ows The McGraw Printer Feendly Chapter HyDRoGRAPHS 6.1 INTRODUCTION While long-term runoff concemed with the estimation of yield was discussed in the previous chapter, the present chapter examines in detail the short-term runoff phe- nomenon. The storm hydrograph is the focal point ofthe present chapter. Consider a concentrated storm producing a fairly uniform rainfall of duration, 2 ‘over a catchment. After the initial losses and infiltration losses are met, the rainfall excess reaches the stream through overland and channel flows. In the process of trans lation a certain amount of storage is built up inthe overland and channel-flow phases. ‘This storage gradually depletes after the cessation of the rainfall. Thus there is atime Jag between the occurrence of rainfall in the basin and the time when that water passes the gauging station at the basin outlet. The runoff measured at the stream-gaugin station will givea typical hydrograph as shown in Fig. 6.1. The duration of the rainfall is also marked in this figure to indicate the time fag in the rainfall and runoff. The hhydrograph of this kind which results due to an isolated storm is typically single peaked skew distribution of discharge and is known variously as sdorm hydrographs, flood hydrograph or simply fxdrograph. It as three characteristic regions: (i) the rising limb 48, joining point 4, the starting point ofthe rising curve and point B, the point of inflection, (i the crest segment BC between the two points of inflection with 2 peak P in between, (ii) the falling limb or depletion curve CD starting from the sevond point of inflection © >| fe Hydrograph components MA = base flow recession hy Raina! AB = rising lime BC = crest segment 6D= falling ime DN=base low recession Points Band C= inflection points Direct runott Discharge in mils Timein hours Fig. 6.1 Flements of a Flood Hydrograph omylicary.comPrinPages aspx 1540ows The McGraw Printer Feendly Engineering Hycology The hydrograph isthe response of a given catchment to a rainfall input. It consists of low in all the three phases of runoff, viz, surface runoff, interflow and base flow. and embodios in itsolf the integrated effects ofa wide variety ofeatchment and rainfall parameters having complex interactions, Thus two different storms in a given catch ‘ment produce hyelrographs differing from cach other. Similarly, identical storms in two catchments produce hydrographs that are different. ‘The interactions of various, storms and catchments are in general extremely complex. Ifone examines the record ofa large number of flood hydrographs of stream. it will be found that many of them ‘will have kinks, multiple peaks, etc. resulting in shapes much different from the sim- ple single-peaked hydrograph of Fig. 6.1. These complex hydrographs are the result of storm and catchment peculiarities and their complex interactions. While itis thea- retically possible to resolve a complex. hydrograph into a set of siniple hydrographs for purposes of hydrograph analysis, the requisite data of acceptable quality are s dom available. Hence, simple hydrographs resulting from isolated storms are pre ferred for hydrograph studies, 6.2 FACTORS AFFECTING FLOOD HYDROGRAPH ‘The factors that affect the shape of the hydrograph can be broadly grouped into ‘matic factors and physiographic factors. Each of these two groups contains a host of factors and the important ones ar listed in Table 6.1, Gencrally, the climatic factors control the rising limb and the recession limb is inlependent of storm characterises, being determined by catchment cliaracteristies only, Many of the factors listed in Ta- ble 6.1 are interdependent. Further, their effects are very varied and complicated. As such only important effects ae listed below in qualitative terms onl Table 6.1 Factors Affecting Flood Hydrograph Physiographic factors Climatic Factors 1, Basin characterstcs 1. Storm characterstcs: precipitation, in (a) Shape ‘tensity, duration, magnitude and move. () size ‘ment of storm. (©) slope 2. Initia loss (@) naure of the valley 3. Evapotranspiration, {@) elevation, (D) drainage: density filtration characteristics: (@) land use ane cover (b) soil type and geological conditions (6) lakes, swamps and other storage 3. Channel characteristics: cross-section, roughness and storage eapacity SHAPE OF THE BASIN ‘The shape of the basin influences the time taken for water from the remote parts of the catchment lo active at the outlet, Thus the occurrence of the peak and hence the shape omylicary.comPrinPages aspx 1840ows The McGraw Printer Feendly Hydiographs (IS ofthe hydrograph are affected by the basin shape. Fan-shaped. i. nearly semi-cireu- Jar shaped catchments give high peak and narrow hydrographs while elongated catch- ‘ments give broad and low-peaked hydrographs. Figure 6.2 shows schematically the hydrographs from three catchments having identical infiltration characteristics duc to ientical rainfall over the catchment. In catchment 4 the hydrograph is skewed tothe left ie. the peak oceurs relatively quickly. In catchment B, the hydrograph is skewed to the right, the peak occurring with a relatively longer lag. Catchment C indicates the complex hydrograph produced by a composite shape. 2B a a a Time Trine Time Fig. 6.2 Effect of Catchment Shape on the Hydrograph Size ‘Small basins behave different fromthe lange ones it terms ofthe relative importance Cf various phases of the runoff phenomenon. In small catchments the overland flow phase is predominant over the channel flow. Hence the land use and intensity of rain fall have important role on the peak flood. On large basins these effects are suppressed, asthe channel flow phase is more predominant. The peak discharge is found o vary as AM where 4 isthe catchment area and 1 is an exponent whose value is less than unity, being about 0.5. The time base of the hydro-kraphs from langcr basins will be larger ‘han those of corresponding hydrographs from smaller basins. The duration of the surface runoff from the time of occurrence of the peak is proportional 0.4", where is an exponent less than unity and is ofthe order of magnitude of 0.2. SLOPE ‘The slope of the main stream controls the velocity of flow in the channel, As the recession limb of the hydrograph represents the depletion of storage, the siceam chan nel slope will have @ pronounced elfeet on this part of the hydrograph. Large stream slopes give rise to quicker depletion of storage and hence result in steeper recession limbs of hydrographs. This would obviously result ina smaller time base. The basin slope is important in small catchments where the overland flow is rela tively more important. In such cases the steeper slope of the catchment results larger peak discharzes. DRAINAGE DENSITY TThe drainage density is defined as the ratio of the total channel length to the total drainage area, A large drainage density ereates situation conducive for quick disposal of runoff down the channels. This fast response is reflected in a pronounced peaked discharge. In basins with smaller drainage densities, the overland flow is predominant and the resulting hydrograph is squat with stowty rising limb (Fig 6:3) omylicary.comPrinPages aspx 10ows The McGraw Printer Feendly [F98)_Engincesing Hydrology LAND UsE A Vegetation and forests inerease the infil tion and storage capacities ofthe soils. Fur- ther, they cause considerable retardance to SS Discharge the overland flow. Thus the vegetal cover B—Low density reduces the peak flow, This effect is usually OS ‘very pronounced in small catchments of arca ar si less than 150 km?, Further, the effect of the jaan ‘vegetal cover is prominent in small storms. Te In general, fortwo catchments of equal area, collier factors being identical, the peak dis- ccharge is higher for a catchment that has a lower density of forest cover. OF the various factors that control the peak discharge, probably the only factor that can be manipulated is land use and thus it represents the only practical means of exercising long-term natural control over the flood hydrograph of a catchment Fig. 6.3. Role of Drainage Density on the Hydrograph CLIMATIC FACTORS ‘Among climatic factors the intensity, duration and direction of storm movement are the three important ones affecting the shape of flood hydrograph. Fora given duration, the peak and volume of the surface runoff are essentially proportional to the intensity cof rainfall, This aspect is made use of in the unit hydrograph theory of estimating, peak-flow hydrographs, as discussed in subsequent scetions of this chapter. In very small catchments, the shape of the hydrograph can also be affected by the intensity. The duration of storm of given intensity also has a direct proportional effect on the volume of runoff. The effect of duration is reflected in the rising limb and peak flow. Ideally, ifa rainfall of given intensity lasts sufficiently fong enough, a state of equi librium discharge proportional to #4 is reached. Ifthe storm moves from upstream of the catchment © the downstream end, there will be & quicker concentration of flow at the basin outlet. This results in a peaked hydrograph, Conversely, if the storm movement is up the catchment, the resulting, hydrograph will have a lower peak and longer time base, This effect is further accen- ‘tiated by the shape of the catchment, with long. and narrow catchments having hydrographs most sensitive t the storm-movement direction, 6.3 COMPONENTS OF A HYDROGRAPH ‘As indicated earlier, the essential components of a hydrograph are: (i) the rising limb, (Gi) the crest segment, and (ii) the rocession limb (Fig. 6.1). A few salicnt features of these components are described below. RISING LIMB The rising limb of @ hydrograph, also known as concentration curve represen the increase in discharge due to the gradual building up of storage in channels and over the catchment surface, The initial losses and high infiltration losses during the early period of a siorm gause the discharge to rise rather slowly in the initial periods, As the omylicary.comPrinPages aspx 1840ows Printer Feendly aces a kee ed Hydrographs (99) storm continues, more and more flow from distant parts reach the basin outlet. Simul taneously the infiltration losses also decrease with time. Thus under a uniform storm ‘over the catchment, the runoft increases rapidly with time. As indicated earie, the basin and storm characteristics control the shape of the rising limb of @ hydrograph. CREST SEGMENT ‘The crest sogmentiis one of the most important parts ofa hydrographs it contains the peak flow, The peak flow oceurs when the runoff fom various parts of the catchment simullancously contribute amounts to achieve the maximum amount of flow at the basin outlet, Generally for large catchments, the peak flow occurs after the cessation of rainfall, the time interval from the centre of mass of rainfall to the peak being essentially contratled by basin and storm characteristics. Multiple-peaked complex. hydrographs in a basin can occur when two or more storms occur in succession. Estimation of the peak flow and its occurrence, being important in flood-flow studies are dealt with in detail elsewhere inthis book. RECESSION LIMB ‘The recession lim, which extends from the point of inflection atthe end of the erest segment (point € in Fig, 6.1) fo the commencement of the natural groundwater flow (point Din Fig, 6.1) represents the withdrawal of water from the storage buill up inthe ‘basin during the earlier phases of the hydrograph. ‘The starting point of the recession limb, ic. the point of inflection represents the condition of maximum storage. Since the depletion of storage takes place after the cessation of rainfall, the shape of this part ‘ofthe hydrograph is independent of storm characteristics and depends entirely on the basin characteristics. The storage of water in the basin exists as (i) surface storage, which includes both surface detention and channel storage, (ii) interflow storage, and (iii) groundwater storage, ic. base-flow storage. Barns (1940) showed thatthe recession of a storage can be expressed as Q.= WK; (6.1) jn which Q, isthe discharge ata time t and Qy is the discharge at ‘=O: K, isa revession constant of value loss than tunity. Equation (6.1) can also be expressed in an alternative form of the exponential decay as 2,- 08" (61a) where a= In K,, The recession constant K, can le considered to be made up of three components to ageount for the three types of storages as Ky = Ky Ky Koy ‘where K,,=recession constant for surface storage, K,=revession constant forinterflow and K,, ~ recession constant for base flow. Typically the values of these recession constants, when time £is in days, are Kp 005 1020 Ky 05010088 Ky O.85 100.99 When the interflow is not significant, K,, can be assumed to be unity. If'suffixes | and 2 denote the conditions at wo time instances f, and fs omylicary.comPrinPages aspx 1940ows Printer Felony aces a kee ed Y 2 from Eq. (6.1 = 6.2) irom Hq. (6.1) @ (6.2) 5: Qh a gratis) or from Eq. (6.1) a (62a) ‘quation 6.1 (and also 6.1a) plots as straight line when plotted on a semi-log paper ‘with discharge on the log scale. The slope of this line represents the recession con- stant, Using this property and using Eg, 6.2 (or 6.2a) the value of K, fora basin can be estimated by using observed recession data of a flood hydrograph. Example 6.1 ex- plains the procedure in deal The storage §, remaining at any time vs obtained as @ (63) S,=JQdi= [Qe de ExAUPLE 6:1) The recession limb af @ flood hydrograph is given Below: The time Fs Indicated from the arrival of peak. Assuming the interflow component tobe negligible, estimate the base flow and surface lw recession cosfficents. Also, estimate the storage dat the end of day from Discharge Time from Discharge peak (day) (ms) Peak (day) (mts) 00 m0 35 a0) 0s 66 40 3x 10 34 45 3.0 15 20 50 26 20 3 5S 22 25 90 60 18 3.0 67 68 16 10 Ls SOLUTION! ‘The data are plotted on a semi-log paper with discharge on the log-seale. ‘The data points from 1 4.5 days to 7.0 days are seen to lie on straight line (line AB in Fig, 64) This indicates that the surface flow terminates at ¢= 4.5 days, ‘The best fiting exponential curve For this straight-line portion (obiained by use of MS Excel) is Q,= 11.0336 with The base flow recession coefficient Ky, is obtained as ln Ky ~ 0.2927 and as such Ky, = 0.746, {Altematively, by using the graph, the value of Ky could be obtained by selecting two points {and 2 on the straight line AB and using Eq. (6.2). The hase flow recession curve is extended till f= 1 day as shown by fine ABM Fig. 6% ‘The Surface runoff depletion is obtained by subtracting the base flow from the given recession fim of the flood hydrograph. The computations are shown in the Table given con the next pas. The surface flow values (Col, 4 of Table above) are plotted against time ax shown in Fig. 64. 11s seen that these points lie on a straight line, XY. The best fitting exponential {curve for this straight-line portion Y¥ (oblained by use of MS Excel) is Q,= 106.886 wit 9805, omylicary.comPrinPages aspxows Printer Felony aces a kee ed Hysrographs [204 100.0 ‘Observed recession portion af flood hysrograph Bi00 = 3 Trae a 3 op ade 5 to 2.951 Oy: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Time in days Fig.64 Storage Recession Curve—Example 6.1 "Time Wom) Recesion Limb Bise flow Surface peak (days) of given food (Obtained by runoff (m*/s) hydrograph (m/s) using Ky, = 0.746) op 30.0 os 66.0 was ss.sas 10 340 7945 26.085 is 200 6581 1349 20 130 5613 7387 2s 30 ase 43s 30 fa 4209 2451 35 50 3.730 1.370 40 aK 3281 asia 45 30 21884 50 26 2530 53 22 2.209 60 18 Lo17 63 \6 si? 70 15 1398 The Surface flaw recession coefficient K,, is obtained as In K,,= 1.3603 and as such K,, = 0.257, [Alteratively, by using the graph, the value of K, could be obtained by selecting 1wo points 1 and 2 on the straight fine XY and using Eq, (6.2) ‘The storage available at the end of day-3 i the sum of the storages in surface flow and ‘groundwater recession modes and is given by (ster His] omylicary.comPrinPages aspx saoows Printer Felony The McGraw Engineering Hydrology For the surface flow recession using the best fit equation: Qy5= 106.8461 99 = 1.8048; — In K,, = 1.3608 Q5 = 1.3267 cumee-days Similarly forthe base flow recession: 1103369 6 4.585; ln Ky = 0.2927 = 15.665 cumec-days: 3267 + 15,665 lence, total storage atthe end of 3 days . 16,9917 cumee, days = 1.468 Mm 6.4 BASE FLOW SEPARATION In many hydrograph analyses a relationship between the surface-flow hydrograph and the effective rainfall (i.e. rainfall minus losses) is sought to be established, The sur fae-flow hydrograph is obtained trom the total storm hydrograph by separating the uick-response flow from the slow response runoff. tis usual to consider the interflow 8a part ofthe surface flow in view of its quick response. Thus only the base flow is to be deducted from the total storm hydrograph to obtain the surface flow hydrograph, There are three methods of base-Hlow separation that are in common use. METHODS OF BASE-FLOW SEPARATION METHOD /STRAIGHTLINE METHOD In this method the separation of the base flow is achieved by joining with a straight Tine the boginning of the surface munoff to a point on the recession fimb representing theend ofthe direct ranoft: In Fig. 6.5 point A represents the beginning ofthe dicect run- ‘ofTand itis usually easy to identify in view of the sharp change in the runoff rate at that point. Point 8. marking the end of the dircet runoff is rather difficult to locate exactly. ‘An empirical equation for the time inter- Fig, 6.5 Base Flow Seperation ‘val N (days) from the peak tothe point Bis Methods N= 0834" (64) ‘where 4 = drainage area in km? and (Vis in days, Points 4 and & are joined by a straight line to demarcate to the base flow and surface runoff, It should be realised that the value of W obtained as above is only approximate and the position of B should be decided by considering a number of hydrographs for the catchment. This method of ‘base-flow separation isthe simplest of al the three methods. Discharge METHOD 2 In this method the base How curve existing prior 1o the commence- ment of the surface runoff is extended till tinterseets the ordinate drawn atthe peak (point Cin Fig. 6.5). This point is joined to point B by a straight line, Segment AC and CB demarcate the base flow and surface runoff. ‘This is probably the most widely used base-flow separation procedure. omylicary.comPrinPages aspxows The McGraw Printer Feendly Hydrographs (203) METHOD 3 In this method the base flow recession curve after the depletion ofthe flood water is extended backwards till it intersects the ordinate atthe point of inflee- tion (line EF in Fig, 6.5), Points.A and Fare joined by an arbitrary smooth curve. This, method of base-flow separation is realistic in situations where the groundwater contri- ‘butions are significant and reach the stream quickly. ‘is seen that all the three methods of base-flow separation are rather arbitrary, The selection of anyone of them depends upon the local practice and successful predic tions achieved inthe past. The surface runoff hydrograph obtained after the base-flow separation is also known as direct runoff hydrograph (DRM), 6.5 EFFECTIVE RAINFALL (ER) Effective rainfal (also known as Excess rainfall) (ER) is that part oF the rainfall that becomes direct runoff atthe outlet of the watershed. ts thus the total rainfall in ven duration from which abstractions suchas infiltration and inital losses are sub tracted. As such, ER could be defined as that rainfall that is neither retained on the land surface nor infiltrated into the soil. Forpurposes of correlating DREL with therain- __ | __Palhtall excess fall which produced the flow, the hyetograph of \ the rainfall is also pruned by deducting the losses, = Figure 6,6 shows the hyetograph of a storm. The 3 initial loss and infiltration losses are subtracted from it, The resulting hyetograph is known as effective rainfall hyetograph (ER). I is also Ujpssees| i known as excess rainfall hyeiograph. Time—> (hours) oth DRII and ERI represent the same total Fig. 646 Effective Rainfall quantity but in different units. Sinee ERH is usu- Hyetograph (ERH) ally in em plotted against time, the area of ERIL ‘muliplied by the catchment area gives the total volume of direet runoff which is the Sameas the area of DRI, The initial loss and infiltration losses are estimated based on the available data of the catchment, Exawpte 6.2 Rainfall of magnirude 3.8 em and 2.8 em occurring on two consecutive 4-h durations on a catchment of area 27 km produced the following laydrograph of flow at the outlet of the catchment. Estimate the rainfall excess and 9 index. “Time from start oftaintall(h) 6 © 6 12 18 2$ 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 ‘Observed flow gan") 6 5 13 26 2 16 12 9 7 5 5 45 45 Souurow’ The hydrograph is ploted to seale (Fig. 6.7) It i seen that the storm hhydrograph has a base-flow component. For using the simple straight-line method of base- flow separation, hy eg (64) 0.83 x 27)! = 1.6 days =38.5 h However by inspection, DRH starsat = 0, has the peak at = 12 hand ends at ¢= 48 (which gives a value of N= 48 12 = 36h). As N= 36 h appears to be more satisfactory omylicary.comPrinPages aspx 280ows Printer Felony awed a Rea tees [BB trv Hyolgy a4 en Spd = OT ST a le aol [Efe |H anstecess=5 500m | a 4 & 20- 4 B iol directnunot 4 TR Oo 6 12 18 26 30 96 42 46 54 60 66 Tine in hours Fig.6.7 Base Flow Separation—Example 6.2 than N= 38.5 h, in the present case DRH is assumed Lo exist from ¢= 0 10 48h. A straight line base flow separation gives a constant value of $ mis for the hase flow. ‘Area of DRI Tagg 1 60x 60)] Hay) Lise 2 rb 6 if Fer S 1 1416) + ha64 16) + 306 +10 “nwa Lowen teenet gil! gt 4) Pid a ta] 3600 x6 x(B~ 21 +16 11-744 ~2) = Total direct runoff due to storm. runoff volume _ 1.4904 10° 4904 x 10° m* Ruvott depth = ee 0882 m rainfall excess “Total rainfal Duration = 8h 66-352 inter = SPSS 0.135 em Exawece 613) A siorm over a catchment of area 3.0 kw had a duration of 14 hours The mass eurve of rainfall ofthe storm is as follows: ime from start ofsiomeh) = 9 2 4 HK la Accumulated rainfall(em) 906 2882 6H TS 98H If the @ index for the catchment ix 04 coh, determine the effective rainfall kyetograph ‘and the volume of divect runoff. from the catchment due to the storm. Sovurions Firat the depth of rainfall in atime interval i the storm is calculated, (col. 4 of Table 6.2, 2 hours, in total duration of omylicary.comPrinPages aspxows Printer Felony The McGraw Hydrographs Table 6.2 Calculation for Example 6.3 “Time from Time Accumulated Depth of — gAr ER (em) Intensity start of interval rainfall In rainfall in (em) of ER storm,#(h) Arh) time r(em) —_Ar(em) (emi) 7 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 = = 2 2 06 06 08 ° 0 4 2 28 22 ox 14 07 6 2 $2 24 0x 16 0x 8 2 67 Ls ox 07 03s 10 2 18 ax ox . 0 12 2 92 7 08 D9 04s 14 2 96 os ox 0 0 1m a given time interval A, effective rainfall (ER) is given by ER = (actual depth of rainfall 9.1) or ER = 0, whichever és larger. The calculations are shown in 08 Table 6.2. Por plotting the hye graph, the intensity of effective 9.7 rainfall isealulated incol.7,— & The effective rainfall hyeto- § 6| graph is obtained by plotting ER gg intensity (col. 7) against time 2 aap, from start of storm (col. 1), and 2 04 0.95 is shown in Fig, 6.8. 5 tal Total effective rainfall = Direct = runoff due to storm = atea of ER & 0.2 hhyetograph = (0.7 + 0.8 » 0.35 a 0.45) x2=4.6em ‘Volume of Direct runott'= 45 % 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 1000 “ime from start of storm (7) 5.0 (1000)? = 23000 m Fig. 6.8 ERH of Storm—Example 6.3 6.6 UNIT HYDROGRAPH ‘The problem of predicting the Nood hydrograph resulting from a known storm in a catchment has received considerable attention, A large number of methods are pro- ‘posed 10 solve this problem and of them probably the most popular and widely used ‘method is the unii-hyurograph method. This method was first suggested by Sherman in 1932 and has undergone many refinements since then, unit iydrograph is defined as the hydrograph of direet runoff resulting from one unit depth (1 cm) of rainfall excess occurring uniformly over the basin and at uni form rate for a specified duration (D hours). The term unit here refers toa unit depth ‘of rainfall excess which is usually taken as 1 em, The duration, being very important characteristic, isused asa prefix to specific unit hydrograph, Thus one hasa 6-h unit hhydrograph, 12-h unit hydrograph, et. and in general a D-fr unit hydrograph applica ble wa given catchment, The definition of a unit hydrograph implies the following: omylicary.comPrinPages aspx 25140ows Printer Felony The McGraw (BB rence iyo ‘©The unit hydrograph represents the lumped response of the catchment to @ unit rainfall excess of D-h duration to produce a direct-runoff hydrograph Ic relates nly the dicect runoff to the rainfall exeoss. Hence the volume of water eon- tained in the unit hydrograph must be equal tothe rainfall excess. As I em depth. of rainfall excess is considered the area of the unit hydrograph is equal to a volume given by | em over the catchment. ‘© The rainfall is considered o havean average intensity ofexcess rainfall (ER) of 1/D em/h for the duration D-h ofthe storm. «©The distribution of the storm is considered to be uniform all over the catchment, Figure 6.9 shows a typical 6-h unit hydrograph. Here the duration of the rainfal excess is 6h ‘Area under the unit hydrograph = 12.92 x 10° m? lo en [2m] < Rainfall excess <0 Ranta Catchment area 2 0 21292 km? q & Sh unit 2 80 hyarograph 40 ° 0 6 12 44 24 90 96 42 48 54 60 66 Time in hours 69 Typical 6+ Unit Hydrograph Hence Catchment area of the basin = 1292 km? Jwo basic assumptions constitute the foundations for the unit-hydrogeaph theory. ‘These are: (i) the time invariance and (ii the linear response, TIME INVARIANCE, This first basic assumption is that the direct-runoff response to a given effective rat fall in a catchment is time-invariant, This implics that the DRH for a given ER in a catchment is always the same irrespective of when it occurs. LINEAR RESPONSE ‘The direct-runoff response to the rainfall excess is assumed to be linear. This is the _most important assumpiton ofthe unit-hydrograph sheory. L near response means that iffan input r, (#) eauses an output y (1) and an input x; (0) causes an output y, (2), them an input x, (2) +x (2) gives an output y, (2) + y2 (0). Consequently, fx (1) = 5) (0, omylicary.comPrinPages aspxows The McGraw Printer Feendly Hydrographs [207 then y3()=ry, (0). Thus, if the rainfall excess in a duration D is times the unt depth, the resulting DRI will have ordinates bearing ratio r to those of the corresponding: ‘Dz unit hydrograph. Sinee the area of the resulting DRH should increase by the ratio 1 the base of the DRI! will be the same as that ofthe unit hydrograph The assumption of linear response in a unit hydrograph enables the method of Superposition to be used to derive DRIs. Accordingly, if two rainfall excess of D-h duration each occur consecutively, their combined effect is obtained by superposing, the respective DRHs with due care being taken to account for the proper sequence of events, These aspects resulting from the assumption of linear response are made clearer in the following two illustrative examples. Examece 6.4 Given below are the ordiuates of at 6-h unit hydrograph for a catch iment. Calculate the ordinates of the DRH due ta vanfall excess of 3-5 em occurring in bh. Time th) 6 9 12 15 If 2 30.36 42 48 54 60 69 UH ordinate (mis) 0-25 50-85 125 160 18S 160 110 60 36 28 16 8 0 SoLurion: "The desired ordinates of the DRH are obtained by nnultiplying the ordinates, Of the unit hydrograph by a factor of 3.5 as in Table 6.3. The resulting DRH as also the unit hydrograph are shown in Fig. 6.10 (a). Note that the time hase of DRH is not changed! and remains the same as that ofthe unit hydrograph. The intervals of coordinates of the unit hydrograph (shown in column 1) are not in any way related to the duration of the sainfall excess and can be any convenient value. Table 6.3. Calculation of DRH Due to 35 ER—Example 6.4 "Time (h) Ordinate of h ‘Ordinate of 3.5 em unit hydrograph (ms) DRRH (mn')s) 7 z 3 0 ° o 3 25 875 6 50 175.0 9 8S 2075 2 123 4375 15 160 500.0 is 185 as 24 160 560.0 30 110 385.0 36 60 2100 a 36 126.0 48 25 a7s 54 16 360 oo ‘ 280 CG) 0 0 omylicary.comPrinPages aspx 2riaoows The McGraw Printer Feendly (BOB) Engineering Hyttology —> [ori 500 400 00 200 0 aw o 6 1278 24 a0 36 42 48 SH GO OS 77 Time in hours Fig. 6.10(a) 3.5 cm DRI derived from 6-h Unit Hydrograph—Example 6.4 3.5om0RH Discharge (m/s) Exaweue 6.5 Two storms each of 6-h duration and having rainfall excess values af 3.0 and 2.0 em respectively accur successively. The 2-em ER rain follows the 3-cm rain. The 6-b unit hydrosgraph for the catchment isthe same ax given in Ecample 64. Calen- late the resulsing DRE, SOLITON: First, the DRHs due to 3,0 and 2.0m ER are calculated, as in Exarmple 6.3, hy multiplying the ordinates of the unit hydrogeaph by 3 and 2 respectively. Noting that the 2-cm DRH occurs after the 3-cm DRH, the ordinates of the 2-cm DRH are lagged by 6 his as shown in column 4 of Table 6.4, Columns 3 and 4 give the proper sequence of the two DRHs. Using the method of superposition, the ordinates of the resulting DRH are oblained by combining the ordinates oF the 3- and 2-em DRHS at any instant. By this process the ordinates ofthe § em» DRI ate abained in column S, Figure 6.10(b) shows the ‘component 3- and 2-em DRHs as well as the composite S-em DRH obtained by the method of supemposition, ‘Table 64 Calculation of DRH by method of Superposition —Example 65 i Ordinate Ordinate Ordinate of Ordinate of | Remarks (h) of HUH of-emDRH = 2emDRH Sem DRI (as) (e012) 3 (col. 2 (coh 3+ lagged by col. 4) ohmyx2 (miss) T z 3 4 5 6 a 0 0 0 0 3 25 5 0 a 6 50 150 0 150 9 8S 255 50 305 2 125 378 100 475 5 160 480) 170 650) 18 18s 555 250 805 (Contd omylicary.comPrinPages aspx 26140ows The McGraw (Contd) en ey 30 36 2 48 34 6 (66) cc 8 Nowe! a7a5y GTS) 160 480. Ho 330. 60 180 36 108 25 8 16 48 8 m4 en 1) 0 a 0 The entries in col, 4are shifled by 6 h Printer Feendly G20) 370 320. 20 120 2 30 2 06) (10,6) 850. 650. 400. 28 147 98 56 ean), (10.6) o time relative 1 col. 2. Interpolated value Interpolated value ‘Due to unequal time interval of ordinates a few entries have to be intempolated to complete the able. These interpolated values are shown in parentheses. 100 lo 6_12h & [S6-erH 0 6 12 18 24 30 96 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 Time in hours ‘A=DR duo to frst period ofdem ER B= DR due to second period of 2em ER. Fig. 6.10(b) Principle of Superposition—Example 65 APPLICATION OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH Using the basie principles of the unit hydrograph, one can easily caleulate the DRI in 2 catchment due to given storm if an appropriate nit hydrograph was available. Let ic be assumed that a D-/ unit-hydrograph and the storm hyetograph are available. The initial losses and infiltration losses are estimated and deducted from the storm hhyctograph io obtain the ERH (Sce. 6.8). The ERH is then divided into .M blocks af omylicary.comPrinPages aspx 2140ows Printer Felony The McGraw j) Engnoering Hydrology Dh duration cacl. The rainfall exeess in each D-h duration is then operated upon the unit hydrograph successively to gt various DRIcurves, Pee een eH ‘The ordinates of these DRIIs F i are suitably lagged to obtain ate the proper time sequence and Ra are then collected and added teach time clement to obtain the required net DRH due to the storm. Consider Fig. 6.11 in which a sequence of M rain- fall excess values Ry, Roy ss Rj.» Ry each of duration D- Inis shown, The line w [a is at the ordinate of a D-h unit FAL time Inydrograph ath from the be- Fig. 6.11 DRH due to an ERH inning. ‘The direct ranoff due to Ry al time-ris Oy = Ry ewla ‘The direct runoff due to Ry at time (1 D) is Qs=Ry-ule D] Similarly, Q=Ry-ule G1) DY and Op. ~ Ry [OD ‘Thus at any time Z the Total direct runoff is Q.= X= ¥ Re ult-G-1) DI (65) The arithmetic calculations of Hg. (6.5) are best performed in a tabular manner as indicated in Examples 6.5 and 6.6. After deriving, the net DRI, the estimated base flow is then added to obtain the toval flood hydrograph, Digital computers are extremely useful in the calculations of flood hydrographs tlorough the use of unit hydrograpl, The electronic spread shcet (such as MS Exec!) is ideally suited to perform the DRH calculations and to view the final DRH and flood Ai] excess rainfall D-hunit hydrograph | t hydrographs. Exawpte 6.6) The ordinates ofa 6-hour unit hydrograph of a cazclmaent is given below ime (h) 369 2/0 18 2 30 36,42 48 Ordinate Of6-hUH 0 25 30 85125 160 185 160 110 60 36 25 Time th) 54 60 69 Ordinate Of6-hUH 16 8 0 Derive the flood hydrograph in the catchment due to the storm given below: “Time from stant of storm (h) 0 6 2 8 -Accumolated rainfall (em) o 35 10 165 omylicary.comPrinPages aspxows Printer Feendly aces a kee ed Hydrographs (2ii) The storm lass rate (9 index) for the catchment is estimated as 0.25 enn(h. The base flow ‘can be assumed to be 15 m/s at the beginning and increasing by 2.0 m'ss for every 12 hows till the end of the direct-runoff kydrograph. SOLUTION! ‘The effective rainfall hyetograph is calculated as inthe following table. ‘The direct runoff hydrograph is next calculated by the method of superposition as indi- cated in Table 6.5. The ondinates of the unit hydrograph are multiplied by the ER values successively. The second and third set of ordinates are advanced hy 6 and 12 h respee- tively and the ordinates at a given time interval added. The base flow is then added to ‘obtain the flood hydrograph shown in Col 8, Table 6.6 Tnterval Ist Ghours 2nd 6 hours. Rainfall depih (em) 3S (0-35 Loss @ 0.25 emih for 6 15 Is Elective rainfall (cm) 20 60 Table6.5 Calculation of Flood Hydrograph due toa known ERH— Example 6.6 Time Ordinates DRHdue DRH due DRH due Ordinates Base Ordinates ofUH to2em te2cm tedem of final flow of flood ER ER ER DRH (mis) hydro- CoL2 — Cok? — COLD (CLS raph x20 x60 x40 4458) (n'y (Advanced (Advanced (Cole by6h) by 12h) +7) 2 3 4 = 6 a) 0 0 0 5 is 3 25 30 0 0 13 65 6 50 100 0 a 15 us 9 85 170 150 0 15 335 12 138 250, 300 4 7 567 15 160 320. 510 100 iT 987 18185 30. 750 200 P4337 2H (1725) B45) 960 340. 7) 1662 2 160 3200110 500 19 1949 27) (35) @7)— (1035) 191964 30110 220, 960) 740 19 1939 3660 120 660) 640 210 4a 2 36 2 360. 440 21 893 4 25 50 216 240 23 529 S416 2 130 14a 2B 349 oo 8 16 96 100 5 237 6 GN Ga) ak 64 35 142 6 0 0 2 0 6 2 48 2 75 B 0 o R 0 0 Gos) an 7 49 al 0 0 2 2 M4 21 a7 Note: Due to the unequal time intervals oF unit hydrograph ordinates, a few entries, indicated in parentheses have to be interpolated to complete the table omylicary.comPrinPages aspx ao