LESSON 5 ▪ Short Term Count is used to estimate
maximum flow rate and determine the
Traffic Studies
Several variables have been
discussed in the previous chapters. They
provide the basic information necessary
for meaningful planning, design and
analysis of highways and other road
transportation infrastructures. Equally
important is the manner through which
these data are obtained or collected in
the field. Traffic studies generally involve
time and may require cost. It is therefore
necessary to plan carefully all date
collection efforts. In this chapter,
different methodologies for conducting
surveys, how are they processed and
analyzed will be discussed.
VOLUME STUDIES
Traffic volume is the most basic
data needed for any traffic study.
Volume studies are conducted to obtain
factual information on the number of
vehicles and/or persons that passes
through a specific point in the highway
system.
Types of Volume
▪ Annual Traffic is used for determining
annual travel, estimating expected
highway user revenue, and computing
accident rates.
▪ Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) is
used for measuring the present demand
for service by the road, and
programming capital improvements.
▪ Hourly Traffic is used for evaluating
capacity deficiencies, geometric design
or improvement of streets and
intersections.
characteristics of peak hour volumes.
Types of Data Collected
• Mid-block counts are used for
preparing traffic flow maps and
determining trends.
• Directional counts are used for
determining directional
distribution for capacity analysis,
signal timing, justifying traffic
control, etc.
• Turning Movement or Intersection
counts are used for signal timing,
designing or improving geometry
of intersections, planning turning
prohibition, analyzing high
accident intersections.
• Classification counts are used for
determining modal split,
estimating effects of heavy
vehicles on capacity, determining
correction factors for automatic
counts.
• Cordon counts are used to
determine the number of vehicles
and/or persons entering or
leaving an enclosed area.
Time of Study
The time and duration of a traffic volume
study depends on the type and
application of the data to be gathered.
▪ Twenty-four hour counts from midnight
to midnight
▪ Sixteen-hour counts from 6AM to 10 PM
to represent most of the daily flow,
including evening traffic
▪ Twelve-hour counts form 6AM to 6PM to
cover most of daytime traffic
▪ Peak period counts from 7AM to 9AM, tally or manual method while watching
5PM to 7PM, or other time intervals the video.
corresponding to very high level of traffic
Presentation of Traffic Volumes
volume.
Traffic volume summaries may be
▪ Short counts of about one hour or less
presented in ways that should be easily
with intervals of 5 to 15-minute to analyze
understood by the readers, some of
characteristics of peak hours.
which are as follows:
Abnormal conditions are usually avoided
• Variations
unless the purpose is to obtain
information concerning those conditions.
These would include:

▪ Special occasions such as public

holidays or fiestas

▪ Days with abnormal weather conditions

▪ Strikes and demonstrations

Methods
• Flow Maps
1. By Tallying

Considered as the simplest and

sometimes the most practical in the

absence of any mechanical or

automatic counting devices.

2. Using Manual counters

Manual counter is a mechanical device

useful when volume is high. Counters
may be of single or multiple type.

3. Using Automatic counters

When traffic count of very long duration

is required, one may resort to automatic
counters through the use of detectors.
The simplest type of automatic counter is
a pneumatic tube laid transversely
• Intersection diagram
across the road.

4. Using video cameras

Video cameras may be used to take

footage of the traffic flow. Counts may
then be carried out later through either

SPOT SPEED STUDIES
The following are the objectives of
conducting spot speed studies:
✓ Determine the range and
magnitude of speeds as a basis
for formulating design standards.
✓ Establish maximum and minimum
speed limits.
✓ Determine the need for posting
advisory speed signs.
✓ Determine the need for school
zone protection, and
✓ Evaluate the performance of a
geometric improvement or traffic
control device through a “before-
and-after” study.
Time of Study
The period during which speeds
are measured depends on the purpose
of the study. Abnormal conditions such
as adverse weather condition or
unusually heavy traffic condition should
be avoided. The duration of the study
should be around one hour. Short study
period will often lead to bias towards
faster vehicles.
Size of Samples
Normally, the speeds of at least 50
vehicles-preferably 100- should be
measured. To cover all representative
vehicles, measurement of every nth
vehicle may be applied. In this way,
possible bias that may be attributed to
the following may be avoided:
✓ Selecting mostly leaders of the
platoon.
✓ Selecting mostly one particular
type of vehicle.
✓ Selecting faster vehicles.
Methods
There are different methods used in
conducting spot speed studies ranging
from manual to automatic/digital.
Radar Speed Meter
When such instrument is available, the
use of radar is a very convenient way of
conducting spot speed studies. The
radar is positioned at the edge of the
roadway at an angle of about 15
degrees with the centerline and is
directed toward the incoming vehicles.
Manual Method
A less expensive way of conducting spot
speed study. This is also called the “trap
length” method. In this method, two lines,
30m-50m apart, are drawn transversely
on the pavement. A stopwatch is then
used to measure the “travel time” of the
vehicle within the “trap”. The length of
the trap is divided by the travel time to
estimate the speed.
Analysis and Presentation of Spot Speeds
Spot speed data are usually summarized
in a frequency table. Data are normally
grouped together in predetermined
class intervals, and distributions are
calculated.

There are no strict rules in deciding the

number of speed class intervals.
However, the Sturgess Formula shown
below may serve as a guide in
determining the initial number of class
intervals. Preferably, the value of the
midclass of each interval should be an
integer or a whole number to help
simplify computations.

k = 1 + 3.322 log10 n

where: k = number of class intervals

n= total number of observations

TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES

Travel time studies normally give

information on the performance of a
particular roadway. Independent
measurements of stops and their
observed reasons may also be included
to give information on delays.

Methods

Test Car Technique

This method makes use of a test vehicle

that is driven over the road section under
study. The driver is instructed to travel at
a speed that in his opinion is
representative of the speed of the traffic
stream. Then data will be collected.
Shown below is the sample travel time
and delay field sheet.
 LESSON 6 One measure of accident rate is
per 100,000 population. For instance, if a
town, city, or region has N accident
occurrences in one year and has a
population P, then,

Accident per Registered Vehicles

Another measure of accident rate

One undesirable reality that
comes with development is the increase
in traffic accidents concomitant with
increased motorization and
infrastructure. Every year, worldwide, at
least one million people are killed on the
road, 70 percent of whom are from
countries classified by the World Bank as
low-or middle- income. This apparently
worse scenario among developing
countries, like the Philippines, may be
explained in that priorities are geared
toward infrastructure development,
improving mobility, and addressing the
need for a better public transportation
system. (source: Fundamentals of
Transportation Engineering by Ricardo
Sigua).
is per 10,000 registered vehicles. Again, if
there are N accidents in one year and
the number of registered vehicles for the
same year is V, then,
Sample
Problems:
A town has a population of 350, 000 and
a total of 122,400 registered vehicles in
2005. In the same year, the number of
accidents was 620 Determine the
accident rate using:
a. Accident per Population
b. Accident per Registered Vehicles

Assessment of Road Safety

The state of road safety of a

country or region is normally gauged by
the frequency of accident occurrence.
Key indicators are the number of
accidents (fatal, injured, or property
damage) and the rates of accidents. For
comparison studies, the rates are
normally used instead of the actual
numbers.

Accident per Population

Accident Definition

The UN Organization (Geneva)

defines traffic death as that which
occurs within thirty days of the event. The
Philippines defines fatality as “death at
the scene”. Serious injury and slight injury
are defined based on the extent of injury
sustained and the length of time required
by the injured to recover. However, there
is no exact definition of the seriousness of
the injury. Property damage only
accidents involve vehicles colliding with
publicly or privately-owned structures,
equipment, and facilities located by the
road. It also includes collision of vehicles
with other vehicles without causing
physical injury to the driver, passenger, or Accidents at Intersection
any pedestrian. As observed in other countries,
Road Accident Reporting intersections or junctions are also
normally the points of conflict in the
There are no specific steps in Philippine transportation system.
accident reporting in the country. In According to available data, about one-
many cases, the accidents reported to third of accidents occurred at
hospitals are referred to the medico- intersections. However, there are some
legal department of the hospital, with studies showing that accidents at
the local policeman from the accident intersections are very scarce, with hardly
site in attendance. any reference on the subject.
As of the moment the accident
rate in the Philippines is about 6.0
fatalities per 10,000 vehicles. However,
this figure may be misleading considering
the high incidence of severe accidents
that have been reported in daily news.

Key Socioeconomic Indicators

There are three socioeconomic

indicators used in assessing a country’s
road safety condition. These are:
1. Population
2. Gross Domestic Product
3. Vehicle Registration
Accident Rates for Intersections
When analyzing traffic accidents
at intersections, the total entering traffic
volume usually in AADT is considered.
Given below is the equation in solving the
accident rate per million entering
vehicles (mev). The factor of 1,000,000 is
applied for convenience to obtain
values of Ai within two to three digits.
Accident Rates for Road Sections
For segments of highways 1-2 km in
length, accident rates are computed
based on total vehicle-kilometers (mvk).
Again, the factor of 100 million is applied
for convenience.
Accidents by time of day
Road accidents happens any time of the
day, however, according to a study
conducted by the Traffic Management
Group, most traffic accidents occur
during night time. Given below are the
contributing factors:
a. Inadequacy of street lighting
b. Lack of warning devices
c. Complete disregard of traffic signals
during night and early morning
d. Driver factors (i.e., falling asleep,
drunkenness etc.)
Agencies and Institutions Involved in
Road Safety
The Department of Public Works
and Highways is primarily concerned
with the planning, design, and operation
of roads and roadside facilities. In
pursuing those functions, the DPWH
requires data on road-related factors of
an accident like location of
occurrences, road condition of
locations, and presence of road safety
facilities. The on-going 6th ADB Road
Project (Road Safety Component) being
carried out by the DPWH covers major
activities that are expected to boost
road safety programs in the country.
These are:
1. Interagency institutional
arrangements including all aspects of
the current Inter-agency Road Safety
Committee (IRSC) to ensure improved
interagency cooperation, taking into
account the road safety provision of
RA 8794;
2. Organizational review, including the
identification of deficiencies, existing
legislations, and DPWH limitations;
3. Road safety promotion in the overall
planning process;
4. Publication of road safety manual;
5. Development of a traffic accident
recording and analysis system;
6. Adoption of safety audits
7. Improvement of hazardous locations;
8. Development of key performance
indicators and monitoring systems.
 INTRODUCTION TO RAILROAD successful locomotive running by
ENGINEERING adhesion only.

RAILROAD ENGINEERING In 1814, Stephenson, inspired by

the early locomotives of Trevithick and
Hedley persuaded the manager of the
Killingworth colliery where he worked to
allow him to build a steam powered
machine. In 1825 he built the Locomotion
for the Stockton and Darlington Railway
which became the first public steam
railway.

In the nineteenth century the first

railway locomotives were powered by
steam, usually generated by burning
coal. The first steam locomotive was built
by Richard Trevithick; it first ran on
February 21, 1804.

Railroad Starting in the 1940s, the diesel-

powered locomotive began to displace
mode of land transportation in
steam power on North American
which flange wheeled vehicles move
railroads. Following the end of World War
over two parallel steel rails, or tracks,
II, diesel power began to appear on
either by self-propulsion or by the
railroads in many countries, By the 1960s,
propulsion of a locomotive.
few major railroads continued to
Locomotive is a railway vehicle that operate steam locomotive.
provides the motive power for a train. It
A gas turbine electric locomotive,
has no payload capacity of its own and
or GTEL, is a locomotive that uses a gas
its sole purpose is to move the train along
turbine to drive an electrical generator or
the tracks.
alternator. The electric current thus
The first successful locomotives were built produced is used to power traction
by Cornish inventor Richard Trevithick in motors. This type of locomotive was first
1804 his unnamed locomotive hauled a experimented with in 1920 but reached
train along the tramway of the its peak in the 1950s to 1960s.
Penydarren ironworks, near Merthyr Tydfil
An electric locomotive is supplied
in Wales The first commercially successful
externally with electric power, either
steam locomotive was Matthew Murray's
through an overhead pickup or through
rack railway locomotive The Salamanca
a third rail. While the capital cost of
built for the narrow gauge Middleton
electrifying track is high, electric trains
Railway in 1812. This was followed in 1813
and locomotives are capable of higher
by the Puffing Billy built by Christopher
performance and in some cases lower
Blackett and William Hedley for the
Wylam Colliery Railway, the first
operational costs than steam or diesel
power.
The newest technology in trains is
magnetic levitation (maglev). These
electrically powered trains have an open
motor which floats the train above the
rail without wheels. This greatly reduces
friction. Very few systems are in service
and the cost is very high. The
experimental Japanese magnetic
levitation train JR Maglev MLX01 has
reached a speed of 581 kilometers per
hour (361 miles per hour).
Typical rail tracks consist of two
parallel rails, normally made of steel,
secured to crossbeams, termed sleepers
(UK and Australian usage) or ties (North
American usage). The sleepers maintain
a constant distance between the two
rails; a measure known as the "gauge" of
the track. To maintain the alignment of
the track, it is either laid on a bed of
ballast or secured to a solid concrete
foundation. The whole structure is
referred to as the permanent way (UK
and Australia) or right of way (North
America).
Steel Rail always act as two parallel lines.
In general, steel rail is used to provide a
surface for train and guide the train
forward. Steel rail also transmit the
pressure from locomotive to railway
sleepers.
Railway Sleeper
, also known as railroad tie, cross tie, is
laid perpendicular to steel rail. Railway
sleeper can be properly deformed to
trimmer pressure when the train passes
through, after that, cover as much as
possible. By the raw materials, railway
sleeper generally can be divided into
three types: wooden sleeper, steel
sleeper and concrete sleeper.
The main function of railway sleeper as
follow:
✓ Railway sleeper give firm and
even support to rail.
✓ Railway sleeper should have
certain flexibility and elasticity.
Act as elastic medium between
rail and ballast.
✓ Railway sleeper absorb the
vibrations from locomotive and
transport the load from rail to
ballast.
✓ Railway sleeper align the rails and
keep the right rail gauge.
Railway Fish Plate
, also called rail joint, splice bar or joint
bar, is a metal bar that is used to the
connect end of two rails by fish bolts. As
the connection part between two rails,
railway fish plate is used in combination
with the steel rail. According to the steel
rail standard, railway fish plate has three
types:
✓ Railway fish plate for light rail: 8kg,
9kg, 12kg, 15kg, 18kg, 22kg, 24kg
and 30kg.
✓ Railway fish plate for heavy rail:
38kg, 43kg, 50kg and 60kg.
✓ Railway fish plate for crane rail:
QU70, QU80, QU100 and QU120.
Rail fastening system
refers to a group of railway fasteners that
are used to fasten steel rail to railway
sleeper. Common components of rail
fastening system include rail clip, railroad
spike, rail bolt, rail tie plate, rail pad,
washer, plastic dowel, rail insulator and
rail shoulder, etc.
Railway Switch

is a special component of railway track,

which is applied in the railway crossing.
Railway switch has another name
turnout. Railway switch is simply a rail
component for converting track.

Railway Ballast

is the foundation of railway track and

provide just below the sleepers. The loads
from the wheels of trains ultimately come
on the ballast through rails and sleepers.
Some of the important functions of
railway ballast are:

✓ To provide firm and level bed for

the sleepers to rest on.
✓ To allow for maintaining correct
track level without disturbing the
rail road bed.
✓ To drain off the water quickly and
to keep the sleepers in dry
conditions.
✓ To discourage the growth of
vegetation.
✓ To protect the surface of
formation and to form an elastic
bed.
✓ To hold the sleepers in position
during the passage of trains.
✓ To transmit and distribute the
loads from the sleepers to the
formation.
✓ To provide lateral stability to the
track as a whole.