of safety in exercise. These early steps were greatly enriched by regular contact with Dr Michael Yessis, American expert on kinesiology and editor of the Soviet Sports Review, as well as by research visits to Russia and some its renowned sports scientists, notably Dr Yuri Verkhoshansky, pioneer of modern plyometrics. This exposure to the training philosophies of Russia and other Eastern countries extended my analytical framework very significantly and culminated in my writing an extensive textbook, Supertraining, to cover the science of all aspects of strength training. This work especially revealed that many fitness beliefs and training methods are culturally and ideologically determined and biased. For instance, the West sometimes rejects Russian methods for political rather than scientific reasons and it tends to regard training programmes for women as being irrelevant to males. It is beset with numerous paradoxes in health research and care. For example, despite the vast sums spent on cardiac and cancer research and health education in the West, the incidence of these diseases continues to rise. Such is the maelstrom of fitness fact and fiction which involved me in an expedition to make others more aware of the importance of questioning and testing everything that is foisted upon us as truth and knowledge by various authorities. From 1984 onwards, major fitness organisations in the USA, Australia and England, such as the NSCA (National Strength & Conditioning Association), IDEA and the Exercise Association, invited me to present some of my findings at their annual conferences. In addition, various departments of physiotherapy and physical education at universitiesFacts and Fallacies of Fitness _————— throughout South Africa regularly requested me to lecture or run workshops on exercise prescription, the biomechanics of human movement and injury rehabilitation. The topics of Facts and Fallacies, Myths and Facts, Myths and Misconceptions (in Fitness, Strength Training and Aerobics) became so popular and I received so many requests for printed versions ofthis information, that I began to write regular articles in this field for the Fitness & Sports Review International journal edited by Dr M Yessis in the USA. Continued friendly pressure from students and fitness professionals for this information has carried me down two related paths, namely the Internet system and this book. Of very special assistance was the fact that my postgraduate brain and biomechanics research enabled me to draw upon my many years of competitive and coaching experience in Olympic weightlifting and martial arts, in particular, to understand and apply in far greater depth many aspects of the art and science of fitness training. Early in 1995 I started a series of ongoing electronic seminars on Puzzles and Paradoxes (P&Ps) in Sports Science via several specialist user groups in sports science, biomechanics, physical therapy, fitness, athletic training and weights, a venture which produced exceptional response from a readership of over 10 000 network users weekly. My intention was to promote a readily accessible worldwide forum in fitness and sports education rather than an expensive annual conference in order to enable professionals in related fields to examine and discuss what we really know about fitness, sports science and training. My P&Ps forum still continues on the Internet and appears on several Web sites. This book serves as a more popularised practitioner's version of some of the information distributed on my Internet forum on Puzzles and Paradoxes. It contains a series of essays and practical guides on many of the topics which I have presented at conferences or used in teaching students over the years. Before it was published on the open market, it served largely as a internal textbook for students attending the accredited certification courses in strength and conditioning, personal training and aerobics instruction that I initiated and ran for many years through the Centre for Continuing Education at the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa. It commences with an extensive list of Facts and Fallacies in Fitness which I have identified from my experiences in the wonderful world of fitness, wellness and sports training. This compendium is by no means complete, but it serves to illustrate the extent of the dogma which surround the person who is bold enough to consider himself or herself an expert fitness professional. Most of the fallacies are analysed fairly concisely in this book in Chapters 4 and 5, while others are discussed at length in the essays which follow in Chapters 6 to 22. All of them intentionally are presented at the beginning of this book to stimulate readers to offer their own comments before reading any further and to analyse the same issues in greater depth after ‘completing the book. Readers who are interested in contributing or receiving comment on any further facts and fallacies from their own experience are welcome to contact me via e-mail (mcsiff@aol.com) or join my free Internet discussion group (Supertraining) at: It's easier NOT to question! http:/ / groups yahoo.com / group/Supertraining/ aFacts and Fallacies of Fitness 2. ALL THOSE FALLACIES! Biomechanical research, physiological analysis and clinical studies reveal that many of the so-called laws, guidelines, rules and recommendations of exercise prescription are based more on belief, emotion, limited scientific studies, tradition and commercialism than on scientific or medical proof. Although these rules and fuldelines are sensible attempts to create a safer exercise environment, the fact that so many instructors jave applied them rigidly and uncritically for many years has limited growth, creativity and balanced training in the field of aerobic and resistance exercise. ‘The idea of safe or ‘good’ versus unsafe or ‘bad’ exercises is a consequence of ancient Grecian polarised thinking which labelled everything at either end of a spectrum with only two extremes. ‘The revolution in modern physics has shown that our ee knowledge of things around us are not simply black-white in nature, but are also relative to one another, fuzzy (many-sided), asymmetric, chaotic, unpredictable and probabilistic. Today’: world of fitness still relies largely on old Grecian thinking, so it is. the major objective of this text fo use the methods of modern science to re-examine the tenets of popular fitness training. >’ Lack of safety in exercise is not simply caused by so-called dangerous exercises, but by unsafe execution of any exercise. It is more relevant to draw up a list of the relative risks posed by different exercises for each individual under given conditions of fitness, health, exhaustion and exercioe. A logical and scientific analysis of popular beliefs in aerobics and resistance training enables the instructor to become a more competent professional with greater ability to select exercises more effectively for the individual class and client under a wider range of circumstances. Method of Analysis If we wish to analyse any exercises or concepts of training, such as those considered in this book, we may base our dissection on the following sources of information: * Theoretical mechanical models of human movement * Experimental studies using biomechanical instrumentation Evidence from functional anatomy and kinesiology Applications of the methods of logic and ‘common sense" Clinical studies of the causes, patterns and frequency of injuries in physical activities Application of experience from elite coaches and athletes Analysis of those who have experienced injuries Scrutiny of the alleged proof behind existing rules and guidelines Examination of the history underlying exiating rales afl rs Study of the methods used by the world’s top athletes Study of methods used clinically with injured, disabled and diseased subjects ‘An understanding of the conditioning objective of the given exercise Biomechanical Causes of Injury The following biomechanical principles may be applied to assess the effectiveness and safety of popular exercises. Injuries may be caused by exercise if (Siff MC Supertraining 2000): 1. The force or stress component on some body part is excessive in a particular direction 2. The torque or moment about a certain pivot or joint is too large 3. The momentum is too great to be adequately utilised or dissipated 4. The work load or energy involved over a given period is excessive 5. The power generated by the muscles is excessive at a particular moment 6: ‘The sine Change in length ocigingl lengeh) in any Heoucs 4 excesolve a 8 ”. The mechanical properties of any given tissues are inadequate to handle the loading Frictional forces are too large (mat burns and jerkiness) or too small (slipping) The P-Factors of Exercise Prescription To ensure the safety and effectiveness of any exercise, we can apply the following P-factors of Exercise Prescription (based on Siff MC Supertraining 2000):Facts and Fallacies of Fitness Purpose (objective, goals) Person (characteristics and abilities of client) Practitioner (expertise of coach or instructor) Principles (of training means and methods) Procedures (for using specific methods and exercises) Patterns (of movement) Period or Phase of training (as part of a periodised programme) Pace (of different phases of the movement) Plan (organization of exercise in overall program) Preparation (before undertaking the exercise) Place (equipment, facilities) Position (of player or of joints) Pivots (joints involved to stabilize or move). NOTE: Many of the Fallacies listed below are analysed explicitly in Chapters 4 and 5, while the remainder are covered in depth in the essays given in Chapters 6 - 22. The chapters which relate to specific topics are given in parentheses. This is safe because ‘our skill is great ! A Compendium of Popular Fitness Fallacies 1. Fallacies among General Fundamentals * Cardiovascular training is more important for health and fitness than any other type of exercise (The Cardiovascular Doctrine) (Ch 7) Fitness testing must be performed on all newcomers (Ch 6) Measurement of percentage bodyfat gives the best information on physique Fitness training always improves health and resistance to disease (Ch 6) People who exercise regularly live longer and more healthily than average (Ch 6) The 3 fundamental forms of muscle contraction are isotonic, isometric and isokinetic (Ch 6) ‘The three types of muscle contraction are concentric, isometric and eccentric (Ch 6) Isotonic exercise is the dominant form of muscle contraction in dynamic exercise (Ch 6) Isotonic muscle contraction is another name for dynamic muscle contraction (Ch 6) Isometric exercise is generally a waste of time and tends to slow you down (Ch 6) Slow movements tend to selectively recruit the slow twitch muscle fibres (Ch 6) Eccentric training always causes more muscle soreness than concentric training, (Ch 12) Muscle tension is always greatest during eccentric contraction (Ch 8) Heavy eccentric training always tends to cause delayed muscle soreness (Ch 12) ‘One can lift the greatest loads with eccentric muscle action Perfect practice makes perfect Stiffness and soreness are caused by lactic acid build-up (Ch 6) ‘The stretch reflex always protects the joints during any sudden movements (Ch 12) If muscle is not used it turns to fat Internal muscle friction plays a major role in limiting muscle action Antagonist muscles always oppose agonists during physical movement (Ch 8) Endorphin release in the brain explains why exercise is pleasant & habit-forming (Ch 18) Endorphin release is best stimulated by aerobic training (Ch 18) The use of momentum is always dangerous in exercise (Ch 13) All ballistic movements are potentially harmful (Ch 13) Never lock the knees completely during any standing exercise Avoid all back exercises if your back is sore or injured (Ch 8)Facts and Fallacies of Fitness ‘* Most aerobics or health club clients train to improve their fitness * If you have a predominance of slow muscle fibres you cannot move as fast as someone who has a higher percentage of fast twitch fibres (Ch 6) Breath-holding is always harmful because it increases blood pressure (Ch 16) Situps are always an essential exercise for preventing back injury (Ch 15) Fast exercises require more strength and energy than slow exercises The optimal ratio of quadriceps to hamstring strength is 60 to 40 (Ch 8) There should always be a very specific strength ratio between all agonists and antagonists, There is a clear distinction between open chain and closed chain movements (Ch 12) There is a clear distinction between tonic (stabilising) and phasic (mobilizing) muscles Functional training is the only way to train in sport (Ch 22) Periodised training is the best and most scientific way of training (Ch 22) . Fallacies of Cardiovascular or Aerobic Fundamentals A major cause of heart disease is lack of adequate aerobic exercise (Ch 7) Aerobic exercise is the most effective form of cardiovascular training (Ch 7) Cardiovascular exercise is the most effective way of reducing bodyfat (Ch 7, 19, 20) Aerobic training is excellent for reducing overall stress in the body (Ch 19) Aerobic exercise is an excellent form of cross training for all sport (Ch 6) Aerobics classes generally improve overall fitness (Ch 6) Cardiovascular fitness improves with every aerobics class you do Aerobic exercises should be done before ‘toning’ exercises in aerobics Most aerobics classes adequately strengthen the back (Ch 8) + Overall fitness improves with every aerobics class you do « Exercising above the aerobic threshold causes oxygen debt (Ch 7) Aerobics done to slow music produces smaller forces on you than with fast music (Ch 8) ‘One should never exercise above a training heart rate of about 80% of one’s maximum. Continuous long duration exercise offers the best form of cardiovascular conditioning (Ch 7) Cardiovascular training is the only form of exercise that produces endorphins (Ch 18) Cardiovascular training plays a major role in determining performance in most sports Anaerobic training plays no significant role in improving cardiovascular performance It is unsafe to do aerobics in bare feet or thin soled shoes (Ch 8, 16) Loud rock and other contemporary music motivates one to reach superior levels of fitness Step classes offer better all-round body conditioning than conventional aerobics The aerobic slide involves the leg adductors and abductors as the prime lateral movers 3. Fallacies among Strength Fundamentals (Many in Ch 12) * Strength training does not play any meaningful role in improving endurance * Circuit training provides all-round aerobic and anaerobic conditioning + Strong and large muscles protect the joints better than smaller muscles * Heavy weight training reduces flexibility and speed * Heavy resistance training increases your blood pressure * Heavy weight training makes you bulky * Light weight training is always safer than heavy weight training * Each given exercise uses exactly the same muscle groups each time it is executed ‘+ The weight remains the same in all free weights exercises (Ch 8) * Strict exercises work you more effectively than cheated exercises * Muscle hypertrophy cannot be produced by few repetitions with heavy weightsFacts and Fallacies of Fitness SNe ed Increasing strength will increase power and speed All muscle hypertrophy is essentially the same Increasing muscle mass or cross-sectional area will always increase strength Muscle hyperplasia does not occur Progressive gradual overload is the correct way to increase strength over a long period Your IRM (single rep maximum) is the constant maximum that you can lift over any period Older adults and women should not train with heavy weights All high repetition, low intensity exercise develops muscle endurance The large muscle groups should always be exercised before the smaller muscles The use of momentum is really a type of cheating Cheating methods should never be used with any exercise Long breaks between exercises decrease their effectiveness Rock music in a gym improves motivation and exercise effectiveness (Ch 4) Training for overall symmetry is important and desirable (Ch 11) Training in front of a mirror improves the effectiveness of an exercise ‘The Peripheral Heart Action (PHA) concept is scientifically accepted (Ch 12) ‘The use of momentum in any exercise is dangerous (Ch 12) Slow resistance training is the most effective and safest (Ch 12) 4. Fallacies of Posture * Posterior pelvic tilt is the correct pelvic tilt to maintain during all exercises (Ch 8) ‘* There is one specific neutral pelvic position that must be held during all exercises (Ch 8) * Itis harmful to lean forwards during any squatting or lifting movements (Ch 8) ‘= Itis easy to hyperextend the joints by locking them with muscle action (Ch 8) ‘* The knees should never project ahead of the toes during any exercises * Itis harmful to lock the knees completely during squatting or aerobics * Foot pronation is the chief cause of leg injuries during running and aerobics ‘* Neck extension or rotation is always potentially harmful ‘+ The stomach should be pulled in during situps (Ch 15) * The stomach should be pulled in during all exercises in order to stabilise the trunk (Ch 15) * It is important to ‘keep the back straight’ during all exercise (Ch 8) ‘* Supporting the head with the hands during situps reduces neck strain (Ch 15) ‘+ Numerous facts and fallacies concerning the back are discussed in Chapter 8. 5. Fallacies of Warming up, Cooling Down and Stretching (see Ch 10) Itis essential to have a warm up session before all exercise ‘Aerobic exercise offers the best way of warming up before training Stretching and flexibility exercises are the same Stretching always reduces the risk of injury Ballistic stretches should never be done Static stretches are the safest and most effective form of stretching Static stretching during the cool down significantly reduces injury rate Stretching should always be done with relaxed muscles PNF isa special form of stretching Massage is an effective method for warming up before exercise Stretching is excellent for reducing muscle soreness and stiffness after exercise The sit-and-reach test is a good test of general flexil Stretching exercises elongate the muscles permanently Weight training always makes you less supple Controlled yoga stretches are an excellent way of enhancing overall flexibility Stretching exercises warm you up before exercise Stretching exercises cool the muscles down * General preparatory stretching exercises prepare you for your exercise session «* Itis important not to hold one’s breath during stretching * The yoga plough is always dangerous * The yoga cobra is harmful © The hurdler’s stretch is always harmful to the knee lityFacts and Fallacies of Fitness ——— 6. Fallacies of General Popular Exercises ‘Toe-touching is always harmful to the back (Ch 8) Lunging is dangerous if the front knee projects beyond the toes, Leg raising is dangerous for the spine (Ch 15) Straight-leg situps are potentially harmful. (Ch 15) Jackknife situps are harmful to the back (Ch 15) Plenty of situps must be done to protect the back (Ch 15) ‘Toning of the abdominals depends directly on the number of situps done (Ch 15) High repetition situps are necessary to trim the waist (Ch 15) Abdominal exercises tighten and trim the waist (Ch 15) Crunches are safer and more effective than straight leg situps (Ch 15) ‘The abdominal muscles function only during the first 30 degrees of trunk flexion (Ch 15) The abdominal muscles are most effectively exercised with the body lying supine (Ch 15) Pushups involve predominantly the pectoral muscles | don't see anything wrong with my situps ! Crunches isolate the abdominals if the back of the legs rest on a bench (Ch 15) ‘Twisting situps are the best means of exercising the oblique muscles (Ch 15) Bent-knee situps isolate the abdominals and are always safe for the back (Ch 15) Different exercises can be used to isolate the upper and lower abdominals (Ch 15) Side situps rely predominantly on the oblique muscles (Ch 15) It is a good idea to run entirely abdominal classes for general fitness clients (Ch 15) It is essential to breathe out during the situp movement (Ch 15) Situps are most effective when executed continuously at moderate or high speed (Ch 15) Situps should always be done continuously without a rest between each repetition (Ch 15) Special situp or trunk curl machines offer the best way of training the abdominals (Ch 15) Endurance situps protect the spine because the abdominals are postural muscles which have to be active all day to support the spine (Ch 15) 7. Fallacies of Aerobics and Group Classes (Ch 9 for Aerobics, Ch 17 for Plyometrics) ‘+ Alternate arm-leg prone hyperextensions on the mat are safer than symmetric extensions © Prone leg raising (yitg tase Govrenrands on a mal) strongly trains te back amuscles * Jumping jacks are dangerous in fitness classes * Power moves’ in aerobics require great muscle strength, power and energy Power moves, like plyometrics, strongly use stored elastic energy in the Soft tissues Power landings should be softly done with the full foot in contact with the floor Step aerobic exercise is safer if you step with the flat foot onto the step ‘You must always step close to the step during step aerobics ‘The main danger in step aerobics lies in how you step onto the bench Itis always harmful to step forwards off an aerobics stepFacts and Fallacies of Fitness ——$_ — — — — All forms of 'Rover's Revenge’ (leg raising to the side) are dangerous for the back ‘Spinning’ on special fixed cycles is a modern aerobics invention ‘Spinning’ is superior to ordinary fixed cycle training Leg raises lying on the side must be done with the body in straight line Head circling movements are always dangerous Standing pec-deck type movements with dumbbells strongly exercise the pectorals Movement on the slide is initiated predominantly by the leg adductors and abductors The slide offers the most effective form of lateral training available Aerobic exercises with light dumbbells significantly improve strength, shape and tone Pilates is the most balanced and complete training system of all (Ch 22) Exercises in water are always safer than on land Aquarobics always offer a safe, complete alternative to land exercise Plyometrics generally can be done correctly and safely in any aerobics class Plyometrics generally can be done effectively and safely in aquarobics classes Movements in water are approximately isokinetic 8. Fallacies of Resistance Exercises (Ch 12 for Strength, Ch 17 for Plyometrics) All types of squat are essentially the same Itis dangerous to lock the knees fully at the end of a squat or leg press Low repetition heavy weight training develops strength and little hypertrophy Leg curls are the best and safest exercise for developing the hamstrings ‘Good mornings are always dangerous for the back Seated back extension machines are safer than cleans, deadlifts or prone hyperextensions Power cleans should not be done by the average client Prone hyperextensions are executed primarily by use of the erector spinae Prone hyperextensions overstretch spinal ligaments if done from a low hanging position Leg raising between parallel bars (resting on your elbows) isolates the abdominals Weight training is dangerous for the heart 5 isolation exercises must be used to effectively rehabilitate the rotator cuff ‘The triceps act as antagonists to the biceps during the ‘bicep curl’ exercise Circuit training generally is an excellent form of cross training for all sport Circuit training can only be done correctly with special timing lights or sounds HIT (High Intensity Training) in Bodybuilding is true high intensity training Seated resistance exercises are safer than their standing equivalents Standing trunk twisting machines are useful for shaping the waist and hips Any form of ballistic bench pressing is dangerous All deadlifting movements are dangerous Lunges do not develop the gluteal muscles as much as squats The calves are best developed on calf-raise machines Standing heel raises must be done with the knees locked for best calf development Standing calf raises isolate the gastrocnemius; seated calf raises isolate the soleus ‘Olympic Weightlifting exercises are bad for the back Full squats are always dangerous Half squats are safer if performed onto a bench beneath the buttocks Box squats are always dangerous Heavy weight training slows you downFacts and Fallacies of Fitness ———————————____ ‘+ Increasing strength always increases speed and power All plyometric exercises are harmful and should never be used in training Plyometrics isa method of training which uses jumping , throwing and catching Plyometric training is always necessary to improve speed Plyometric exercises play no role in safely improving any form of fitness Plyometric depth jumps should be done on a soft surface Upper body plyometrics can be done by throwing and catching heavy medicine balls ‘llplyometrics involve high impact contact with some surface or object All plyometric actions can and should be avoided in all sports training Plyometrics should be done in a few sets of 10-20 repetitions each Periodisation refers to long-term cyclical organization of training which begins with high volume and low intensity and progresses to high intensity and low volume (Ch 11) ‘The mathematical computations in periodization make training an exact science (Ch 11) Pec decks offer a safe, effective way of training the pectoral muscles Lat raises are initiated and carried out by the deltoids Lateral raises develop the lats The push press and jerk are cheating exercises because they rely on momentum Upright rowing is harmful to the rotator cuff muscles Dumbbell lateral raises above the horizontal are dangerous for the shoulder joint Bicep curls generally isolate and develop the arm biceps Lat pulldowns behind the neck are always dangerous Very slow resistance training is always safer and more productive ingle set training is always just as effective as multi-set training Bench pressing is best done with a thumbless grip Muscle isolation increases as the training load increases Inclined preacher curls are more effective for training the biceps than free curls You should never lie on your side with the trunk flexed upwards Wrist curls are the best way of exercising the forearm muscles Isometric presses with the head are excellent for strengthening the neck muscles Cross training with weights must simulate the sports movements closely One must do special isolation exercises to strengthen the different rotator cuff muscles Hanging from a pullup bar stretches the spine after training ‘Spotting’ always increases the safety of an exercise The pre-stretch principle was invented by bodybuilders Reverse prone leg extensions off a bench actively exercise the back muscles Hanging leg raises are excellent for exercising the lower abdominals Supine reverse crunches are excellent for lower abdominal development Prescribing the duration of eccentric, concentric and isometric phases of an exercise offers an effective way of stipulating the tempo of movement 9. Fallacies of Equipment and Apparel (for general Ch 16, for shoes Ch 8) Aerobic shoes reduce the risk of injury to the body Aerobic shoes reduce impact forces on the body Exercise with bare feet or with thin shoes is inherently dangerous Shoes decrease the likelihood of pronation The most expensive shoes offer the best form of protection for the body Posture is improved by wearing the correct shoes, There's nothing wrong with MY equipment ! 10Facts and Fallacies of Fitness * Leg extensions are safer for the knees than squatting Prone hyperextensions work most effectively on commercial machines Seated trunk twisting machines are an effective and safe way of training the obliques Squats should always be done with heels raised, especially if one has limited flexibility Seated leg extension exercises are safer for the knees than squats Leg press and hack squat machines place less stress on the back than squats Supine lying leg press or hip sled machines significantly decrease the stress on the spine The leg curl offers the best form of hamstring training Knee rehabilitation is safer and more effective with knee extensions than squats Machine training is inherently safer than free weight training Dynamic variable resistance machines are better than free weights Machine training makes spotting of the client unnecessary Free weight training is always more effective than machine training ‘The old-time training methods with commonday and unusual objects are far inferior to modern machine and weight training ‘Abdominal training machines are more effective than conventional crunches or situps Mini-trampolines offer a safe, low impact form of aerobic conditioning at home Mini-trampolines (‘rebounders’) are especially useful for promoting lymphatic circulation Watching TV while fixed cycling or treadmill running provides a useful distraction Machine exercises train you in the same way as their free weights equivalents Supine lying leg sled machines offer a safer way of exercising the quads, especially if one has an injured back Isokinetic machines provide full range constant velocity resistance Isokinetic machines offer accurate functional measurement of joint performance Isokinetic machines offer safer injury rehabilitation than free weights A lifting belt directly supports and protects the back Frequent use of a lifting belt weakens the trunk muscles Frequent use of joint wraps weakens the muscles The value of a circuit depends on the number of machines in it Stationary cycling offer an effective substitute for running Stationary cycling provides identical training to bicycle training Treadmill running is closely equivalent to running on a road or track Suspended pendulum (‘skywalker’) machines are safer than walking and running Cross training shoes reduce the risk of injury to the body (Ch 16) Cross training shoes should be worn to reduce impact forces on the body (Ch 16) Use of small hand weights during aerobics significantly increases energy expenditure Elastic band exercise offers an effective alternative to weight training (Ch 9) Physio or balance Ball training is the best way of improving balance Physio Ball training is one of the best methods of improving strength Itis safer and more effective to squat with a plank under your heels Inversion boots or tables for hanging upside down reduce stress and arrest ageing Passive exercise tables can shape the body and strengthen muscles significantly (Ch 16) Back extension machines train the same muscles as prone ‘hyperextensions' ‘Numerous facts and fallacies concerning machine resistance training are discussed in Ch 15 10. Fallacies of Special Population Training Cardiovascular training is of primary importance for wheelchair users Power (electric) wheelchairs are a good idea forall mability impaired persons Much slower aerobic exercise music must be used for wheelchair users and older adults Seated fitness classes for the mobility impaired must be slow and restricted ‘Arm ergometers offer an excellent form of cardiovascular training for the wheelchair client Weightlifting and Powerlifting exercises are dangerous for older adults Weightlifting, Powerlifting or heavy weight training should not be done by women Most exercise for older adults should be done lying or standing with su Most exercise for clients with disabilities or neuromuscular disorders should be of low intensity, duration and complexity Exercises for older adults should be slow, seated, or somehow very toned down * Gentle game playing is a stimulating and effective way of training older adults * Cardiac patients should never do resistance training WFacts and Fallacies of Fitness You see - | fold you that exercise is bad for you ! * Older adults should never do the Olympic or Powe * Heart rate monitoring is invaluable for training disabled clients, cardiac patients and older adults ‘+ Resistance training should not be done by children since it damages the growth plates of the bones o Before You Go Any Further The following two chapters analyse a large variety of the above fallacies of exercise, but try not to read ahead before making your own comments. Some of you will agree vehemently that they are all fallacies, whereas the rest of you will disagree with equal vigour, quoting what you may have read ‘in training manuals or heard at fitness conferences. Whatever your immediate response, sit back with a pencil and paper, preferably with a group of fellow fitness professionals and record your comments to identify the Facts and Fallacies in this list. This list was designed originally as a teaching tool for various fitness and sports science courses which [lectured at my university. If you are an educator you will find that critical analysis of this type of list can serve as an invaluable and stimulating teaching tool. You will also find that this approach encourages students to think more critically, make far better use of research publications, identify topics for research more readily and ‘become better practitioners in applied exercise science. ‘The issues are presented in no particular order, so that you can dip into the book at random anywhere after this chapter and focus on any topics which may capture your attention, without losing any sense of continuity. ‘The next two chapters provide a fairly condensed analysis of the selected fallacies, myths or whatever we wish to call them; the chapters after that are a series of longer essays which give more extensive input on issues relating to most of the remaining fallacies. Each essay may address one or more fallacies or even include new information relating to other aspects of exercise science and fitness training. You are encouraged to refer back to the list of facts and fallacies to enable you to relate any given essays to a specific fallacy. 12Facts and Fallacies of Fitness 3. A DISSECTION GUIDE Rules of Exercise? If we wish to analyse the preceding list of Fallacies of Fitness effectively, it is relevant to examine first what is meant by terminology such as Rules, Guidelines and Laws. Though we usually accept the meaning of such words as being fairly obvious, we often tend to forget what they mean and what they do not mean. Safety rules, exercise fundamentals, guidelines for eating, sleeping, standing, walking, etcetera, etcetera a. Thou shalt not eat fat, thou shalt not squat, thou shalt not do high impact exercise, thou shalt not do ballistic stretches! ‘The world of fitness and wellness is replete with rules, laws, guidelines, theories, hypotheses and position statements from every group and organization imaginable. These well-intentioned documents and proclamations can play an invaluable role in educating the fitness professional, but the endless variety of contradictions and restrictions generally confuses rather than enlightens. The average fitness client might well hesitate to do anything more physical besides sitting in front of the television. Even then, there are ways of sitting, lying, illuminating the room and positioning the TV set. There is hardly a walk of life which is not governed by a list of ‘commandments drawn up by an unseen group of fitness founding fathers hidden behind the doors of some or other research facility. Their words are regarded with awe, their words are the law and the law shall not be broken without dire consequences. Hardly anybody questions their credentials or data and even if they do, the laws of the groups with the greatest academic or financial stature exert the greatest power. Does this sound familiar? It should, if you are working in some area of fitness and health. If you are being accredited by a particular educational organization, you probably will not pass the tests if you base some of your answers on the recommendations or findings of contradictory competitors or even your own vast experience. Right, wrong or dubious, if you do not reproduce the expected responses, you will fail. Regurgitation rather than critical analysis seems to be the order of the day. ‘A brief excursion into the hallways of philosophy proves to be interesting. The word ‘philosophy’ is derived from two Greek terms meaning ‘love of wisdom' and is applied to that field of thought which ‘considers, questions, analyses and describes things, thoughts, feelings and ideas. So, if you are a person who spends time carrying out such mental activities, then you are a philosophers of sorts! Maybe you already are a fitness, sports or health philosopher, in which case it is likely that you are offering your clients a lot more than the average instructor who accepts all without questioning. Now, to be a competent philosopher, you should have a clear understanding of definitions of things in your field of expertise. For example, let us begin by examining the concept of basic rules in fitness training. The first rule of making rules is that a rule is not a law, because a law in science is really a fact, something that has been proved beyond a shadow of doubt. On this basis, a law in the judicial system is not a scientific law; it is actually a proclamation decided upon by a group of people to govern and protect a society. This type of law ‘can be broken, but you will have to pay a penalty; a scientific law cannot be broken. For example, the law of gravity determines that, if you jump upwards, gravity will pull you downwards back to your starting position. You cannot simply decide to break the law of gravity and jump off the earth without being pulled back again. Gravity always pulls you towards a massive body; it does not pull you sometimes, push you at other times or ignore you on other occasions. ‘Thus, we can see that the laws of fitness training are similar to judicial laws: unlike scientific laws, which are discovered by people, fitness and training laws are drawn up by people and may be broken at a certain cost to you. This type of law may be changed, ignored or broken; you can even replace these laws with your own, however outrageous they may. bel Very often other concepts are also presented as laws by fitness or educational bodies, such as theories, hypotheses, guidelines, position statements and principles. Before you become drawn into this web of confusion, try to remember the following ‘rules: 13Facts and Fallacies of Fitness RULES ? © A rule is not a law * A theory is not a law © A judicial law is not a scientific law * A position statement is not a law * A guideline is not a law; it simply points the way * Scientific laws cannot be broken; judicial laws can * An hypothesis is not a law; an hypothesis is a theory * A theory has to be proved repeatedly to become a law * Most rules and laws are relative to some frame of reference * Beware of absolutes; almost everything is relative * Rules change; scientific laws do not; judicial laws do © Rules can be and usually are broken * Breakable laws are theories © Some rules should be broken ‘* Look for undiscovered laws Think before you rule '* Question all rules. Next time you read the latest text or attend the newest course, don’t be lulled into a state of resigned acceptance; try to apply the above ‘rules’ and test whether or not what you have just learned is fact, fiction or myth. The ancient Greek philosophers tried to prod their colleagues into a state of greater awareness and failed to awaken more than a few disciples; their successors did the same and aroused a few more. Become a contemporary fitness philosopher and enrich the exciting world of fitness and health! ‘This is what will make you a professional who stands head and shoulders above those who do not question what the law- givers decree! How To Distinguish Fact from Fallacy If you are new to the task of distinguishing fact from fallacy in fitness training, health or indeed any other facets of human endeavour, the following section is intended to provide you with some helpful investigative tools. It identifies some of the more common techniques of persuasion which are frequently used to sell ideas, beliefs, politics and products to you, and thus enables you to protect yourself against accepting theories as laws, or advertising claims as gospel. The art of persuasion is nothing new. Its history is as old as that of humankind, though its formalisation became far mote refined among the ancient Greeks. For instance, Aristotle identified the basic persuasive appeals as ethos (appeal by source credibility), logos (appeal to logic and reason) and pathos (emotional appeal), while the advent of mass media marketing made possible by 20th Century technology developed persuasive marketing to a fine art. The same methods used to.control minds politically and ideologically are now used wittingly or unwittingly to control trends in the lucrative fitness and. sports industries. In many ways it is an indictment of our educational systems that so many of the public are nudged by television ‘infomercials’ and magazine advertisements into buying outrageous fitness or physique-enhancing schemes or devices which invariably are discarded within a few months of gradually diminishing use. Similarly, so many fitness and shape disciples seem to hang on the words of influential fitness ‘gurus’ or organisations, whose credibility depends on exploiting certain scientists, doctors and athletes whose loyalties can be bought by grants, gifts, sponsorships, power, endorsement contracts and prestige. ‘The process whereby we can be so readily manipulated mentally without recourse to the heinous "brain- washing’ techniques of dictatorial regimes has been studied by many social scientists and psychologists. One of them, Abraham Maslow, identified a hierarchy of needs which underlies human behaviour, namely: 14Facts and Fallacies of Fitness physiological, safety, social (the need to like and be liked), ego-status, and self-actualisation (attaining one's greatest potential) needs. It is to needs such as these that persuasive techniques appeal. Pressures from modern advertising and one's peers often tend to make us confuse want with need, where want is a desire for something that we do not necessarily need to live a productive and happy life. In contemporary Western society, appeal to ego-status generally seems to be the dominant form of mass persuasion. Even a cursory glance at advertising reveals that being desirable involves not only achieving material and personal success, but also being seen while doing so. Thus, it would seem that our society has produced a generation of mentally fragile personalities whose wants far outweigh their needs and who appear to have lost the ability or willingness to discriminate fact from fallacy, quality from trash, sense from nonsense, and even good from bad. Part of the problem lies in the fact that inadequate educational emphasis is placed on teaching us how the human mind works and how we are manipulated by others - unless, of course, we are academically or professionally involved in this field. Encouragement of this faculty of critical thinking has never been popular at any time in any country, because it invariably tends to make life uncomfortable for those in positions of power. ‘The situation is not much different in the world of fitness, health and sport, since the nurturing of large numbers of critical minds could easily threaten fitness empires, the lucrative athletic equipment and clothing markets, flourishing fitness personalities, huge pharmaceutical companies and academic reputations. So, now that you know what the situation is, what can you do about it? Well, the following section summarises many of the methods which are used to help you part with your money and your good sense. Become familiar with them and use them to analyse anything and everything that is being offered in the fitness world. This book will guide you through many of the fitness myths that we encounter in this world largely on a basis of logical analysis, but you are encouraged to become your own expert by constantly questioning ‘all things’ by routinely applying the following guidelines. Techniques of Persuasion Some of the most common methods of persuasion are itemised below. Search for their presence all around you and always question the use of: 1, Emotive language, visually stimulating images and exciting messages 2. Statements in which all is implied but only some is true 3. Proofs based on selected examples 4. Anecdotal or hearsay evidence which is not supported by serious research 5. Proofs which suppress any opposing or damaging arguments 6. Impressive-sounding or pseudo-scientific jargon 7. Repeated affirmation to convince an audience 8, Confident, authoritative posturing or presentation 9, False, trivial, worthless or irrelevant credentials or degrees 10. A mixture of facts and fallacies to overcome resistance to a questionable idea or product 1. Testimonials and endorsements by well-known individuals to add authority or credibility 12. Appeal based on prestige, fame or position of individuals or institutions 13. Apparently logical, but misleading analogies 14. Extrapolations based on limited or small group studies or experiences 15. Claims by any individual or group to possess the only truth 16, Appeals to one’s egotism, vanity, background or personal prejudices 17. Promises of dramatic, rapid or unique results to improve your existing status quo 18. Expensive, visually exciting mass media and advertisements 19. Research which has not produced consistent physical results 20, Claims which state, but do not prove, that opposing ideas are dangerous or useless 21. Claims by promoters of anything that it is unquestionably ‘the best’ 22. Arguments based largely on claims that science cannot prove everything 23. Appeal to authority or fear 24. Distraction by diversions to side-issues or irrelevant information 25. Arguments that attribute motives or prejudices to any opponents 15Facts and Fallacies of Fitness —S——— 26. Promotion of any position because it appears to be the mean between two extremes 27. Proofs based on loosely or minimally related findings 28. Assumptions that all experimental subjects or items are similar in a given sample 29. Assumptions that science and scientists are always objective 30. Speculative argument 31. Tradition to support a certain viewpoint or method 32. Extrapolation to humans of results based entirely on animal studies or simulations 33. Results skewed by the presence or prejudices of the researcher 34. Acceptance or rejection of ideas simply on the basis of the personality of the presenter 35. General application of results obtained under varying situational conditions 36. Assumption that the majority view is always right or desirable 37. Assumption that ideas from other cultures and nations are inferior to ours 38. Research which may not identify and analyse unknown variables 39. Research which may neglect the effects of time and subject dynamics 40. Overreliance on averages, which disguises the effects of possibly critical minority values 41. Research or products which may be influenced by vested commercial or academic interests 42. Loosely connected facts to deduce a biased result 43. Graphic devices to distort by artistic licence or change of scale 44. Results which do not state range of measurement or computational error 45. Proposition or theory as if it were fact or law 46. The ‘faith factor’ or placebo effect, consciously or unconsciously, to enhance a certain outcome 47. Illegitimate or inaccurate use of definition 48. Extension of the scope of opposing arguments to misrepresent or distort them 49. Results applied out of their original context 50. Promoting or condemning something because of its consequences to the individual. Now that we have examined the fundamental issues about facts, fallacies, logic, sense, nonsense, myths, mistakes, science, non-science and persuasive techniques, we should be in a much stronger position to analyse the weird and wonderful claims made about exercise, fitness, sports training and rehabilitation. This we will do in the chapters which follow. 4 16Facts and Fallacies of Fitness 4. DISSECTING THE EXERCISES Our First Dissection In the preceding chapter, we have learned what rules, guidelines and laws are and are not. We have covered methods of analysis, the biomechanical causes of injury and the P-Factors of exercise prescription. We are now in a position to undertake our first scientific dissection of some of those Fallacies which we listed earlier. Fallacies Among General Fundamentals Measurement of percentage bodyfat gives the best information on physique Virtually every physical educator and personal trainer relies on skinfold measurements to compute srcentage bodyfat and advise the client how fat or thin she is. Yet it is not unusual to find a person with a Few overall body at percentage displaying flabby thighs or arms. Percentage bodyfat on its own disguises a great deal. It is much more relevant to provide the client with their bodyfat percentage together with a chart which records the skinfold at as many sites as possible, together with the circumference of the areas closest to the sites of ‘measurement, This can tell you a great deal and make you a far more informative trainer. Suppose that you measure over a few months the skinfold thickness over the triceps and the circumference of the upper arm in the same region. You note that the skinfold and arm circumference both have decreased; this means that fat and Possibly some muscle has been lost from this area. Now suppose that the skinfold decreases while the arm circumference increases. Obviously, the loss of fat there has been accompanied by an increase in muscle. If the skinfold has not changed, but the circumference has increased, this means that the upper arm has gained muscle. These deductions should be done in conjunction with any changes in percentage bodyfat and bodymass toplfercorreborstive information on whether the changes are dve to changes in bodyfat or muscle, This is a system that I have used with clients for many years and I find it far more useful than computations of overall bodyfat alone. Try it for yourself! In some competitive situations, it is important not only that overall bodyfat decreases, but that the fatty mass of the most active limbs also decreases and lowers the metabolic cost of movement. Fitness training always improves health and resistance to disease Many popular presenters at conferences on health and fitness promote physical activity on the basis of this hypothesis. While moderate exercise (what is ‘moderate for a given individual?) can enhance your fitness and quality of life, one must always remember that inappropriate doses of exercise ot even exercise when you are not in the mood for it can lower your immune response, produce many symptoms of overtraining, add more stress to an already stressful life and lead to exercise injuries. Dr Kenneth Cooper, “father” of the aerobics craze, has now stressed in his book, “Antioxidant Revolution”, that excessive amounts of strenuous endurance exercise may even make one more likely to contract heart disease and cancer because this sort of activity causes a great increase in potentially harmful free radicals in the body. Authorities generally qualify their support for this fallacy by stipulating that the exercise has to be ‘moderate’, but this does not let them off the hook. ‘This is the most difheult part of the process. Tt-requires great skill to determine ‘moderation’ for each individual. Even then, moderate running in polluted cities often leads to respiratory problems and moderate unskilled training in the gym often. produces niggling injuries. The immune response in serious runners is seriously lowered, while aerobic instructors frequently have limb or back pain or injury. Regular exercise promotes longevity and health Though studies suggest the correctness of this contention, several qualifying issues have to be raised. In countries where these apparent benefits are observed, it has not been established if the benefits are solely due to regular exercise. In the population groups examined, the likelihood is significant that other factors also may have played an important role, such as changes in diet, better hygiene, superior medical care, elimination of harmful habits such as smoking, low incidence of genetic disorders, improved mental outlook and generally higher standards of living. 17Facts and Fallacies of Fitness On the other hand, no studies have shown significant superiority of formally exercising Western sedentary workers over non-exercising workers in other communities whose work involves daily physical labour and minimal reliance on vehicles. Where such superiority does exist, it is more a consequence of raised standards of living and good control of disease. It is apparent that the availability or otherwise of moder fitness facilites is not the definitive factor. Instead, itis the complex combination of many factors, including any form of regular recreational exercise or manual labour, which can enhance longevity and ealth. Perfect practice makes perfect In the old days, we used to say that ‘practice makes perfect’, but new smart instructors refer to ‘perfect practice’, which is perfect nonsense. Why on earth does someone have to practise perfect movements to make them perfect? Can anyone explain how a beginner manages to undertake perfect practice if he has never tried the activity before? We simply have to practise to minimise the degree of inefficient movement or to reinforce already learned patterns, but we do not start with perfect movements to produce greater perfection. All that practice does is make permanent. We also have to question if we ever produce the perfect motion or if perfection of movement ever occurs. Moreover, too many coaches teach an ideal model of movement which is based on a study of top performers. We must never forget that efficiency (rather than perfection) is highly individual and what suits one athlete does not necessarily suit another. Even the same person produces variations in the same movement because no action in sport is ever identical to its predecessor. Leverages, environmental conditions, opponent strategies, sports equipment and so forth all change; it is natural that skill should change. Itis vital to stress that there is a major difference between skill and style. Skill refers to the efficiency of executing a given motor task, whereas siyle refers to one’s individual expression of that skill. The coach or athlete change style at their peril! The stretch reflex always protects the joints during sudden movements This fallacy is easy to test for yourself. Go into a full squat position and bounce rapidly. Most of the time, your quadriceps fail to contract significantly and the load is imposed on the ligaments and other passive structures of the knee. Similarly, cautiously impose a sudden loading on a fully flexed elbow and again you will notice that the myotatic stretch reflex will not recruit the extensor muscles (the triceps). This also happens if your neck is fully flexed forwards or backwards, which leads to some of those dreadful cases of spinal paralysis in sports such as American football, rugby, trampolining or cycling. The same problem occurs with other joints when taken near to their extreme ends of range. It appears that certain protective actions have to be learned and are not automatically elicited by an obliging myotatic stretch reflex. Slow movements selectively recruit slow twitch muscle fibres It is often believed that slow twitch (ST) muscles are reserved for slow actions and fast twitch ones (FT) for fast actions. Firstly, it is a gross oversimplification to talk in terms of only one type of ST and one or two types of FT fibre. Research reveals that there is a fairly extensive continuum of many other fibre types between ST and FT and that fibre type is actually determined by the nerves which enter the muscle fibres. Some researchers even refer to one type of fibre not necessarily changing to other types, but temporarily behaving like other types in different situations, depending on their biochemical environment and external demands. Itis also important to recall that FT fibres become progressively more involved in any contraction as the load increases, whether at high speed or low speed. Thus, the very slow actions in heavy powerlifting compel the relevant muscles to recruit more and more FT fibres. The human body is very opportunistic: when it needs to do something, it will often involve whatever works under given circumstances. Both a light load accelerated rapidly and a heavy load accelerated slowly strongly involve the FT fibres, just as explosive movements rely heavily on the action of FT fibres. Often this discussion on the relevance of muscle fiber type to sports training omits mention of the vital role played by elastic energy stored and released by the connective tissues of the body. Sometimes, an explosive movement may have more to do with the release of stored elastic energy from the tendons than the speed of any muscle fibres, Equally well, we cannot ignore the fact that the behaviour of muscle is determined by the activity of the nerve fibres which supply it, so that anything such as mental states of high excitation (fear, strong motivation, etc.) may enhance the rate of contraction of any fibres and the number of fibres recruited at any instant. One can have a huge preponderance of FT fibres in a given muscle 18Facts and Fallacies of Fitness —_——— group, but, if they are ineffectually or minimally recruited during a given action, they are of little relevance. Relating to this is the fact that the rate and number of fibers firing depends on voluntary and involuntary processes, the voluntary ones being influenced by personal motivation and feedforward mechanisms, and the involuntary ones to feedback from the proprioceptive system, including the various stretch reflexes. Interestingly, the method of training with progressively heavier loads or at greater accelerations can be a valuable way of learning how to motivate yourself at progressively higher levels of performance. If muscle is not used it turns to fat Just when we think that this myth has been weight training. Maybe we have to say it agai and cannot change into one another. to rest, someone or other uses it as an argument against wuscle and fat are two different types of cellular tissue There is a clear distinction between open and closed chain exercise Itis now fashionable especially in physiotherapy circles to refer to open and closed chain exercise. The term ‘open chain exercise’ is commonly applied to actions in which the end of a limb is free to move in space, whereas ‘closed chain exercise’ refers to any exercise where the limb is restrained against a immobile surface such as the ground. Thus a seated ‘leg extension’ is open chain, whereas a squat is closed chain. What then about a seated leg press, where the foot is pressed against a restraining surface? Presumably this is purely pen chain, because the end of the extremity is free fo move. What then of a hip sled’ or inclined machine 1¢ body is moving instead squat exercise? The action is virtually the reverse of the seated leg press, only tI of the legs. We must not forget that in a leg extension exercise, the shin makes contact with a bar. In competitive rowing the oarsman thrusts powerfully with his legs and slides backwards and forwards during his stroke. Would we call this open-closed chain exercise? Presumably walking, running, jumping and aerobic stepping are also mixed open-closed chain exercises. This artificial Glansi fica ler of exescines iw HlOPGaite wa clearcutias the auftibrities would like you to believe, nor is it as useful as published work tends to suggest. Actually, the originator of this terminology, Steindler, stated that "a closed kinetic chain is one in which the terminal joint meets with some considerable external resistance which prohibits or restrains its free motion", not simply one which totally prevents the distal extremity of any limb from moving at exercise in space! ) Sii° “Closure thee has more to do with degree of loading than absence of ‘movement. Read more about this very misunderstood topic in Ch 12. Internal muscle friction is important in limiting muscle action ‘The concept of friction within muscles and its role in modifying the force which a muscle can produce has been proliferated widely by Arthur Jones, creator of the Nautilus™ range of resistance machines. He uses this idea to explain that ‘muscular friction’ somehow increases the force that muscle can produce under eccentric conditions and corroborate his reasoning why the eccentric phase of movement on his machines should be done at a certain tempo. In his own words (Internet letter to Dr Dowling, 16 June 1997): "Trying to understand or explain muscular friction at the cellular level is, at best, an exercise in futility, because you can neither observe nor measure functions at that level”. Nevertheless, he announces that “Internal muscular friction is not a wild-eyed theory of mine, but is, rather, a simple fact that can be easily and undeniably demonstrated to the total satisfaction of anybody apart from an outright idiot; yet this remains an important, even critical, factor that is still being ignored by almost everybody now interested in this field. Until and unless you can clearly understand the ramifications of muscular friction it is simply impossible to understand muscular function’. Furthermore, in a statement which betrays serious ignorance of fluid mechanics, he declares that "Everything in the known universe that has both mass and motion also has friction, and muscles are no exception. Whether it is an automobile, an airplane, a snake or a human muscle, friction acts the same way: inhibits positive function while enhancing negative function, thus reduces your positive strength while increasing your negative strength’. 19Facts and Fallacies of Fitness Apparently, friction increases eccentric strength like a block moving on an Must have something) inclined plane. Thus, upward movement, analogous to concentric action, is more difficult because of frictional resistance. Downward motion, analogous to eccentric action, opposed by friction allows a greater load to be used before downward motion occurs. Therefore, friction allows a greater load to be lifted by eccentric action. Logical sounding, but physics paints a different picture. Jones fails to appreciate that the muscle environment is essentially fluidic and thus is more correctly associated with viscosity, or ‘stickiness’ of the fluid. Even then, the viscosity of all such lubricating fluids in the musculoskeletal system is extremely low and has never be found to offer even minimal resistance to the movement of joints, muscles or other structures. Its magnitude is totally inadequate to explain differences in the handling capabilities of eccentric and concentric action. Another startling deduction of Jones is this: "During the last few repetitions of an exercise continued to a point of momentary failure, the friction rises so high that it lowers positive strength while simultaneously raising negative strength; when your positive strength has bee! reduced to a level of zero, your negative strength will be nearly as high as it is when the muscle was fresh. In one breath, he has declared that nobody can measure muscle friction; in another he has stated that he somehow has inside information about how this friction changes with movement. His attempts to relate muscle fatigue and friction are based entirely on opinion and have no scientific or practical support whatsoever. One of his disciples, Dr Wayne Westcott, is even more specific. In the ACE Personal Fitness Trainer ‘Manual (Ch 8), he postulates that concentric contractions are not as strong as isometric contractions because this internal muscle friction decreases concentric strength by about 20% and increases eccentric strength by the same amount, but quotes no corroborative research. Jones bases his concepts on very limited or incomplete models of muscle action and human movement. He does not mention mechanical stiffness, damping, slippage, duration of muscle cross-bridging under different circumstances, the vital role played by elastic energy, the possible differences caused by different muscle fibres or variable reflex processes in muscle action. His beliefs or theories have been challenged by leading exercise scientists on the basis of very sound biomechanics and physiology, and his only responses have been highly emotive and personal, so we can only conclude that they have no scientific validity whatsoever. Never lock the knees completely during any standing exercise So many aerobics instructors and personal trainers believe this fallacy that we should conclude that human beings outside the fitness centres who lock their knees during normal daily activities such as walking and lifting are misshapen mutants. Presumably they recommend this so as to minimise the risk of knee injury. Somehow, the fact that knee locking is done during many daily tasks and even very intensively with huge loads by Olympic weightlifters and powerlifters without any injury is ignored. These same instructors say nothing about shock absorption and stabilisation at the ankle, metatarsal and hip joints, which are all involved in any movements of the lower extremities, Nor do they say anything about the fact that rotation about the knee is impossible unless the knee is flexed, which in some dynamic actions (such as sudden internal rotation or valgus) can result in serious damage to the knee. This sort of injury commonly occurs in the slightly bent knees of soccer players during quick turns or tackles. ‘There is a time for locking and a time for flexing and a single blanket rule for all situations is unwise. Avoid all back exercises if your back is sore or injured The prevalence of back pain and disability in our society has bred a host of authorities on back care and repair, some of them knowledgeable, some of them ignorant, but all of them well-meaning. A particularly common recommendation is that one should rest the back , have passive therapy in the form of physical therapy or chiropractic, or strengthen the abdominals. If back exercise is permitted, then it shall only be the very mild use of prone leg raises or trunk extensions, lying face downward on a mat. Acknowledged back exercises such as deadlifts, clean pulls, prone back extensions off a raised bench, and good mornings are invariably forbidden. This type of advice may be appropriate for severe back injury, but the use of very mild back exercises will do very little to increase the functional strength of the large and powerful muscles of the back. To strengthen the back, one must challenge the back muscles adequately and gradually increase the trainingFacts and Fallacies of Fitness load in exercises which work the back through its full functional range, otherwise the back will remain as weak as it was and recurrence of the back problems is inevitable. Prone trunk or leg raises exercises are very limited in this regard. Firstly, prone leg raises (i.e. hip extensions) exercise the gluteus maximus dynamically, but not the back muscles, which serve only to statically stabilise the pelvis in this exercise. Prone trunk exercise works the erector spinae over a very small range which in no way parallels how the back is used in daily life or during sport. It is sometimes not appreciated by therapists that the patient need not initially perform the acknowledged back exercises over their full range. Instead, the deadlift or clean pull, for example, may be done from stands or blocks placed near knee level so that the patient can execute limited range movements before progressing to greater range and heavier loads. Ultimately, the full range movements can be done in controlled fashion, all the time ensuring that correct technique is used, inclu slight lumbar extension and breath holding during the maximum effort phases. While this is done, a perceived rating of back discomfort or pain by the patient can be very helpful. Seated back exercise should be regarded with great circumspection, since this posture increases the loading on the lumbar spine, especially since the act of sitting tends to promote posterior pelvic tilt and rounding of the lower spine (Chaffin & Andersson Occupational Biomechanics). If movement of the spinal system is inhibited or painful, the physical therapist can achieve significant strengthening with electrical stimulation applied to the erector spinae via faradism or interferential therapy. ‘Total avoidance of back exercise as a blanket rule for all types of non-traumatic back pain and disability is unwise and fails to address the central issue, namely, an existing condition of back weakness and functional lifting strength. As has been said: "Use it or lose it!". One can lift the greatest loads with eccentric muscle action While it is true that the greater loads can be handled during eccentric action than either concentric or isometric action, the muscles do not manage to overcome the load. It probably would be preferable to apply the Russian terminology which refers to eccentric action as yielding action and concentric action as overcoming action. One may then appreciate that, no matter what the load, during eccentrics the load overcomes the ability of the individual to handle it, while during concentrics, the lifter actually overcomes the load. Isometric action is the limiting case between the two extremes and occurs when the load prevents the ‘muscles from raising the load. This represents the maximum load which can be controlled by muscle action without being overcome by the load. At best, eccentric action allows the muscles to slow down, but not prevent or overcome, loads which are greater than the isometric maximum load. There is one major problem regarding maximum eccentric strength, namely how one actually defines the limiting load. One could state that the load must be controlled over a minimum of 3 or 5 seconds to indicate that some modicum of real control, though one could use a load which is so heavy that it drops at much higher speed under minimal eccentric muscle tension. As yet, nobody has yet resolved this. dilemma especially since slow control of a very heavy load would also involve a major element of quasi-isometric muscle endurance, rather than ‘pure’ strength. In other words, the concept of eccentric strength being greatest may simply be academic and misleading. Fallacies of Cardiovascular or Aerobic Fundamentals Aerobic exercise is an excellent form of cross training for all sport On the contrary, this type of low intensity exercise might promote loss of muscle bulk, strength and power, so that it could be detrimental to performance in sports requiring strength, power and speed. If used in such sports, it should be done in moderation during the early general preparatory phase or to facilitate recovery after strenuous training. The precise form of aerobic training (e.g. walking, running, cycling or swimming) also has to be taken into careful account so as not to interfere with the specific motor skills of the athlete concerned or to overtrain certain muscles. In many cases the use of interval training with alternating stages 21Facts and Fallacies of Fitness of aerobic and anaerobic endurance exercise offers more appropriate cardiovascular conditioning without compromising the more strength related qualities of sporting fitness. Aerobics classes generally improve overall fitness This depends on the exact structure of the class or rather, the long term aerobics programme, but generally, aerobics classes produce a limited type of fitness that produces minimal improvement in functional strength, power, strength-endurance, speed-endurance and speed (as discussed above). Typical aerobics classes whose specific aim is to offer cardiovascular exercise ‘often neglect to develop significantly the muscles of the back, neck, chest, lats or sides of the trunk. Even stretch and tone classes whose objective is more on shaping and strengthening involve such low resistance that it would be better to spend the tase doing dedicated resistance training, All too often fitness is regarded as being synonymous with cardiovascular endurance, which is but one of several factors determining overall fitness. Actually, fitness for one's daily activities places far greater demands on postural and anaerobic qualities than cardiovascular endurance. This issue is discussed at length in the later essays of this book. Aerobic exercises should be done before toning exercises in aerobics Russian research has shown that the most effective sequence for training in a single session is: speed training, power training, strength training, muscle endurance training and finally, cardiovascular exercise. The traditional structure for most aerobics classes always places strengthening exercises after aerobic exercises, exactly the opposite of what this research has discovered! Maybe aerobics fans are not interested in optimising their training, but at least the instructors need to realise that it is even more productive and perfectly safe to reverse the accepted order of events. One may certainly deviate from the optimal sequence discovered by Russian scientists, but this should be done with a specific purpose in mind, such as preparing an athlete to cope with speed movements in the fatigued state. Most aerobics classes adequately strengthen the back This is the weak point of almost every aerobics class. It is extremely rare to find aerobics classes that include exercises which significantly strengthen the extensive back muscles over their full range of movement. Virtually the only popular back exercise done in aerobics is the prone partial back extension (the so-called ‘Superman’ or dying swallow position), which requires clients to lie face downwards and raise outstretched arms and legs together or alternately off the ground. This is a static exercise which trains the erector spinae over a minimal range and offers little dynamic strengthening. What is more, most classes devote an inordinate amount of time to abdominal exercise, which tends to lower the trunk extension-flexion strength ratio. In other words, the abdominals become relatively stronger than the spinal erectors, which are essential for back integrity. Cardiovascular training plays a major role in determining performance in most sports Cardiovascular endurance actually is not required in the vast majority of Olympic sports and therefore, is not as significant in sporting preparation as is suggested by numerous exercise scientists. It certainly can play a role in improving the efficiency of the cardiocirculatory system, promoting capillarisation and facilitating recuperation, but cardiovascular or ‘aerobic’ training cannot enhance the other vital components of sports specific fitness, such as strength, speed, power, flexibility and muscle endurance. Cardiovascular training performed as a preface or warmup to strength conditioning or other forms of training in any given workout can be especially counterproductive, since it tends to inhibit the production of strength, power, speed and motor skill. If done at all as part of a training complex, itis highly advisable that it is done after all other forms of fitness training. It is unsafe to do aerobics in bare feet or thin soled shoes This topic is discussed at length later, but at this early stage it is important to point out that clinical studies, research and theoretical analysis all reveal that more injuries occur among the wearers of athletics shoes than among barefooted exercisers. In essence, what happens is that the body tends to stiffen up, decrease proprioceptive sensitivity and dissipate shock less effectively if you wear well-cushioned training shoes. ‘The body ‘assumes’ that the shoes will undertake the major role of stabilisation and shock absorption, so itFacts and Fallacies of Fitness SS ‘decides’ instinctively to rely more on the shoes and less on its intrinsic protection mechanisms (Siff MC, Supertraining). Cardiovascular exercise is the most effective way to reduce bodyfat This belief is so rife that one hardly ever hears the fact that no form of regular exercise of sufficient intensity and duration has been proved to be more effective than another in reducing excess bodyfat, provided that is accompanied by sensible eating habits. In fact, it is interesting to note that competitive bodybuilders exhibit skinfold thicknesses and overall bodyfat which are among the lowest in all sports, despite the fact that they rarely indulge in aerobic training because of its negative effect on muscle bulk and strength. Studies have shown that it is not the type of activity, but the amount of energy expended, which is central to the promotion of loss of adipose tissue. Relevant to this issue is the fact that resistance training can increase muscle mass, which, in turn, can increase the metabolic expenditure of energy in the body. Moreover, the strength gained with this training makes it easier for the overweight individual to carry out daily activities and feel energetic enough to want to exercise. Thus, for the average client, a properly sequenced combination of aerobic and anaerobic training offers more benefits in body fat reduction, health and Body shaping than any single regime which focuses on ‘only one type of conditioning Loud rock and contemporary music motivates one to train more effectively Curiously enough, research shows that while this type of music may ‘enhance motivation among those who ‘enjoy it, it actually produces lower levels of fitness than produced in matched classes which do not rely on this type of music. Besides also producing impaired hearing among regular exercisers, music that is loud or discordant is associated with diminished motor skill and more injuries. This information, no doubt, may be music to the ears of purists who quote the proven benefits of Baroque and certain type of classical music es. see Ostrander & Schréder Superlearning), but it should not be forgotten that the effects of music are not simply a matter of composition, sophistication or volume, but even more on whether the listener enjoys it or not. This liking often varies from day to day , so the picture is by no means as simple as may be suggested by experimenters. No music is universally liked by everyone, so the best solution to the irritation caused by subjectively offensive music is to insist that gym clients play their own favorites on ‘Walkman’ cassette players. This, of course, is not possible in the aerobics class, but it certainly can make life far more pleasant in the main gymnasium. Aerobics done to slow music produces smaller forces on the body than to fast music This fallacy pervades the entire aerobics industry and forms the foundation for almost every aerobics class. ‘Thus, exercise to fast tempo music (typically above about 160 beats per minute) is regarded as potentially more dangerous than exercise to slow music. What is often not appreciated is that even sustained static stretches in the cooling down phase or simply poor posture can cause muscular and soft tissue damage, while toning exercises done slowly on the ground or unskillfully against elastic bands can also overstrain the muscles of the average client. It is not simply the speed of action which determines safety, but also the motor skill, physical condition and mental focus of the performer. The Slide involves the leg adductors and abductors as the prime lateral movers ‘The merits of the ‘slide’ invariably focus on the special exercise which they provide for the adductors and abductors of the lower extremities during lateral sliding movements. What is generally not recognised is that neither of these muscle groups is usually involved as the prime mover during this exercise. Instead, it is the muscles of the trunk which are used to shift your centre of gravity so that you are, in effect, tending to fall over sideways and forcing your legs to follow to prevent you from falling. You can prove this for yourself by trying to move sideways without leaning to either side. You will find this impossible; you will easily succeed in sliding both legs outwards simultaneously, but you will not be able to slide only to one side. “The abductors and adductors become involved later, then act eccentrically fo terminate the movements. Since eccentric activity usually produces more muscle soreness than concentric exercise, this is what is responsible for the tightness and soreness experienced by newcomers to the slide.Facts and Fallacies of Fitness Overall fitness improves with every aerobics class you do First of all, most aerobics classes do not offer overall fitness training, because the main emphasis is on aerobic endurance, stretching and ‘toning’. Strength increase with small hand weights or thin elastic bands is minimal, while other fitness qualities such as static strength, explosive strength, strength-endurance, power, dynamic flexibility and speed receive little attention. Cardiovascular endurance certainly improves ‘over the first few months of aerobics training, but a plateau is rapidly reached and subsequent classes serve only to maintain the highest level of ‘fitness’ attained. In resistance training, the 'gradual progressive overload’ principle of regular increases in loading is applied to ensue that strength fitness and hypertrophy continue to increase. In aerobics classes, however, the length of the class remains the same, the intensity does not increase significantly and virtually the only change is some new choreography or novel method such as stepping or sliding. Application of some form of long-term organization or periodisation is almost never done, partly because clients often join or rejoin a class when they feel like it or when the weather improves, but mostly because aerobies instructors generally do tel ewe bee lopesieden epesicn eovtonte Sometimes one will increase the number of classes attended, which can improve one's aerobic fitness’ up toa point, but increase in intensity is very rare, because neither heavier loads nor increasingly rapid music generally are used. This means that even instructors who teach several classes a day simply maintain a certain level of fitness unless they supplement their training with sessions in a weights gym. This is precisely what contestants in sport aerobics championships are having to do, because they at last have discovered that aerobics classes alone cannot make them overall fit enough to compete at the levels demanded today. Step classes offer better all-round body conditioning than conventional aerobics Step classes very often tend to overemphasize the use of the legs to ensure that maximum utilisation of the steps is made. Choreography is aimed more at devising more involved and interesting foot patterns than arm patterns, with the latter being changed periodically more for reasons of aesthetics than fitness. Even though elastic bands and small dumbbells may be incorporated into some of the routines, their use is generally inadequate to offer sufficient enhancement of factors such as strength, functional flexibility and body symmetry. With respect to the last-named factor, it is often found that many step fanatics tend to overdevelop the legs and underdevelop the upper body. The well-meaning but scientifically unsubstantiated insistence on always stepping up onto a flat foot prohibits full involvement of the plantarflexors of the foot, especially the gastrocnemius, resulting in structurally and functionally unbalanced lower extremities. If the ‘step’ is used to offer upper body exercises such as pushups, dips, flyes, prone back extensions and s0 forth, then it certainly can offer'a wider range of training possiblities for the whole body, but when used simply as an up and down stepping tool, it offers no additional upper body training. Continuous long slow duration exercise offers the best form of cardiovascular conditioning Itis commonly believed that the most efficient way of improving cardiovascular fitness is LSD (Long Slow Duration or Long Slow Distance) training. Consequently, popular htness books, magazines, fitness instructors and medical specialists tend to promote the virtues of LSD running, cycling, walking or swimming. Even gym circuit training is designed so that participants are compelled by buzzers and flashing lights to move continuously around the circuit in an attempt to imitate continuous running or cycling. This CCT (Continuous Circuit Training) usually disguises the existence of ICT (Interval Circuit Training), which offers rest periods and the use of heavier loads in shorter discontinuous bursts of action. This is done largely because CCT allows gym management to pack in more clients at the same time without a long waiting line of impatient members building up. Research has shown that interval training, even of significantly shorter duration, can produce comparable or superior levels of cardiovascular fitness than the LSD method. In fact, most ultradistance athletes do combinations of quantity (LSD) and quality (speed) work to improve their cardiovascular performance. Interval and fartlek (‘speed-play') methods invariably form part of the latter method of training. The latter two methods offer an attractive alternative to LSD running in sports which combine some of the elements of aerobic and anaerobic fitness, since they do not produce the same loss of muscle mass, strength and speed. 24Facts and Fallacies of Fitness Strength Fallacies Strong, large muscles protect the joints better than smaller muscles This is a fallacy quoted in support of bodybuilding style training for contact athletes such as American footballers, rugby players and wrestlers. While it is true that stronger muscles can protect the joints if they are strongly contracted in time to counteract any suddenly imposed loading, they are almost as limited as smaller muscles in offering protection if they are not activated timeously. Moreover, bulkier muscles are not necessarily stronger than smaller muscles, as is revealed by the observation that Olympic weightlifters and powerlifters generally are much stronger than bodybuilders with larger muscles. Russian research has revealed that there are at least two types of muscle hypertrophy: sarcoplasmic hypertrophy and sarcomere hypertrophy. The former refers to enlargement of some of the passive, non-contracting elements of the muscle and is common among bodybuilders. The latter refers to enlargement of the contractile actin- myosin structures and is associated with weightlifting training (Siff MC Supertraining 2003). In other words, one form of hypertrophy is not the same as another ‘and, although strength output of a muscle is proportional to its cross- sectional area, the magnitude of its increase depends on the specific type of hypertrophy. Moreover, the force produced by a muscle depends on the number and pattern of nerve impulses exciting that muscle. A relaxed or weakly contracted muscle offers minimal protection other than that afforded by the connective tissue in the muscle complex. If any athlete is training for bulk to be stronger and to prevent injury, then he should become more aware of ths fact and pay much more attention to reactive ability and speed. He should also strengthen the connective tissues such as tendons and ligaments, because the former play a major role in rapid movement and the latter serve as passive stabilisers of the joints. These issues are discussed further in the essay entitled "Bigger, Faster, Stronger?". All muscle hypertrophy is essentially the same The impressively large and muscular physiques of bodybuilders, weightlifters, powerlifters and gymnasts may tend to create the impression that their shape is due to the same sort of muscle hypertrophy. Research by Russian scientists (Nikituk & Samoilov, 1990), however, has shown that there are at least two different types of muscle hypertrophy: sarcomere hypertrophy and sarcoplasmic hypertrophy, the first one associated with growth of the contractile components of the muscle fibers (the actin and myosin complex) and the latter with growth of the structures supporting and surrounding the contractile elements (the sarcoplasmic reticulum and sarcoplasm). Sarcomere hypertrophy, maximally stimulated by Olympic weightlifting style training, results in significant increases in strength, unlike the sarcoplasmic variety, which is markedly increased by bodybuilding style training. ‘The former, therefore, is of greater relevance to the weightlifter or any other athlete who needs functional hypertrophy for improving sporting performance, with the latter form offering ‘hinimal sporting benefits, unless sheer bulk is needed for superiority, as is often the case in bodybuilding posing or sumo wrestling. Obviously, then, one should be wary of relying largely on bodybuilding methods as a form of supplementary training for other sports. Muscle hyperplasia does not occur Muscle growth may occur as the result of two possible processes: hypertrophy (increase in size of fibers) or yperplasia (increase in number of fibres). In the case of muscle fibres, the occurrence of hypertrophy in response to strength training is a well-established fact, but there is considerable debate concerning muscle hyperplasia, Gonyea (1980) has presented evidence of hyperplasia in cats subjected to heavy resistance training, but other researchers have criticised this work, pointing out that there may be fibre splitting, but not proliferation of new fibres. Certain Russian research also suggests that increase in muscle mass occurs not only through hypertrophy of muscle fibres, but as a result of an increase in fibre number by means of the splitting of hypertrophied muscle fibres and the development of muscle fibres from muscle ‘buds’ and satellite cells (Gudz, 1968, 1976). In addition, it has been suggested that muscle hyperplasia may occur ‘with extremely intense resistance training, but current evidence from human subjects is not yet conclusive. 25Facts and Fallacies of Fitness According to Antonio (Antonio J & Gonyea W Med. Sci Sports Exerc 1993), two basic mechanisms may contribute to new muscle fibre formation, namely muscle fiber splitting (minor component) and satellite cell proliferation (major component) He points out that there is plenty of direct evidence in animal models (rats lifting weights, cats lifting weights, birds wings being stretched by hanging weights) for muscle hyperplasia and indirect evidence (in bodybuilders and other strength athletes) based upon observations that these athletes have much larger overall muscle mass but little or no difference in muscle fibre size. Antonio suspects that muscle fiber hyperplasia might play a major role in humans only in the most muscular athletes (elite bodybuilders, pemelileest ciel Ber tc avneabe Sinete tps: te camsliiers that lt podbably ls ant a significant factor in overall skeletal muscle enlargement. Although the existence of hyperplasia of muscle fibre is uncertain, hyperplasia of structures within the muscle fibre and cell does occur. Nikituk and Samoilov identify two types of subfibral hyperplasia: * Sarcoplasmic hyperplasia, which involves an increase in the number of sarcoplasmic organelles * Myofibrillar-mitochondrial hyperplasia, which involves increase in the number of myofibrils and mitochondria. Increase in muscle diameter is due to enlargement of individual muscle fibres by an increase in the number and size of individual myofibrils (Goldspink), accompanied by an increase in the amount of connective tissue (McDonagh & Davies). Moreover, sarcomere hypertrophy is associated with an increase in the size and number of the sarcomeres which comprise the myofibrils. These are added either in parallel or in series with the existing myofibrils, although only the parallel growth contributes significantly to an increased ability to increase muscle tension. Increasing muscle mass or cross-sectional area will increase strength Virtually every book on exercise physiology states, without qualification, that an increase in muscle cross- sectional area or mass will produce a corresponding increase in muscle strength. While this tends to be true, it is important that we take into account the issue that was raised in the topic discussed directly above. ‘Thus, if the muscle cross-sectional area has increased mainly by sarcomere hypertrophy, then the correlation between strength and size (and mass) will be greater than if the size increase is due mainly to sarcoplasmic growth. It is well known that the relationship between strength and size is not linear, so that if you double your muscle mass, ill not double your strength, as can be seen clearly by comparing the performances of weightlifters and powerlifters in different bodymass divisions. Research also indicates that there may be an optimal size for muscle fibres undergoing hypertrophy (MacDougall et al, 1982; Tesch & Larsson, 1982), possibly due to the fact that growth of any living structure is related to the balance between its surface area and its volume. The importance of devising resistance training regimes which produce the optimal balance between hypertrophy and specific strength then becomes obvious. Circuit training provides all round aerobic and anaerobic conditioning One of the earliest purposes of circuit training, as devised by the British innovators, Morgan and Adamson in 1953, was to create a single system to produce all-round fitness, in particular, a balance of cardiovascular endurance and strength. Research, however, has shown that circuit training produces inferior results to the cumulative effects of separate training sessions, each devoted to producing a different type of fitness. It also has to be remembered that aerobic training tends to interfere with the development of strength and hypertrophy and that any aerobic training done immediately before strength training seriously inhibits the ability of the body to produce strength. One also needs to note that there are two types of circuit training : continuous circuit training (CCT) and interval circuit training (ICT). CCT is the type offered by most commercial gyms and use timing devices to tell you when to move from station to station. These circuits tend to increase muscle endurance and a limited amount of strength and cardiovascular fitness. ICT allows you to train with heavy loads at each station and to take a recovery break before moving to the next station. The normal timing intervals are ignored and you proceed when you feel adequately restored to undertake heavy work at the next station. This training allows you to develop strength, hypertrophy and muscle endurance, but lower levels of cardiovascular fitness. Obviously if your aim is physique building and strengthening, you will opt for the second alternative. If you need even more strength, power, hypertrophy and muscular endurance, you will have to resort to dedicated weight training, using free weights predominantly. If you wish superior aerobic fitness, then you 26Facts and Fallacies of Fitness have to undertake separate cardiovascular training by means of activities such as distance running, swimming or cycling. Heavy weight training reduces flexibility and speed In addition to quoting the prolific research which indicates that this is nonsense, we can simply refer to the cases of athletes who have trained with heavy weights, such as Ben Johnson, Boris Becker, Mike Powell and many others who are among the fastest humans on earth. Johnson, by the way, squatted with over 200kg and dispelled several other myths. Squats are reputed to damage the knees and he never suffered from prolific knee injuries. Anabolic steroids are supposed to create muscle-bound, slow athletes and Ben was neither, despite his use of these drugs. Over short sprints (of up to about 30 metres), world class Olympic weightlifters either equal or outperform top level sprinters. Studies have shown that gymnasts and Olympic weightlifters are among the most supple of all athletes and they all train against very high levels of resistance. In fact, Russian research has shown that full range resistance training is the best way of developing functional flexibility. Heavy resistance training increases blood pressure Here a distinction has to be made between chronic increase in blood pressure (hypertension) and acute increase in blood pressure which occurs when anyone exerts force while using the breath-holding Valsalva manoeuvre. The above statement is usually made to st that resistance training chronically increases blood pressure and that this can threaten the health of anyone who does weight training. Studies of long-term weightlifters reveal no chronic increase in blood pressure (hypertension). Any work done against heavy resistance does increase blood pressure because of the Valsalva manoeuvre and the strong muscle contractions which impede the flow of blood to the muscles, but this acute effect lasts only during the effort and has not ‘been shown to cause hypertension. Paffenbarger's renowned study of tens of thousands of longshoremen (dock workers) who daily lifted, pushed, pulled and carried heavy loads showed that this regular exercise produced a favourable state of cardiac health. Though this was not the aim of his work, the fact that this population must have iicheauea thier blood presnutes acutely many Umes a day forany years alao reveals that long-term, fairly brief daily increases in blood pressure do not necessarily cause hypertension. Heavy weight training makes you bulky This is often cited as a reason not to train with heavy weights. Many aspiring bodybuilders wish that it were this easy to produce massive hypertrophy, but the tendency to gain bulk readily is not an automatic result of heavy training, but depends on genetics and a very specific type of submaximal weight training. In fact, regular training with very heavy weights compels one to exercise with very few repetitions (usually 1- 3 repetitions) in each set, which is known not to be the most effective way of producing muscle bulk. ‘Most bodybuilders have found that training with moderate to moderately heavy weights (about 60-85% of one’s maximum), rather than with maximum weights is a better way to enhance muscle hypertrophy. Moreover, the majority of top bodybuilders use anabolic-androgenic steroids deliberately to accelerate hypertrophy, because it is the aim of their training to become massively ‘bulky’. Olympic weightlifters, on the other hand, who often train with extremely heavy weights, do not develop this enormous hypertrophy, simply because strength and power, not bulk, are the primary goals of their training. Massive hypertrophy is not the automatic result of heavy weight training - instead, this is a result of the appropriate genetics, an appropriate training programme, careful nutrition and very often, supplementation with legal and illegal ergogenic aids. Light weight training is always safer than heavy weight training This is a common argument for the use of insultingly light dumbbells in aerobics classes or programmes for the youngster or older adult. While itis often true that straining against near maximal loads by novices can lead to muscle strain, it is not true that safety is an automatic result of heavy weight training. In fact, far more injuries occur in sports and activities involving no added resistance at all, such as running, aerobics, soccer, tennis and hockey. It should be noted that light weights can even produce greater forces in the 7Facts and Fallacies of Fitness OO muscles than heavy weights, if they are accelerated more rapidly, according to Newton's 2nd Law of Motion (which states that the force involved is proportional to the acceleration of the object). Moreover, a light weight acting at a large distance from a joint can produce a larger moment (moment force x perpendicular distance from force to joint) than a heavy weight being used closer to the joint. Light weights can also be used for many more repetitions than heavy weights, so that overuse injuries become more likely. Finally, poor technique with light or heavy weights can have serious consequences. Magnitude of loading is not the primary cause of injury; rather it is the consequence of several other factors. Sometimes, light weight training or even training without weights (e.g. running can produce far greater impact forces on the body than heavy weight training) can be more dangerous than heavy weight training. Each given exercise uses exactly the same muscles each time it is executed Virtually every bodybuilding authority maintains that a given exercise trains the same muscles every time that it is used. ‘Bicep’ curls always work the biceps, leg extensions always work the quadriceps, tricep push-down always work the triceps and so on. This is a fallacy for several reasons. Firstly, almost every muscle training book ignores the fact that every exercise involves movers and stabilisers; the authors focus almost entirely on the movers and not the many other muscles which stabilise the different parts of the body to enable the movers to execute the chosen exercise. Sometimes the work done by the stabilisers is far greater than that done by the movers. Moreover, different muscles come into play as the joint moves through its range of movement. ‘The relative degree of action and patterns of action by both movers and stabilisers change all the time. For instance, in raising the arms from the sides to execute dumbbell lateral raises, the supraspinatus muscles have to initiate the action to enable the deltoids to take over later when the mechanical advantage has increased sufficiently for them. In the deadlift, the hamstrings, quadriceps, glutei and many other muscles contract and relax at different stages of the movement. Even if we acknowledge that several different muscle groups are involved in a given exercise, EMG studies by Russian scientists have shown that the degree of involvement is often not the same. They have found that the muscles taking part in an exercise with 60% of one’s maximum (1RM) remain the same for ‘only 82% of the time. With loads of 80% of 1RM, the degree of consistency is even less (thereby showing greater individuality), but is higher for skilled athletes (Siff Supertraining 2003). ‘This means that in any exercise there is considerable variation in the muscles involved, with the amount of variation increasing significantly with load and with individual responses to loading. The patterns of muscle recruitment also differ considerably with fatigue, so that one involves very different muscles and sequences of activation in the ‘fresh’ and fatigued states. In addition, any preceding exercises produce an after-effect which can alter the recruitment patterns. All of this has a central bearing on another fallacy, namely that strict muscle isolation is possible. ‘The large muscle groups should always be exercised before the smaller groups This depends on so many factors that this fallacy may be faulted on many grounds. It makes good sense not to fatigue the small muscles which are responsible for gripping or balancing heavier loads later in a workout, such as the flexors of the fingers and wrists, since this might compromise efficiency or safety. However, the sequence of exercises in any given workout also depends on whether you are following a split routine on successive days; whether you wish to pre-exhaust smaller muscles that are hindering your, progress with certain larger muscles; whether you are using concentric, eccentric o isometric muscle action; whether your workout with the larger muscles is intended to be eee diearstundemueien (ke tere a wie ase aimee ke hypertrophy, strength or recuperation. The number of sets, training volume, rest intervals, interaction with related muscle groups, preponderance of different muscle fibre types, previous training history, technical skills and stage of one's training cycle also influence one's choice of exercise order. Often, exercise of certain smaller muscle groups may be totally unnecessary if the major exercises involve movement of multiple joints. For instance, if one does cleans, power cleans, loaded pull-ups, ’bicep' curls, reverse grip lat pull downs or other heavy lifts which involve large and small muscle groups simultaneously, then it is quite redundant to specifically exercise the muscles of the forearms. You will hardly ever find a competitive weightlifter or powerlifter who ever dows wrist exercises to improve gripping strength, even though this strength is fundamental to all heavy lifting. 28Facts and Fallacies of Fitness _————— Cheating methods should never be used with any exercise All too often there is a fanatical overemphasis on the use of ‘strict’ exercise style to enhance effectiveness and safety. ‘Cheating’ is not the breaking of some physiological law, but often is a time-tested way of helping one to complete any action which is difficult to manage in a certain range of movement. Cheating can take many forms, such as using momentum to propel a load through a ‘sticking point’, bouncing it on the body, recruiting stored elastic energy, executing only part of the movement, using synergistic muscle groups to aid the muscles which are struggling to complete the movement and using the flexibility of the equipment to flick the load through a difficult region. While cheating is to be discouraged as a regular way of training for novices, it should not be discouraged because of any belief that it is intrinsically unsafe, but because itis amore advanced technique to help during certain stages of a given movement. ‘The safe and unsafe ways of cheating need to be taught to all trainees and not condemned without a fair appraisal of the science and art of ‘cheating’. For example, cheat curls using a pronounced swaying and hyperextension of the trunk are potentially harmful, but if cheat curls implementing an upward knee- extension thrust from a partial squat position, then the risk of back injury is minimised. Often, cheatin, allows one to diminish the load where it might do the most harm, so sometimes it is safer to cheat throug! point of difficulty or increased risk. Cheating can also allow one to load muscles in a range which may be neglected if one relies solely on strict movements which force one to use a lighter load. Thus, technically correct ‘cheating’ can be an asset to ‘one's training repertoire. Conversely, unskilled or premature use of cheating can pose a real threat to safety and progress. Long breaks between exercises decrease their effectiveness On the contrary, long recovery intervals of several minutes’ duration are necessary between heavy exercises and if appropriately timed, produce a supercompensatory effect which allows one to produce superior increases in Rypertrophy, strength and power. The commercialised preoccupation with cardiovascular conditioning and minimal rest periods in circuit training facilities has promoted this fallacy to the extent that the use of optimal restoration intervals is often ignored by personal trainers. ‘Anyway, considerable research has shown that the use of continuous circuit training methods does not produce improvements in cardiovascular fitness which compare with those of continuous separate training routines devoted to aerobic conditioning alone (such as long duration running, swimming or cycling). If one insists on very short rest periods, then it is impossible to train against high resistance or produce significant improvements in hypertrophy, power, strength, speed or flexibility. This only allows one to concentrate on muscle endurance, which is only one of the many components of overall fitness. Even then, research shows that interval style training with regular rest periods of optimal length can produce comparable or even superior levels of endurance over ashorter period. Inadequate rest intervals during heavy training can also produce excessive fatigue and increase the likelihood of stagnation or injury. ‘The weight remains the same in any free weights exercise This is one of the fallacies often quoted by machine manufacturers to promote the sale of variable resistance machines. What is not pointed out is that the mass of the load, but not its weight, remains the same. Weight is the force exerted on a mass when it experiences the pull of gravity or any acceleration. As soon as ‘you move a load from rest, you accelerate it against gravity and its weight immediately increases, according to Newton's Second Law of Motion (Force = mass x acceleration). If the acceleration decreases, so does the weight. It is impossible for the weight to remain the same throughout the range of movement for any exercise, even when using ‘dynamic variable resistance’ or ‘isokinetic’ machines. Every exercise begins from rest and ends at rest, so there are always phases of acceleration and deceleration, and hence the weight and resistance vary all the time. The skilled trainee can actually vary the acceleration of the mass to produce the type of muscle contraction and muscle tension desired to produce a given training effect, a method that is generally known as CAT (Compensatory Acceleration Training). After all, it is not simply the weight or mass which determines the training effect, but also the tension in the muscle, the pattern of variations in tension, the involvement of the stretch reflexes, the use of elastic energy in connective tissues and the neuromuscular involved. The mechanical tension is a result of the moment or torque involved which is determined by the load, the perpendicular distance of the load from the joint and the acceleration produced by circular motion about the joint. 29Facts and Fallacies of Fitness ————— Your 1Rep Max is the constant maximum which you can lift over a given period ‘The maximum weight that one uses in a specific exercise is often regarded as fairly constant over a period of several days or months, even though most weight trainers know from experience that one’s ability to lift a Toad varies all the time. ‘This IRM (1 Rep Max) is frequently entered into computations for periodization charts which prescribe the exact intensity and volume that a given athlete should use over an extended period. In Olympic weightlifting or powerlifting, where one's 1RM is attained under strict competitive circumstances, this assumption of a fairly constant maximum may be reasonable for limited periods, but in the average client, it may be seriously misleading. This is why it can be extremely valuable to record one's RPE (Rating of Perceived Effort) for each exercise alongside the numerical features of the load (i.e. weight, sets and reps), This subjective rating invariably gives you more useful information than simply a recording of what weight was lifted. There is such a thing as muscle toning exercise The concept of toning is something akin to the concept of cellulite, something that was invented to stroke the fatness and aerobics anti-muscle market. The term is still very popular in the aerobics (should I now be politically correct and calll it ‘group fitness’ training?) world , where one always comes across at least one class a day being advertised in most gyms to offer "stretch and tone”. Somehow, "toning" is believed to be a lesser evil than strength or resistance training, or worse still, bodybuilding. Its magical qualities mean that muscles do not bulge or grow, but just become exquisitely honed and toned without strain and pain! Would someone kindly explain exactly what the real difference is between "toning" and muscle or resistance training? It is nothing more than training with incidental resistance that produces minimal muscle bulk, is it not? So, why not call it "light resistance training"? Itis interesting to point out that, after a certain period of Olympic lifting (and other forms of strength training), one’s muscle bulk remains constant for many years (since one continues to lift in the same bodymass division). In other words, once you have become an experienced lifter whose bodymass has stabilised in a given division, then no matter how heavy your training, you do not bulk up any more. This implies that competitive lifters are now simply doing “toning” exercise. Imagine that - our huge superheavyweight lifting friends, Aleyev and Reding, were doing “toning” training for all those years! Some of my older bodybuilding pals are sick and tired of all the "toning" that they have been doing for many months - they haven't built up for ages now and they have really been pushing the loads! It seems as iffa great deal of lifting and bodybuilding exercises sooner or later become “toning” exercises, irrespective of the loads and volumes that one may use! Postural Fallacies It is harmful to lean forwards during any squatting or lifting movements This belief is common among personal trainers and physiotherapists alike, yet proof that it is nonsense is easy to demonstrate. Try this test for yourself. Sit upright in a chair with your knees at right angles and your hands folded on your chest. Without leaning forwards or shifting your feet, try to stand up. You will find it an utter impossibility, because you have to lean forwards to shift your centre of gravity towards the middle of your foot in order to do so. Similarly, try to lift anything in front of you off the ground without leaning forward. Again a simple application of the law of moments from physics will show you why this is impossible. No matter what the experts claim, they are denying clear and simple evidence that you have to lean forwards at the hips if you wish to squat or lift anything from the ground. The only danger arises if you flex, rotate or relax your lumbar spine while executing these movements. It is easy to hyperextend the knees by locking them with your muscles The entire concept of hyperextension is far too casually applied. Accurately speaking, the term refers to an action which extends any joint beyond its normal extreme of range, where normality is determined by the action of the relevant muscles in executing the extension. Even maximal muscle contraction in vigorous ‘overhead Olympic jerks or push presses with heavy loads does not force the healthy knee intoFacts and Fallacies of Fitness hyperextension, so it is highly unlikely that the average client will ever be able to produce even greater fomes of extension than the world's strongest lifters. One cannot hyperextend the healthy knee joint by muscle action alone. Only if additional force is provided by momentum of an already moving limb or an utside agency does this become more likely. Naturally, if te cruciate ligaments are very lax or damaged, the risks of hyperextension under normal muscle action increase significantly. ‘The knees should never project ahead of the toes during any exercises This guideline has assumed the stature of a law in the aerobics world, yet the knees project far beyond the Bes au shay. other.pecting Activities such’ as: squatting fencing, karatesend. wrentn without being identified as a major cause of knee injury. Many aboriginal folk squat many times a day while carrying out their daily chores, while the Japanese sit on the floor with their knees folded fully flexed beneath them bearing all their bodyweight for prolonged periods daily without producing an epidemic of knee injuries. It is not knee flexion per se, but the manner of executing full range of motion knee action that causes injury. Certainly, if the muscles controlling knee action are relaxed during full flexion so that the ligaments and other non-contractile tissues are left to control the action, then the risks become far greater, especially if the knee tends to rotate medially and the actions take place very ballistically or erratically. It is harmful to lock the knees completely during squatting or aerobics ‘This was discussed earlier, but a few more words need to be added. Many clients complain that the medial head of their quadriceps (vastus medialis) is underdeveloped or that they are suffering from chondromalacia patellae (or patellofemoral pain syndrome), yet it is concerted action of vastus medialis which offers a solution to both of these problems. Muscularly controlled knee locking poses no problems for the knee, especially if the locking is performed more slowly during the last few degrees of extension. The discussion of the two issues immediately preceding this fallacy offers further relevant comment. Pronation is the chief cause of leg injuries during running and aerobics Here the authorities usually are referring to overpronation of the foot. Yet overpronation is a type of joint action which does not occur in the absence of other accompanying actions such as valgus (inwards tilting) or lateral rotation of the knees and hips. In fact, overpronation is often confused with eversion of the foot (which involves foot pronation, lateral rotation of the knee and dorsiflexion)and oversupination with ingersion (which involves foot supination, medial rotation of the knee and plantarflexion) of the foot. Overpronation is impossible without simultaneous facilitating joint actions such as knee flexion and valgus or lateral rotation. Test this for yourself: try to roll your foot inwards with your knees and hips locked in a standing position. You will note that only minimal pronation and not overpronation is at all possible. The concept of overpronation injuries needs to be seriously re-examined and replaced by a more accurate understanding of the lower extremity as a linked system of several articulating joints which produces a ‘multi-dimensional foot action known as inversion. Even if we focus on the concept of pronation alone, it is important to record the comfortable neutral standing position of the individual. This neutral stance places the feet parallel to one another in some people, externally rotated in others and internally rotated (‘pigeon-toed’) in the remainder. The effects of pronation are very different in each case, with the externally rotated leg producing the greatest stress on the medial menisci and medial collateral ligaments of the knee, as well as increasing the impact loading on the shins during running. Thus, if overpronation is to be discussed, there are many other basic factors such as individual neutrality and normal ranges of joint motion which have to be considered first. It is also highly relevant to note that all athletic shoes tend to increase one's tendency to pronate. At best, the most corrected shoes can approximate the far more efficient foot actions which are possible in the barefooted human. ‘The stomach must be pulled in during exercise in order to stabilise the trunk ‘This fallacy can prove to be potentially dangerous advice during heavy lifting, because, if the inward pull tends to flex the spine or reduce the degree of intra-abdominal pressure, it can achieve exactly the opposite ‘of what should be done. The dynamic role of the abdominal muscles (as opposed to their static stabilising role) is to flex the trunk forwards, which is the last thing you want to happen when you are doing almost any exercise except situps. You usually do not have to consciously do anything to the abdominals when you 31Facts and Fallacies of Fitness —V—_————H are exercising, since they will do naturally and reflexively what they are meant to do, namely to resist the increased intra-abdominal pressure when you use the Valsalva manoeuvre during any strenuous lifting. The correct advice is to contract the erector spinae to stabilise the spine during lifting, forget about the abdominals, and briefly hold one's breath during the most demanding phases of any exercise against resistance. It is important to keep the back straight during all exercise Here the sentiments are correct, but the terminology is somewhat imprecise. What is intended is that you should not flex the lumbar spine forwards (i.e. use posterior pelvic tilt!) during actions such as lifting or squatting. If you intentionally kept the back entirely straight (if this were somehow possible!) you would banish its three natural curvatures and make it far less capable of withstanding any longitudinal stress. What you really have to do is to try to oppose any tendency to significantly round the lower spine during exercise, an action which is directly related to the position of the pelvis (the issue of pelvic tilt is discussed later). What you have to do during exercise is to minimise any deviations of the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spinal curvatures from their unloaded neutral positions. Neck extension or rotation is always potentially harmful We are frequently warned, by aerobics instructors in particular, never to extend the neck backwards or rotate it in circles, since this is presumed to cause damage to the delicate structures of the cervical spine. While ‘whiplash’ neck injuries, high paralysis and even death can be caused by sudden or excessive movement of the cervical spine during motor, sporting and other accidents, the muscularly controlled motion of the same regions of the spine has never been shown to cause injury. It is only when the head is thrown vigorously from one position to another or forcefully rotated by use of large momentum, without control by the muscles, that injury can occur. Normal sporting or work activities often require the head to be extended backwards or rotated quickly to enable the eyes in particular to focus on a given object, for instance during catching, striking, throwing , somersaulting, diving or falling, and only very rarely does this result even in muscle strain. The neck is designed to be able to rotate, flex and extend as a part of its normal daily function. Like any other parts of the body, damage occurs to the neck only when excessive or abnormal stress or strain is imposed upon it. ‘Supporting the head with the hands during situps reduces neck strain This widespread fallacy is advocated by almost every aerobics instructor or personal trainer, but this is precisely one of the actions which increases neck strain. Before you dismiss this as heresy, ask yourself why ‘most neck strain caused during situps occurs in the muscles at the back of the neck and not the front. After all, it is the muscles at the front of the neck (the sternocleidomastoid muscles), not the back of the neck, which ‘support the head during situps! Prove this for yourself - place your hands on the muscles on either side of the front of your neck during situps and note how contracted they are. If now you place the your hands behind your head, these muscles tend to relax, while those behind the neck tend to tighten up! Feel them for yourself with your thumbs and convince yourself. You might declare that you do situps with your fingers 1 put my hands behind my head,) lightly aching the ep, your head. Well, that still bent my knees, tilted my pelvis, | tenses the trapezius muscles at the base of your neck, so you pulled my abs in and LOOK have once again increased the strain in muscles behind the head or upper shoulders. One way of decreasing the tension in the muscles at the back of your neck is to press firmly, with your fingers on your forehead, exactly the opposite of what everyone is telling you! This action, however, will still tense the trapezii. If you want to minimise the strain on the muscles at the back of the head and in the upper shoulders, simply keep your arms at your sides and slide your outstretched fingers along your sides as you curl upwards during your situps - and let your head rest briefly on the mat between every repetition. Who ever said you obtain a better training effect by keeping your neck in permanent tension throughout a set of situps? Anyway, situps or crunches aren't even the best way of strengthening the abdominals, but that's another story! (see Ch 15). 4 32Facts and Fallacies of Fitness 5. SOME MORE DISSECTIONS In the last chapter we examined some of the more basic issues which are encountered in aerobics, weights and general fitness classes. We are now better prepared to analyse some of the more specific issues which concern the various means, methods and techniques of exercise. Here we select more of the fallacies listed in Chapter 2 for our attention, in particular those relating to: ‘+ Warming up and Flexibility * General Popular Exercises * Aerobics Classes + Resistance Exercise ‘+ Equipment and Apparel * Special Populations Fallacies of Warming up and Stretching It is always essential to warm up before all exercise Warming up is acknowledged to prepare the body for exercise by raising muscle temperature and increasing the efficiency of subsequent movement, but energy spent on non-functional general warming up activities may fatigue the athlete and hinder performance. For example, is it really necessary for a distance runner, swimmer or cyclist to expend effort before a very long duration event by warming up? Surely the early less competitive stages of the event more than adequately serve as a warm-up? It is a good idea to appreciate that there are two discrete types of warm-up: general and specific. A general warm-up uses a wide variety of actions to prepare the body as a whole for exercise, to increase muscle temperature and to stimulate the right pre-exercise mood. A specific warm-up relies on the actual exercises of the training session performed easily with lighter loads to provide a highly specific warm-up and neuromuscular preparatory phase. So, if a specific warm-up is used, the first set or so serves the necessary preparatory purpose and no separate warm-up is necessary before the main workout. Every exercise is preceded by a few specific light preparatory repetitions or sets and no general warm-up is necessary. Haven't you ever wondered why many folk warm-up for circuit or weight training by cycling or light jogging, then go on to execute upper body exercises using muscles that were not prepared in the warm-up? Is this logical or necessary? Moreover, who decreed that a warm-up should ever be entirely separate from the main workout? It probably is preferable to think of any workout as comprising a General Preparation Phase (GPP), a Special Preparation Phase (SPP) and a Main Conditioning Phase (MCP), thus providing a microcyclic equivalent of the planning of a macrocycle in long-term periodisation. One may then decide on the individualised proportion of GPP and SPP in any given workout for a specific athlete. Aerobic exercise offers the best form of warm-up before exercise This fallacy constitutes an age-old tradition that is followed by almost everyone before any sporting activity, yet this may lower necessary energy reserves and decrease the ability of the muscles to produce maximal efforts in sports requiring the production of great power, strength, speed or fine motor control. While it has been shown that muscles operate most efficiently over a certain elevated temperature range, aerobic warmups are often carried beyond this point. Aerobic warmups are used mainly because they involve the large locomotor muscles of the lower body, but there are other ways of warming up the same muscles without involving any aerobic exercise. For example, a few well-controlled squats can achieve the same effect, while a specific warm-up using the actual competitive exercises at low intensity and over a gradually increasing range of motion is even more effective (see discussion of the preceding fallacy). Ironically, vast numbers of fitness ‘freaks’ begin their circuit training workouts with several minutes on fixed cycles, an activity which not only neglects the preparation of the upper body, but also provides the inappropriate type of warmup for the resistance work which follows. Stretching always reduces the risk of injury Stretching on its own, especially in its traditional form of statically held exercises, is not a type of preparatory activity intended to prevent injury. In fact, inappropriate stretching activities of unnecessary 33