Index Properties of Soils

• Grain Size and Grain Size Distribution

• Particle Shape
• Relative Density (for sand)
• Atterberg Limits (for clay)

Readings: Sections 4.5 to 4.6

Major Soil Particle Groups

Granular soils or Cohesive

soils
non-cohesive soils

Particle
USCS 300 75 4.75 0.075 size
(mm)
ASTM 300 75 4.75 0.075 0.005

Coarse-grained Fine-
soils grained
soils

Note: A soil usually have grains of different particle groups.

1
Grain Size Distribution (GSD)

Significance of GSD:

• To know the relative proportions of different

grain sizes.

• An important factor influencing the

geotechnical characteristics of a coarse grain
soil.
• Not important in fine grained soils.

Grain Size Distribution: Covered in CE2J03

• Experiment:
Coarse-grained soils: Fine-grained soils:
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
0.075 mm (USCS, ASCE)

stack of sieves hydrometer

sieve shaker
soil/water
suspension

Sieve analysis Hydrometer analysis

2
Sieve Identification Opening Size (in) Opening Size (mm)
3 in 3.00 76.2
2 in 2.00 50.8
CG
1 1/2 1.50 38.1
(Coarse Gravel)
1 1.00 25.4
3/4 0.75 19.0
3/8 0.375 9.52 FG
#4 0.187 4.75 (Fine Gravel)
#8 0.929 2.36
CS
#10 0.0787 2.00
#16 0.0465 1.18
#20 0.0335 0.850 MS (Medium
#30 0.0236 0.600 Sand)
#40 0.0167 0.425
#50 0.0118 0.300
#60 0.00984 0.250
FS (Fine Sand)
#100 0.00591 0.150
#140 0.00417 0.106
#200 0.00295 0.075 S&C

Sieve analysis

Analyst name:
Test date:
Sample description: 06B 001
Total sample mass M0 = 1553/1550 g

ASTM Sieve Sieve opening Mass retained Mass Percent finer

number (mm) (g) passing (g) by weight

d m mp =Mp/M0 (%)
3/4" 19.05 1548.84 100
1/2 " 12.7 257.76 1291.08 83.36
4 4.750 534.79 756.29 48.83
10 2.000 301.51 454.78 29.36
20 0.850 188.68 266.10 17.18
30 0.600 53.72 212.38 13.71
50 0.300 65.24 147.14 9.50
100 0.150 45.79 101.35 6.54
200 0.075 41.60 59.75 3.86
Pan <0.075 59.75

3
 Hydrometer Analysis (D<0.075mm)

rs  rw 2 Gs  1
• Stokes’ Law v D  rw D 2
18h 18h

By measuring L and t,  v=L/t

18h L
D
 Gs  1 rw t

Grain Size Distribution (Cont.)

D10 = 0.013 mm; D30 = 0.47 mm; D60 = 7.4 mm
100

80 hydrometer sieve
Passing
%

60
fines sand gravels
40

20
D30
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Grain size (mm) Log scale
• can find % of gravels, sands, fines
• define D10, D30, D60.. as above.

4
 100
Pe rc e nt pa s s ing (Fine r tha n)
80

60
by we ight

40

20

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
Log scale

Grain Size Distribution (Cont.)

• Coefficient of uniformity
Example:
D
Cu  60 D10 = 0.013 mm;
D10 D30 = 0.47 mm;
D60 = 7.4 mm

• Coefficient of curvature Cu 
D60
 569
D10
( D30 ) 2 ( D30 ) 2
CC (or CZ )  Cc   2.3
( D10 )( D60 ) ( D10 )( D60 )

5
 Well or Poorly Graded Soils

Well Graded Soils Poorly Graded Soils

Wide range of grain sizes present Others, including two special cases:

Gravels: Cc = 1-3 & Cu >= 4 (a) Uniform soils – grains of same size
(b) Gap graded soils – no grains in a
Sands: Cc = 1-3 & Cu >= 6
specific size range

100
Pe rc e nt pa s s ing (Fine r tha n)

80 Gap-graded

60
by we ight

Well-graded
40

20 Uniformly-
graded
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
Log scale

6
Well or Poorly Graded Soils

Well Graded
•wide range of particle sizes.
(Fine sand to coarse gravel)
•Good interlock
•Low porosity/Low permeability

Uniformly Graded
•narrow range of particle sizes.
(Pea gravel)
•Poor interlock
•High porosity/High permeability

Grain Size Distribution (Cont.)

• Engineering applications
 It will help us “feel” the soil texture (what the soil is) and it
will also be used for the soil classification (next topic).
 It can be used to define the grading specification of a
drainage filter (clogging).
 It can be a criterion for selecting fill materials of
embankments and earth dams, road sub-base materials,
and concrete aggregates.
 It can be used to estimate the results of grouting and
chemical injection, and dynamic compaction.
 Effective Size, D10, can be correlated with the hydraulic
conductivity (describing the permeability of soils). (Hazen’s
Equation).(Note: controlled by fines)

The grain size distribution is more important to coarse-grained soils.

7
Particle Shapes: Coarse-grained Soils

Rounded Subrounded

Subangular Angular

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

 Important for granular soils
 Angular soil particle  higher friction
 Round soil particle  lower friction
 Note that clay particles are sheet-like.

Relative Density

 Measure of how densely the grains are

packed in a coarse grain soil in %.
0 100

Loosest Densest

emax  e
Dr 
emax  emin
 Also known as density index (ID).

8
Granular Soil Consistencies

As per AS1726 - 1993

Relative Density (%) Consistency Term

0-15 Very loose

15-35 Loose

35-65 Medium dense

65-85 Dense

85-100 Very
dense

Relative Density (cont.)

• Engineering applications
Description: Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense

Dr (%): 0 15 35 65 85 100
 (deg.): 25-30 27-32 30-35 35-40 38-43

n n
 
Dense    n tan(i  i)   n tan  '
i

n


Loose i

9
 Index Properties of Clay

Atterberg Limits and

Consistency Indices

Atterberg Limits

• Border line water contents, separating the

different states of a fine grained soil

water content
0 Shrinkage Plastic Liquid
limit limit limit

brittle- semi- plastic liquid

solid solid

Plasticity: the ability to undergo deformation without volume

change and rapture

10
Atterberg Limits

Liquid Limit (wL or LL):

Clay flows like liquid when w > LL

Plastic Limit (wP or PL):

Lowest water content where the clay is still plastic

Shrinkage Limit (wS or SL):

At w < SL, no volume reduction on drying

Casagrande Method

N=25 blows
Closing distance =
12.7mm (0.5 in)

The water content, in percentage, required to close a

distance of 0.5 in (12.7mm) along the bottom of the
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981) groove after 25 blows is defined as the liquid limit

11
Cone Penetrometer Method

This method is
developed by the
Transport and Road
Research
Laboratory.
(Head, 1992)

Measuring Atterberg Limits

Plastic Limit-WP
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

The plastic limit WP is defined as the water content at

which a soil thread with 3.2 mm diameter just
crumbles.
ASTM D4318-95a, BS1377: Part 2:1990:5.3

12
 Indices

 Plasticity Index (PI)

 Range of water content over which the soil
remains plastic

Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit – Plastic Limit

water content
0 Shrinkage Plastic Liquid
limit limit limit

plastic

Indices

• Plasticity index PI

PI = WL – WP

The large the PI value, the smaller the change in

strength for small w;

Soils with high clay contents have large PI. WL and

PI together describe a soil’s plasticity;

High value - high plasticity (fat)

Low value - low plasticity (lean)

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 Plasticity
according to
Liquid Limit

Typical Atterberg
Limits for Soils

Indices (cont.)

• Liquidity index IL
For scaling the natural water content of a soil sample to
the Limits.

w  PL w  PL
IL  
PI LL  PL
w is the water content

IL <0 (A), brittle fracture if sheared

0<IL<1 (B), plastic solid if sheared
IL >1 (C), viscous liquid if sheared, sensitive clay

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 Indices (Cont.)
• Sensitivity St (for clays) Clay
particle
Strength (undisturbed ) w > LL
St  Water
Strength (disturbed)
Unconfined shear strength

(Holtz and Kavocs, 1981)

Lemieux slide of 1993

Strength(undisturbed )
St 
Strength(disturbed )

Unconfined shear strength

15
 Indices (Cont.)
IP
A
• Activity A % clay fraction ( weight )
clay fraction :  0.002 mm

• Purpose •Normal clays: 0.75<A<1.25

•Inactive clays: A<0.75
Both the type and •Active clays: A> 1.25
amount of clay in soils
•High activity:
will affect the Atterberg
limits. This index is –large volume change when
wetted
aimed to separate them.
–Large shrinkage when dried
–Very reactive (chemically)

Summary

The presence of water in fine-grained soils can

significantly affect associated engineering behavior, so
we need a reference index to clarify the effects.

16
Engineering Applications

• Soil classification
(Next topic)
– The Atterberg limits
enable clay soils to
be classified.

• The Atterberg limits are usually correlated with some

engineering properties such as the permeability,
compressibility, shear strength, and others.
 In general, clays with high plasticity have lower permeability,
and they are difficult to be compacted.

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