Física del Cosmos: Lecture II

The Equivalence Principle

Kostas Glampedakis

2019-20
 This lecture
• We introduce and discuss the Equivalence Principle which is a
foundational principle of the General Relativity theory.
weak EP

}z{|
EP Einstein’s EP
strong EP
• The EP is related to the notion of free fall in a gravitational field, the
geodesics of curved spacetime and how the laws of physics are perceived
by different observers.

• We will see how the notion of an inertial frame becomes local and discuss
the general Relativity Principle (or principle of general covariance).

• Finally, we discuss two important physical consequences of the EP:

bending of light and gravitational frequency shift.
 The special nature of gravity
• In defining an inertial frame one has to look for a force-free situation
(so that Newton’s first law is valid).

• This is easy to achieve in the case of electromagnetic forces:

one simply has to use bodies that carry no electric charge.
This can be seen from the Coulomb law formula:

Qq q Q
F = 2 ) a=
r m r2
• In the case of the gravitational field this is not possible since all bodies are
affected by gravity. Moreover, the corresponding gravitational acceleration
is independent of mass. Therefore it cannot be eliminated by letting the
mass go to zero.
GM m GM
F = ) a= 2
r2 r
Galileo’s free fall experiments

electromagnetism
gravity
 The three masses
• From a conceptual point of view, Newtonian physics allows for three
distinct types of mass:

1. Inertial mass mI (the mass appearing in Newton’s second law)

2. Active gravitational mass mAG (the mass acting as the

source of the body’s gravitational field)
3. Passive gravitational mass mPG (the mass coupling to an exterior
gravitational field)
(mI )1 a1 = (mPG )1 g2
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r̂ ✓ ◆
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G(mAG )2 G(mAG )2
g2 = r 2 = r = 2
r̂
g2
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r r
(mPG )1 G(mAG )2
) a1 = 2
r̂
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(mI )1 r
 Newton’s equivalence principle
• The three masses express completely different properties and, in principle,
one would expect them to be unequal.

• The equality of the masses is an axiom in Newtonian theory (and it has

been verified experimentally to a very high precision).

Newtonian equivalence principle: mI = mPG = mAG

• Free fall in Newtonian physics is universal if and only if the three masses
are the same:

mI = mPG = mAG , free fall motion is universal

• In GR, as a consequence of the EP, the three masses turn out to be equal.
• Other alternative relativistic theories of gravity in general predict unequal
masses, and as a consequence violate the EP (see discussion below).
 Universality of free fall
mI = mPG = mAG , free fall motion is universal

• The universality of free fall is usually called Galileo’s principle:

In a given gravitational field the path in space and time of a test body is
fully determined by its initial position and velocity. In particular, the path
is independent of the body’s mass and composition ( a “test body” is a body
with a negligible effect on the background gravitational field )

• In other words, the motion is fully described by:

ẍ = g = rr x0 = x(t = 0), v0 = ẋ(t = 0)

• In Newtonian theory the universality of free fall (or the equality of inertial
and gravitational mass) is taken as an axiom, without additional insight.
 Gravity as Geometry: geodesics
• Contemplating the mystery of Galileo’s principle, one could suggest:
A property of curved spacetime,
universality of free fall , rather than a property of mass

• At the same time we know from differential geometry that a surface, or a

more general “spacetime”, has one natural set of “rails”: the geodesics.

• Geodesics are straightest paths between two fixed spacetime points.

• There is a unique geodesic at a spacetime point and at a given direction.

 The Weak Equivalence Principle
• In General Relativity one abandons the notion of a gravitational force.
Instead, the notion of a curved spacetime is used.
M
m
The interaction between a big mass M and a
small body of mass m is described as the
motion of m in the spacetime curved by M.

• The motion of m is independent of its mass and composition because it

follows the geodesic “rails” of the curved spacetime.

• Galileo’s principle of the universality of free fall is now called the weak
equivalence principle and makes no reference to any mass.

WEP: The motion of a non-spinning test body (=body with negligible self-
gravity) is independent of its properties (i.e. mass, composition)
 Inertial forces
• Newton’s laws are modified in a accelerating (non-inertial) reference frame.

• For example, in a frame rotating with angular velocity Ω Newton’s 2nd law is
modified by the inclusion of the centrifugal and Coriolis inertial forces:

In F (inertial frame): ma = F
0
In F´(non-inertial frame): ma = F + Finertial
Finertial = m [ 2⌦ ⇥ v0 ⌦ ⇥ (⌦ ⇥ x0 ) ]
• These forces are “fictitious” in the sense that they appear due to the fact that
we are in a non-inertial frame. The key property of all inertial forces is that
they are always proportional to the body’s mass. This is also a property of the
gravitational force.

• Is there a deeper connection between gravitational and inertial forces ?

 Apparent gravitational fields (I)
• Consider a static homogeneous gravitational field (as would be Earth’s field
when observed over sufficiently small regions). In this field a body of mass m
would feel a gravitational force:

GM m
Fgrav = 2
ẑ = mgẑ
R

• Next, consider a region without gravity and in it

an elevator (our laboratory!) moving with
acceleration a = aẑ . In the reference frame of
the elevator a body would feel an inertial force:
Finertial = ma = maẑ
• The accelerating observer would see an apparent
gravitational field with g = a = aẑ .

• For a = g the accelerating frame is equivalent to

the static homogeneous gravitational field.
 Apparent gravitational fields (II)

As seen in the inertial frame:

As seen in the elevator frame:

 Einstein’s Equivalence Principle
• Having established the equivalence between inertial forces and homogeneous
gravitational fields, we consider a freely falling elevator in a static homogene-
ous gravitational field. This is Einstein’s famous elevator thought experiment.

• The elevator’s frame has acceleration a = g and Newton’s 2nd law becomes:
mẍ0 = Fgrav + Finert = m(g a) = 0
• Gravity has been effectively “cancelled” g
and the freely falling frame has become
an inertial frame!
• This equivalence between inertial and
gravitational forces is encapsulated in
Einstein’s Equivalence Principle.

EEP: A homogeneous gravitational field is physically equivalent to

uniform acceleration in gravity-free space.
 Einstein’s elevator in action!

NASA’s “zero-gravity” astronaut training in a “freely falling” aircraft

 Local inertial frames
• The equivalence ‘freely falling frame= inertial frame’ is a local notion.
• This is because gravitational fields are never completely homogeneous.
Imagining a large freely falling Einstein elevator, free bodies in it will be
observed to move relative to each other. The inertial forces cannot
completely eliminate an inhomogeneous gravitational field.
• In this sense, we can now distinguish between apparent gravitational fields
(=the homogeneous ones) and true gravitational fields (these cannot
be completely cancelled by inertial forces).
 Curvature & local inertial frames (I)
• In General Relativity the gravitational field is represented by a curved space-
time with metric g↵ . The criterion for the presence of gravity at a given
point is a non-zero curvature at that point.

• The spacetime curvature is encoded in the Riemann tensor R↵

(this is the generalization of the Gaussian curvature K of 2-D surfaces).

R↵ 6= 0 () gravitational field

• Homogeneous gravitational fields have R↵ = 0. This implies that such

fields are not “real gravity”.
 Curvature & local inertial frames (II)
• From differential geometry we know that the local neighbourhood of point
on a curved surface can be approximated by a plane. In a similar way a curved
spacetime can be locally approximated by a flat spacetime (i.e. the Minkowski
metric of Special Relativity).

• We can quantify the notion of “local”: the spatial size D of the local inertial
frame is much smaller that the typical scale L of the gravitational field,
. ↵
R ⇠ 1/L2 . Hence, in a region D << L the field is almost homogeneous
and can be “cancelled out” by inertial forces.
D⌧L
}z{|

local inertial frame g ↵ = ⌘↵

@g↵
g↵ , = =0
@x
• This local inertial frame is the frame of a freely falling observer at the given
spacetime point (i.e. a local Einstein elevator).
 The EEP restated
• We can actually define inertial frames as the local freely falling frames at any
spacetime point. This definition replaces the global inertial frames of Special
Relativity (but includes them in the limiting case of a flat spacetime).

• These local inertial frames are, in general, accelerated with respect to each
other (whereas in Special Relativity inertial frames move with constant
velocity with respect to each other).

• We can now offer a more careful statement of Einstein’s EP based on the

notion of local inertial frames instead of the unrealistic homogeneous-static
gravitational fields.
EEP (modern version): the physics in any suitably local inertial frame
is that of Special Relativity and no measurement in this frame can
reveal the existence of gravity locally. In other words, the outcome of
non-gravitational experiments performed by a freely-falling apparatus
is independent of the apparatus’ spacetime position and velocity.
 The Strong Equivalence Principle (I)
• The Strong Equivalence Principle generalises both the WEP and EEP.

SEP: (i) The free motion of a non-spinning body (self-gravitating or not)

at any point in spacetime is independent of its mass, internal
structure, composition.

(ii) Locally and at any point of spacetime physics is that of Special

Relativity and is not affected by the presence of a gravitational field.
The outcome of any local non-gravitational or gravitational
experiment by a freely falling apparatus is independent of the
spacetime location and motion of the apparatus.

✓ ◆
• In terms of inertial and gravitational mass, in general MPG EG
=1+⌘
MI M c2
The SEP implies η=0 (as is the situation in GR)
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body’s gravitational
4 EG = self-energy
Current experimental limit ⌘ ⇡ 10
 Physics is the same for all observers
• General relativity asserts that the laws of physics are the same relative to all
frames (=all observers), inertial or accelerated alike. This is the general
Relativity Principle (also called principle of general covariance).

• In practice, this requirement is accomplished by formulating all physical

laws/equations in a tensorial form. In such case we speak of “covariant
equations” or “covariant theories”.

• An example of the covariant (=tensorial) way of writing equations is the

expression for geodesic motion (this will be discussed in detail later!):
µ
⌫ µ du µ ↵
u r⌫ u = + ↵ u u =0
d⌧
µ
dx µ 1 µ
where uµ = and ↵ = g [g ,↵ + g↵ , g↵ , ]
d⌧ 2
 Physical consequences of the EP
• There are two very important physical effects that follow directly from the
EP without making any reference to the field equations of General Relativity.

Bending of light

}z{|
Equivalence Principle =)
Gravitational frequency shift/
time dilation

• Both effects can be revealed by using Einstein’s elevator thought

experiment and are discussed in the following slides.
 Gravity bends light (I)
• Consider an Einstein elevator initially at rest in a gravity-free region.
A light ray is seen to propagate along a straight line (the elevator is an
inertial frame).

• Subsequently, the elevator is accelerated upwards as in the figure.

Relative to the initial fixed inertial frame, light still propagates along a
straight line.
 Gravity bends light (II)
• Due to the relative motion between the light beam and the elevator, the
trajectory of light with respect to the elevator bends downwards.

• According to the EP, the accelerated frame is

indistinguishable from a homogeneous gravity field.

• Therefore, relative to an observer at rest in a

homogeneous gravitational field, the light beam
is deflected downwards. Gravity attracts light!
 Bending of light: rigorous analysis (I)
• Lets study the previous thought experiment in more detail. Our goal is to
derive a formula for the light deflection angle as seen in the accelerated
frame (=equivalent to a uniform gravitational field g pointing downwards)

• Our calculation is quasi-Newtonian, the only “piece” of relativity is the

universality of the light speed c.

0
y0 = 0 y=0
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y
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x0
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inertial frame F´
accelerated frame F
 Bending of light: rigorous analysis (II)
• As seen in F´, the light beam travels along a straight horizontal line:
0 0 0
x = ct
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y = const. = 0
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• As seen in F, the light beam falls a vertical distance y at a time t = t0 : <latexit sha1_base64="cX5BUa9PW4uJ8Si3kCkgZWhdc7o=">AAAB8XicbVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69BIvgqSQi6EUoevFYwX5gG8tmO2mX7m7C7kQoof/CiwdFvPpvvPlv3LY5aOuDgcd7M8zMCxPBDXret1NYWV1b3yhulra2d3b3yvsHTROnmkGDxSLW7ZAaEFxBAzkKaCcaqAwFtMLRzdRvPYE2PFb3OE4gkHSgeMQZRSs94BU+dhPNJfTKFa/qzeAuEz8nFZKj3it/dfsxSyUoZIIa0/G9BIOMauRMwKTUTQ0klI3oADqWKirBBNns4ol7YpW+G8XalkJ3pv6eyKg0ZixD2ykpDs2iNxX/8zopRpdBxlWSIig2XxSlwsXYnb7v9rkGhmJsCWWa21tdNqSaMrQhlWwI/uLLy6R5VvW9qn93Xqld53EUyRE5JqfEJxekRm5JnTQII4o8k1fy5hjnxXl3PuatBSefOSR/4Hz+AJh7kNo=</latexit>

0 1 2 1 2 x x2 g not a
y=y gt = gt with t = ) y(x) = straight line!
2 2 c 2c2
<latexit sha1_base64="E+ql3SgwjIInsFzh7/ZNPWlwHRk=">AAAB8nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69BIvgqSQi6LHoxWMVWwtpKJvtpl262Q27E6WE/gwvHhTx6q/x5r9x2+agrQ8GHu/NMDMvSgU36HnfTmlldW19o7xZ2dre2d2r7h+0jco0ZS2qhNKdiBgmuGQt5ChYJ9WMJJFgD9Hoeuo/PDJtuJL3OE5ZmJCB5DGnBK0UdO/4YIhEa/XUq9a8ujeDu0z8gtSgQLNX/er2Fc0SJpEKYkzgeymGOdHIqWCTSjczLCV0RAYssFSShJkwn508cU+s0ndjpW1JdGfq74mcJMaMk8h2JgSHZtGbiv95QYbxZZhzmWbIJJ0vijPhonKn/7t9rhlFMbaEUM3trS4dEk0o2pQqNgR/8eVl0j6r+17dvz2vNa6KOMpwBMdwCj5cQANuoAktoKDgGV7hzUHnxXl3PuatJaeYOYQ/cD5/AJEbkW0=</latexit>
<latexit

<latexit sha1_base64="w9SkPBZ1ufa4vOdS/mL7bo3n/aY=">AAACHHicbZDLSgMxFIYz9VbrbdSlm2AR3FhmqqAboejGZQV7gc60ZNJMG5pkhiQjDEMfxI2v4saFIm5cCL6NaTsL23og8PP953By/iBmVGnH+bEKK6tr6xvFzdLW9s7unr1/0FRRIjFp4IhFsh0gRRgVpKGpZqQdS4J4wEgrGN1O/NYjkYpG4kGnMfE5GggaUoy0QT37PIXXMO16saScwDMvlAhn7jirjuEA6m7VuPPQsJ5ddirOtOCycHNRBnnVe/aX149wwonQmCGlOq4Taz9DUlPMyLjkJYrECI/QgHSMFIgT5WfT48bwxJA+DCNpntBwSv9OZIgrlfLAdHKkh2rRm8D/vE6iwys/oyJONBF4tihMGNQRnCQF+1QSrFlqBMKSmr9CPEQmCm3yLJkQ3MWTl0WzWnGdint/Ua7d5HEUwRE4BqfABZegBu5AHTQABk/gBbyBd+vZerU+rM9Za8HKZw7BXFnfv2lGn7I=</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="Y6u0kT4eZk55t3f3FqU5JFAOyFE=">AAACA3icbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqDvdDBahLixJEHQjFN24rGAf0KZlMp20QyeTMDORhhBw46+4caGIW3/CnX/jtM1CqwcuHM65l3vv8SJGpbKsL6OwtLyyulZcL21sbm3vmLt7TRnGApMGDlko2h6ShFFOGooqRtqRICjwGGl54+up37onQtKQ36kkIm6Ahpz6FCOlpb55kFQmJ/ASnnZ9gXA66TlwmKUO7jlZ3yxbVWsG+JfYOSmDHPW++dkdhDgOCFeYISk7thUpN0VCUcxIVurGkkQIj9GQdDTlKCDSTWc/ZPBYKwPoh0IXV3Cm/pxIUSBlEni6M0BqJBe9qfif14mVf+GmlEexIhzPF/kxgyqE00DggAqCFUs0QVhQfSvEI6TDUDq2kg7BXnz5L2k6Vduq2rdn5dpVHkcRHIIjUAE2OAc1cAPqoAEweABP4AW8Go/Gs/FmvM9bC0Y+sw9+wfj4BpnJljc=</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="8fL7yZ8Wg9LLgedBb08d8X7/+w4=">AAAB9XicbVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSJ4KokIehGKXjxWsB/Q1rLZbtqlm03Ynagl5H948aCIV/+LN/+N2zYHbX0w8Hhvhpl5fiyFQdf9dpaWV1bX1gsbxc2t7Z3d0t5+w0SJZrzOIhnplk8Nl0LxOgqUvBVrTkNf8qY/up74zQeujYjUHY5j3g3pQIlAMIpWukdy2Qk0ZelTlrKsVyq7FXcKski8nJQhR61X+ur0I5aEXCGT1Ji258bYTalGwSTPip3E8JiyER3wtqWKhtx00+nVGTm2Sp8EkbalkEzV3xMpDY0Zh77tDCkOzbw3Ef/z2gkGF91UqDhBrthsUZBIghGZRED6QnOGcmwJZVrYWwkbUpsC2qCKNgRv/uVF0jiteG7Fuz0rV6/yOApwCEdwAh6cQxVuoAZ1YKDhGV7hzXl0Xpx352PWuuTkMwfwB87nD6ZAkpo=</latexit>

• The curvature κ of this trajectory is given by the familiar formula:

y 00 (x) g g for a light ray
= = (at x=0) = cos ✓ with slope θ in F´
[1 + y 0 (x)2 ]3/2
<latexit sha1_base64="uRXKlLOLRhaqY4jbDEre3XXZXLY=">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</latexit>
c2 <latexit sha1_base64="F3rrmXRxJEZX7KIXz23ss1O6iu8=">AAACDHicbVC7SgNBFJ31GeMramkzGAQbw24QtBGCNpYRzAOyMdydzCZDZh/M3BXCsh9g46/YWChi6wfY+TdOki008cDA4ZxzuXOPF0uh0ba/raXlldW19cJGcXNre2e3tLff1FGiGG+wSEaq7YHmUoS8gQIlb8eKQ+BJ3vJG1xO/9cCVFlF4h+OYdwMYhMIXDNBIvVLZHUEcA72kp9T1FbB0kKXsvppRl0XaxSFHMCm7Yk9BF4mTkzLJUe+Vvtx+xJKAh8gkaN1x7Bi7KSgUTPKs6Caax8BGMOAdQ0MIuO6m02MyemyUPvUjZV6IdKr+nkgh0HoceCYZAA71vDcR//M6CfoX3VSEcYI8ZLNFfiIpRnTSDO0LxRnKsSHAlDB/pWwIphI0/RVNCc78yYukWa04dsW5PSvXrvI6CuSQHJET4pBzUiM3pE4ahJFH8kxeyZv1ZL1Y79bHLLpk5TMH5A+szx+SuJqx</latexit>
c 2

• The deflection angle a is tiny, so we can approximately write:

|y| xg
↵ ⇡ tan ↵ = = 2
x 2c
<latexit sha1_base64="HtvaQRSzt4MAyYJ8euKvUhYZ9vI=">AAACJHicbVDLSgMxFM3Ud31VXboJFsFVmSmCggiiG5cKthU6tdxJM21oJhOSjLSM8zFu/BU3Lnzgwo3fYloH0dYDF07OuZfcewLJmTau++EUZmbn5hcWl4rLK6tr66WNzbqOE0VojcQ8VtcBaMqZoDXDDKfXUlGIAk4bQf9s5DduqdIsFldmKGkrgq5gISNgrNQuHfnAZQ+wD1KqeIB9AyKXjrEfKiDp3fAuSwfZz3vQzdIqualm7VLZrbhj4Gni5aSMcly0S69+JyZJRIUhHLRueq40rRSUYYTTrOgnmkogfejSpqUCIqpb6fjIDO9apYPDWNkSBo/V3xMpRFoPo8B2RmB6etIbif95zcSEh62UCZkYKsj3R2HCsYnxKDHcYYoSw4eWAFHM7opJD2wSxuZatCF4kydPk3q14rkV73K/fHKax7GIttEO2kMeOkAn6BxdoBoi6B49omf04jw4T86b8/7dWnDymS30B87nF22vpUk=</latexit>
 Gravitational time dilation/frequency shift (I)

• Let F be an inertial frame and F´an accelerated frame (i.e. a “rocket”) moving
along the z-axis. Light signals are sent and received by fixed points in F´(e.g.
from the rocket’s nose and tail). Equivalence principle: F´ is equivalent to a
uniform gravitational field.
t
• The rocket’s motion is assumed non- D S
relativistic, g is its constant acceleration.
d⌧D
t1 2
• S = light source: 1

1 2 F d⌧S
zS (t) = h + gt
2 0 z
h
• D = light detector:
light ray 1: emitted at t = 0 , received at t = t1
1 2
zD (t) = gt
2 light ray 2: emitted at t = d⌧S , received at t = t1 + d⌧D
 Gravitational time dilation/frequency shift (II)

• Light ray 1:
zS (0) zD (t1 ) = ct1

• Light ray 2: zS (d⌧S ) zD (t1 + d⌧D ) = c ( t1 + d⌧D d⌧S )

we have omitted
1 2
terms of order
|{z}

h gt1 = ct1
2
) O(d⌧S2 , d⌧D
2
)
1 2
h gt1 gt1 d⌧D = c ( t1 + d⌧D d⌧S ) we also assume
2
gh/c2 ⌧ 1
• Subtract these two equations and then use the top one to obtain:
t1 ⇡ h/c

gravitational frequency
d⌧D gh gravitational ⌫S gh
) ⇡1 ⇡1 shift (blueshift for
d⌧S c2 time dilation ⌫D c2 downward, redshift for
upward propagation)
 Incompatibility of gravity and SR

• The following argument by Schild

demonstrates the incompatibility of z2
special relativity and gravity.
<latexit sha1_base64="ZzKjtcJFGu2OAJipvjC2jutANLY=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSJ4KkkV9Fj04rGi/YA2lM120y7dbMLuRKihP8GLB0W8+ou8+W/ctjlo64OBx3szzMwLEikMuu63s7K6tr6xWdgqbu/s7u2XDg6bJk414w0Wy1i3A2q4FIo3UKDk7URzGgWSt4LRzdRvPXJtRKwecJxwP6IDJULBKFrp/qlX7ZXKbsWdgSwTLydlyFHvlb66/ZilEVfIJDWm47kJ+hnVKJjkk2I3NTyhbEQHvGOpohE3fjY7dUJOrdInYaxtKSQz9fdERiNjxlFgOyOKQ7PoTcX/vE6K4ZWfCZWkyBWbLwpTSTAm079JX2jOUI4toUwLeythQ6opQ5tO0YbgLb68TJrVindeqd5dlGvXeRwFOIYTOAMPLqEGt1CHBjAYwDO8wpsjnRfn3fmYt644+cwR/IHz+QMRjo2n</latexit>

z1
<latexit sha1_base64="ao7YOVG3tXfGNeBI4fV/EOPiPPI=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSJ4KkkV9Fj04rGi/YA2lM120i7dbMLuRqihP8GLB0W8+ou8+W/ctjlo64OBx3szzMwLEsG1cd1vZ2V1bX1js7BV3N7Z3dsvHRw2dZwqhg0Wi1i1A6pRcIkNw43AdqKQRoHAVjC6mfqtR1Sax/LBjBP0IzqQPOSMGivdP/W8XqnsVtwZyDLxclKGHPVe6avbj1kaoTRMUK07npsYP6PKcCZwUuymGhPKRnSAHUsljVD72ezUCTm1Sp+EsbIlDZmpvycyGmk9jgLbGVEz1IveVPzP66QmvPIzLpPUoGTzRWEqiInJ9G/S5wqZEWNLKFPc3krYkCrKjE2naEPwFl9eJs1qxTuvVO8uyrXrPI4CHMMJnIEHl1CDW6hDAxgM4Ble4c0Rzovz7nzMW1ecfOYI/sD5/AEQCo2m</latexit>

• Assume a uniform static gravitational field (direction z) in Minkowski

spacetime. A signal is sent vertically upwards from z1 to z2 = z1 + h at <latexit sha1_base64="ao7YOVG3tXfGNeBI4fV/EOPiPPI=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSJ4KkkV9Fj04rGi/YA2lM120i7dbMLuRqihP8GLB0W8+ou8+W/ctjlo64OBx3szzMwLEsG1cd1vZ2V1bX1js7BV3N7Z3dsvHRw2dZwqhg0Wi1i1A6pRcIkNw43AdqKQRoHAVjC6mfqtR1Sax/LBjBP0IzqQPOSMGivdP/W8XqnsVtwZyDLxclKGHPVe6avbj1kaoTRMUK07npsYP6PKcCZwUuymGhPKRnSAHUsljVD72ezUCTm1Sp+EsbIlDZmpvycyGmk9jgLbGVEz1IveVPzP66QmvPIzLpPUoGTzRWEqiInJ9G/S5wqZEWNLKFPc3krYkCrKjE2naEPwFl9eJs1qxTuvVO8uyrXrPI4CHMMJnIEHl1CDW6hDAxgM4Ble4c0Rzovz7nzMW1ecfOYI/sD5/AEQCo2m</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="ESlZ50sl9AHwbKQG1xldw/5WKEk=">AAAB9HicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBZBEErSCnoRil48VrAf0Iaw2W7apZtN3N0U2tDf4cWDIl79Md78N27bHLT1wcDjvRlm5vkxZ0rb9reVW1vf2NzKbxd2dvf2D4qHR00VJZLQBol4JNs+VpQzQRuaaU7bsaQ49Dlt+cO7md8aUalYJB71OKZuiPuCBYxgbSR34lXQDZp4DrpAA69Yssv2HGiVOBkpQYa6V/zq9iKShFRowrFSHceOtZtiqRnhdFroJorGmAxxn3YMFTikyk3nR0/RmVF6KIikKaHRXP09keJQqXHom84Q64Fa9mbif14n0cG1mzIRJ5oKslgUJBzpCM0SQD0mKdF8bAgmkplbERlgiYk2ORVMCM7yy6ukWSk71XLl4bJUu83iyMMJnMI5OHAFNbiHOjSAwBM8wyu8WSPrxXq3PhatOSubOYY/sD5/AChSkGU=</latexit>

times t1 and t2 = t1 + ⌧bot . Under the influence of gravity the photons

<latexit sha1_base64="Ynqb8X5/kiOyHX7xonGGLyOZ6hM=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0mqoMeiF48V7Qe0oWy2m3bpZhN2J0IJ/QlePCji1V/kzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekEhh0HW/ncLa+sbmVnG7tLO7t39QPjxqmTjVjDdZLGPdCajhUijeRIGSdxLNaRRI3g7GtzO//cS1EbF6xEnC/YgOlQgFo2ilB+x7/XLFrbpzkFXi5aQCORr98ldvELM04gqZpMZ0PTdBP6MaBZN8WuqlhieUjemQdy1VNOLGz+anTsmZVQYkjLUthWSu/p7IaGTMJApsZ0RxZJa9mfif100xvPYzoZIUuWKLRWEqCcZk9jcZCM0ZyokllGlhbyVsRDVlaNMp2RC85ZdXSatW9S6qtfvLSv0mj6MIJ3AK5+DBFdThDhrQBAZDeIZXeHOk8+K8Ox+L1oKTzxzDHzifPwbmjaA=</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="UMGGE4naCdXh9C+kwCnqQEWgf3o=">AAACA3icbVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/ot70slgEQShJFfQiFL14rGA/oAlhs922SzfZsDsRSih48a948aCIV/+EN/+N2zYHbX0w8Hhvhpl5YSK4Bsf5tgpLyyura8X10sbm1vaOvbvX1DJVlDWoFFK1Q6KZ4DFrAAfB2oliJAoFa4XDm4nfemBKcxnfwyhhfkT6Me9xSsBIgX0AQRVfYQhcfIo9IGmQeSrCoYRxYJedijMFXiRuTsooRz2wv7yupGnEYqCCaN1xnQT8jCjgVLBxyUs1Swgdkj7rGBqTiGk/m/4wxsdG6eKeVKZiwFP190RGIq1HUWg6IwIDPe9NxP+8Tgq9Sz/jcZICi+lsUS8VGCSeBIK7XDEKYmQIoYqbWzEdEEUomNhKJgR3/uVF0qxW3LNK9e68XLvO4yiiQ3SETpCLLlAN3aI6aiCKHtEzekVv1pP1Yr1bH7PWgpXP7KM/sD5/AJ+glkE=</latexit>

move along the spacetime curves 1 , 2 . <latexit sha1_base64="M1aSC3DXbtf7RsTNebb+hBO0VrY=">AAAB+3icbZDLSgMxFIYz9VbrbaxLN8EiuJAyUwVdFt24rGAv0A7DmTTThiaZIcmIpfRV3LhQxK0v4s63MW1noa0/BD7+cw7n5I9SzrTxvG+nsLa+sblV3C7t7O7tH7iH5ZZOMkVokyQ8UZ0INOVM0qZhhtNOqiiIiNN2NLqd1duPVGmWyAczTmkgYCBZzAgYa4VuuTcAISD0z3FOtdCteFVvLrwKfg4VlKsRul+9fkIyQaUhHLTu+l5qggkowwin01Iv0zQFMoIB7VqUIKgOJvPbp/jUOn0cJ8o+afDc/T0xAaH1WES2U4AZ6uXazPyv1s1MfB1MmEwzQyVZLIozjk2CZ0HgPlOUGD62AEQxeysmQ1BAjI2rZEPwl7+8Cq1a1b+o1u4vK/WbPI4iOkYn6Az56ArV0R1qoCYi6Ak9o1f05kydF+fd+Vi0Fpx85gj9kfP5A62Nk44=</latexit>

• The fact that nothing has changed in the system between the two
emissions means that the signals follow identical trajectories. But then
we would necessarily have ⌧top = ⌧bot , i.e. no gravitational redshift.
Therefore, the spacetime cannot be Minkowski.
<latexit sha1_base64="LYw2wJoZ57fAtlw0CPjSwvRhK2E=">AAACCHicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqEsXDhbBVUmqoBuh6MZlBfuAJoTJdNIOnTyYuRFKyNKNv+LGhSJu/QR3/o3TNqC2Hhg4nHMvd87xE8EVWNaXUVpaXlldK69XNja3tnfM3b22ilNJWYvGIpZdnygmeMRawEGwbiIZCX3BOv7oeuJ37plUPI7uYJwwNySDiAecEtCSZx46QFIvc2SIIU5yfIl/BD+G3DOrVs2aAi8SuyBVVKDpmZ9OP6ZpyCKggijVs60E3IxI4FSwvOKkiiWEjsiA9TSNSMiUm02D5PhYK30cxFK/CPBU/b2RkVCpcejryZDAUM17E/E/r5dCcOFmPEpSYBGdHQpSoTPjSSu4zyWjIMaaECq5/iumQyIJBd1dRZdgz0deJO16zT6t1W/Pqo2roo4yOkBH6ATZ6Bw10A1qohai6AE9oRf0ajwaz8ab8T4bLRnFzj76A+PjG4nZmao=</latexit>
 Epilogue: EP & Quantum physics

• So far we have discussed the Equivalence Principle as an essential part of

classical (i.e. non-quantum) physics.

• After having been exposed to the various versions and meanings of the
EP, you are asked to speculate on its compatibility with quantum
mechanics.
 Quantum Galileo free fall experiment
• An quantum particle (e.g. an electron) is dropped together with a
“classical” particle. Do they fall together? Is the path of the quantum
particle independent of its mass? (hint: use the uncertainty principle)

e
 The non-inertial Schrödinger equation
• The Schrödinger equation for a free particle of mass m in an inertial frame
is:
@ ~2 2
i~ = r
@t 2m

• Next, transform this to a uniformly accelerated frame (assume an

acceleration a = gẑ along the vertical z-axis).

• Compare the result against the Schrödinger equation in a homogeneous

gravitational field g = gẑ :
@ ~2 2
i~ = r + mgz
@t 2m

• Is the Equivalence Principle satisfied?

 Textbook reading
• Hartle’s book: Chapters 2 (exercises 4, 5) , 3 (exercises 2, 4)
, & 6 (exercises 6, 8)

• D’Inverno’s book: Chapter 9