THE MANUFACTURE OF ARMOUR AND HELMETS IN SIXTEENTH CENTURY JAPAN (CHUKOKATCHU SEISAKUBEN) & by SAKAKIBARA KOZAN EDO, 1800-—~> translated by T. WAKAMEDA revised by A. J. KOOP B.A. AND HOGITARO INADA 1912 revised and edited by H. RUSSELL ROBINSON 1962 THE HOLLAND PRESSCONTENTS page: List of Illustrations in text 6 List of Plates 8 Introduction by Hokuzan Yamato Shinyu (or Nobuari) 11 Preface by the Author's son 12 Preface by Hayakawa Kiukei 13 General Sketch (Daii) 15 Chapter _I Seven Important Considerations in the Manufacture of New Armour 23 Chapter II The Kabuto (Helmet) 33 Chapter III The Men Yoroi (Face Armour) 67 Chapter IV The Nodowa (Throat Ring) 76 Chapter V The Kote (Sleeve Armour) 79 Chapter VI The Dd (Cuirass) 93 Chapter VII The Kusazuri (Tassets) 104. Chapter VIII The Sode (Shoulder Guards) 110 Chapter IX The Haidate (Thigh Armour) 116 Chapter X The Suneate (Shin Guards) 119 Chapter XI The Odoshi (Lacing) 122 Appendix I Odoshi 133 Appendix. IT The Myachin School of Armourers 134 Appendix IIL Types of Helmet 138 Bibliography 145 Index 147FIG. FIG. FIG. HG. IG. Fig. One ow FIG. 7 Fic. & FIG. FIG. FIG. FG. Fic. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FG. FIG. HIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. Fic. FIG. 10 1 2 B 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 ar 22 23 25 26 27 28 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT Iron scale armour (ke1x3) V-VII century Helmet shapes said to be those made by the first twelve Mydchin Masters Diagram of the method employed to forge an armour plate YOROI-HITATARE ‘XVIII century armourer at work A & B. Two warriors from the picture roll of the Gosannen War showing the MOTODORI C. From the same source, a warrior wearing EROSHI, WAIDATE and one KOTE. D. Two warriors wearing TeNUGUT and one with MoToDopr projecting through the TEHEN of his helmet Samurai BBOSHI as worn under the helmet up to the end of the XIII century Sections of helmet plates A. wacttt with normal plates. B. AsHINAGARE (legs drifting) Types of Mapezasat KASAJIRUSHT TOSEI-KAGO-BORO OHARAIDATE Diagrammatic section of a multi-plate helmet Section of a helmet bowl showing the tying cord ring set tangentially in che KOSHIMAKT KABUTO-NO-o (sHINOBI-NO-0) The early sit1kORO The transition s1xORO The medieval su1koRO HACHITSUKE-KOZANE Warriors wearing aveunt and w6aE from the Heiji Monogatari ‘A. Warrior wearing a 15aTe from a picture roll of the Gosannen War. B. Two views of a HAPPURI or SOMEN worn by Ogasawara Houn. C. Two views of a HAPPURI or SOMEN wom by Nait6 Shuri One piece helmet (kaxt-Nant) and Memeo by Rydyei MEMPO and HOATE attributed to XVI century Mydchin armourers Nopowa owl eee in the Ancient Period, showing single and double T#KKO attributed to some Mydchin Masters KUSARI (mail) 15 18 27 29 33 34 37 “a 45 48 49 50 33 5 35 38 4yvwve 2e2FIG. 29 A, SHOBU-KOMA-GATA-GAWA. B. SUGIDACHI-GAWA. C. TSUMEGATA- Awa. D. & E. Five and seven leaved sHOBU-GAWA. F, KOZAKURA-GAWA 86 #16. 30. The lacing of the KoTE 88 FIG. 31 Shapes of Scale Heads and Solid Plates of roset-cusoKu 96 FIG. 32. HANA-KOZANE 105 Fic. 33 A. 0-sops. B, Tying an AGEMAKI Bow. 110 FiG. 34 A. Back of a Dé of the Ancient Period showing the arrangement of the cords connecting the sone with the AGEMAKI. B, MOGAMI-SODE and TSUBO-SODE m FIG. 35 MATE-GARA KAWARA 116 FIG. 36 KEBIKI-ODOSHI 122 FIG. 37 SUGAKE-ODOSHI 123 FIG. 38 A, YAMAMICHI-GASHIRA. B, GO-ISHI-GASHIRA 124 FIG. 39 KOZANz of the Ancient Period 12s FIG. 40 CHIKIRI-ODOSHI 126 FIG. 41 MIMI-ITO and HISHI-NUI 137 Appendix IIL Types of Helmet (kABUTO) from the BUYS-BEN-RIAKU 138-143FRONTISPIECE PLATE 1 PLATE PLATE 11 PLATE IV PLATE V PLATE Vi PLATE Vit PLATE Vit PLATE 1x PLATE x PLATE Xt PLATE Xt PLATE Xm PLATE XIV, LIST OF PLATES Samurai armed in the fashion of the Momoyama Period From the YOROI-CHAKUYO NO SHIDAT Facing page KON-ITO-opOSHI 6-YoROt early XII century ‘Oyamazumi-jinsha Shrine, Omishima 16 A. YAHAZU-ZANE-SUGAKE-ODOSHI TOSEI GUSOKU of Date Masamune Momoyama Period. Date Family Collection B. nrwa-p6 with socu No KABUTO late XVI century Tachiuchi Collection, Tokyo 7 Between pages ‘A. Tossi-Gusoxu of Asano Yukinaga (1576-1613) Property of Asano family, Tokyo B. Toset~Gusoxu of Satake Yoshinobu (1570-1633) Property of Mr. Yoshiharu Satake, Tokyo 24-25 A. Set of xrwams-FuDA, Collection of Field Marshal Sir Francis Festing B, vcHIDAsH TossI-GusoKU by Mydchin Osumi-no-Kami Ki no Mumesuke, late XVII or early XVII century ‘Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 24-25 A. Toset-cusoxu bearing Mon of the Tokugawa family, mid XIX century Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York B. MURASAKI-YOSE-SUGAKE-ODOSHI TOsEI-GusoKU, mid XVIII century Victoria and Albert Museum 24-25 MOYEGI-ODOSHI DANGAIYE-DO made about 1860 Collection of Axel Petersen, Copenhagen 24-25 KASHIDORI-ODOSHI D-MARUO presented to King James I in 1614 by the Governor of Edo On loan to the Tower Armouries from the Royal Collection 32533 MOGAMI-HARAMAKI of Nait Yukiyasu about 1570 ‘The Armouries, Tower of London 3233 ASAGI-oDosmI TosEI-GuSOKU of Méri Kobayakawa about 1730 ‘Manchester University Museum 32533 Ancient and Medieval Helmets 32533 act of Ancient Type 4o-4t The KOsHOzAN MACHT 40-4r act of the Saotome School 4o-4t Helmets of Medieval Form 4o-40PLATE XV PLATE XVI PLATE XVII PLATE XVII. PLATE XIX. PLATE Xx PLATE XXI PLATE Xx PLATE 23cm PLATE xxiv PLATE xxv PLATE XVI PLATE XVI PLATE XVI PLATE 200K PLATE 20K PLATE XXXX1 PLATE 200xI PLATE xxxmmt and PLATE XXXIV Deuals of the nacHt Types of TEHEN-KANAMONO Helmet Linings Helmet Crests Types of su1KoRO ‘Masks and Throat-ring, Victoria and Albert Museum ‘Types of Mask ‘Whole Masks and Throat-rings Types of kore Types of kore Types of pd ‘Types of Dd KUSAZURI and SASHIMONO Brackets NAMBAN-GUSOKU Types of sove Types of warvare Types of wapate Types of sunzaTe Order of Arming from the YOROI-CHAKUTO No SuIDAI Between pages 56-37 56-57 5657 56-57 65 Between pages 80-81 80-81 112-113 112-113, 112-113 112-113 128-129EDITOR’S NOTE When my friend and colleague, Mr B. W. Robinson of the Department of Metalwork in the Victoria and Albert Museum, lent me the manuscript of this book to make a copy I soon realised that here was an instructive work of unequalled importance to students of Japanese military history. It was not long before my knowledge of the subject of Japanese armour had broadened considerably with the aid of Sakakibara K6zan's erudite writing and the careful revision of the late Mr A. J. Koop and his friend Hogitaré Inada. 1 was determined then to make this work available for all who are interested in Japanese armour as soon as a publisher could be found who would consider the work a worthwhile proposition. Nearly fourteen years have elapsed before my hopes have been realised but in that time I have been able to study much actual armour and have other important works translated and still my first opinion of K6zan’s writings has not diminished. I hope that the readers of this book find in it some of the answers they have looked for in vain in the few short papers which constitute the literature of Japanese armour in the English language. Iam indebted to Mr B. W. Robinson for permitting me to publish this manuscript; to Mr L. J. Anderson for placing at my disposal his entire collection for study and photographing; to Mr W. Reid for taking the photographs for many of the plates; to MrT. B. Lindsay for the loanof the manuscript YOROI- CHAKUYO NO SHIDAI and the colour transparencies of helmets for Plate X, and to my wife Margaret for typing the text. H. RUSSELL ROBINSONINTRODUCTION BY HOKUZAN YAMATO SHINYU (oR NoBuARI) My friendship with K6zan was of the greatest service to me. He was a man of much erudition, being especially versed in the manners and customs of the Kamakura and later periods. Deeply learned in all things pertaining to war, he took as great an interest in military as I do in literary matters. Hence his wide knowledge of the structure of weapons and their comparative advantages, their origin and their evolution. A former work of his, the Tokenks, had a large circulation. At his request I wrote an introduction to it. It occurred to him one day that, as regards to the work they produced, the armourer was a friend as much as the arrowsmith an enemy to humanity, and that one who discusses the keenness of swords is no better in this respect than the arrowsmith instead of exhibiting the human-kindness of the armourer. It was thus that my late friend was led to write the present work on armour, a subject which he has long studied. I gladly acceded to a request to write an introduction to it, but many calls on my time caused me to leave the task un- touched for several months. My old friend has now suddenly passed away, but his son, Hakusho, who perpetuates his father’s tastes and aspirations, called on me with a copy of the work about to be published and begged me to fulfil my promise. The sight of the book brought the tears unbidden to my eyes; I seemed to see the author once again and to hear his voice as in days gone by. There was no fault to find with the accuracy and freshness of his research. It is sad to think how many are those whose allotted span of life is no longer than that of the dog or the horse, as evanescent as the trees and the grass. The world contains many books, and many useless books, whose loss would leave the world no poorer. Not so with the works of my old friend, which may all claim to be indispensable. From them, indeed, the reader may judge the great service of their writer. A modern swordsmith, by name Suishin-shi, noticed a remark in my intro- duction to the Tokenké to the effect that the true art of forging blades had passed away. He thereupon devoted all his mind and strength to the making of asword which he then presented to me. In colour it is like water, in appearance like frost—a fit weapon to slay the rhinoceros and the elephant by land, or the dragon and the four-legged serpent of the deep waters. It was K6zan’s book, oathe was kind enough to tell me, that suggested to him how to make it, showing how the waves spread in all directions from that which is of true service. Such is the case with even a trifling benefit; a greater one will be boundless in its good effects. This incident has little to do with the present book, but will serve to show that it, too, is of great utility. My task is done and I feel that I have fulfilled my promise to my late friend now under the soil. Calligraphy by KONAN SKI KATSUAKI, KWANSEI XII (A.D. 1800) 12th month a day before the “Great Cold’ period PREEACE BY THE AUTHOR'S SON An excellent motto for the soldier is that which warns him not to forget danger while at ease nor war while at peace. In the Yih Ch’ing of Confucius we read ‘It will not fall for it hangs on the mulberry-tree’,! meaning that one should not forget war. We live in an age of peace—one that has lasted so long that extravagance is the order of the day and effeminacy is daily on the in- crease even among military men. This was a matter of much grief to my father, who wrote the present work and showed it to me. His wish was to warn us against letting peace drive all thoughts of war from our minds. He was not long for this world, alas, and has now been these two years in his grave. Rummaging of late among his papers I found the manuscript in question and it went to my heart to think that his own handwriting is still left to the world. I looked upon it as upon my father’s spirit. What could I say to him if it should be kept in the box and be destroyed by fire? If it is unfilial to injure one’s parent's bodily remains, how much more so to wound his very soul. By chance I was recently approached by the publisher with a view to the publication of the work and willingly agreed. My editing has been done with too little thought as to the measure of my capacities. I shall be grateful if those of wider learning will correct my mistakes in it. Composed and written out by author's son CHOHATSU KWANSEI XI (1799), roth monthPREFACE BY HAYAKAWA KIUKEI When he goes forth to war the soldier is prepared for the assault of arrow and gun-shot, ready to leap into fire and boiling water. His dauntless bearing may be due to his loyal spirit and his natural courage, but if his armour be not strong he can avail but little. Keenly did Confucius appreciate this fact when in the Shu Ch’ing he said ‘Give your best attention to armour!” Our great empire of the East has ever been famed for the excellence of its military equipment even from the earliest days. But that which sufficed for defence before the introduction of fire-arms and under less strenuous con- ditions of conflict, proved of little use in medieval times when battles raged with the greatest fury, surpassing the violence of the fiercest furnace; when the thunderous roar of musketry carried all before it like the lightning stroke.? It was thus that the armourers of the medieval period were led to the improvement of their work. Directing all their efforts towards increasing the strength of armour at the expense of mere decorative beauty, they have left us the best models which we can possibly follow. But from the time when our divine ancestor (Jinso, i.e., Iyeyasu, the first Tokugawa Shdgun, 1603-1616), by his military genius, established the govern- ment on a firm footing, the country has been ordered by a succession of wise rulers, whose benign virtue has spread to every part. Day by day the national prosperity has increased and the present age of peace has lasted these two hundred years. As a consequence the wildest statements are made by armourers on the subject of arms and military equipment. Some follow faithfully the ancient models, others cling to canons on no authoritative grounds. The taste of the passing day rules the making of armour. The proper forging of an iron plate yields in importance to the decorative appearance of the work. Armour is looked upon as a mere plaything of a peaceful age. What chance has it against the power of modern gunfire? Our author had always looked upon these tendencies with the greatest regret and was led to write this book. In it he discusses the comparative efficiency of different styles of armour, basing his arguments on the makes of the medieval periods. He is exceedingly free with his comments, which are detailed and correct in every point.Death overtook him almost before he had completed his labours. His elder son, Daikoku, in fulfilment of his father's wishes, has prepared the manuscript for press. I gladly offer this preface which I have been requested to write. Composed and written out by KIZAN HAYAKAWA KIUKEI KWANSEI XI (1799) last day of 11th monthCHUKO KATCHU SEISAKUBEN? GENERAL SKETCH (pat) For authentic information as to Japanese armour we must go to the ancient historical records, to the various illustrated treatises on archaeology and often works of a similar nature. As, however, it is inadvisable to treat a large subject from a single purview, we shall not deal with the earlier armour, but shall confine our attention to that produced between the Tembun and the Keichd eras (i.¢., A.D. 1532 to 1611), a period, indeed, in which armour was at its best. It is mere pedantry to limit oneself to purely archaelogical research and is a positive disadvantage when aiming at a general comprehension of this subject. Armour is a means of protecting a warrior’s person from bow or gunshot wounds and at the same time should permit of easy and valorous action whether in the van or the rear of the fight. In the case of an object of so great importance, the principle of its manu- facture must not be neglected, and the medieval models are undoubtedly the best to follow. The Middle Ages saw radical changes in military accoutrements and par- ticularly in the sword. For this the reader is referred to my Sentdkenk6 (‘Treatise on Swords’). Generally speaking, in the early ages of Japan, armour was manufactured by Government order, an Imperial edict being issued for the whole country. Thus in a.p. 722 an order was given to Yoroitsukuri* no Natoko of Kitishii while in 762 cotton armour was ordered to be made at Dazaifu in Kitishi. In 779 orders were given for armour of leather and of iron, while during Yen- tiaku (782-805) 2,900 iron suits were made at Dazaifu, according to an ancient record, In all these cases the work was carried out in obedience to an Imperial edict. From ancient historical works we learn also that the armour so produced was served out as required; in the early days of Kitiyei (ancient Imperial bodyguard) and of frontier outpost garrisons (henyS gundan), and it was IsY FA { ) PL am wh ee nh mh CN (VIAN i 4 i a it a a » me. .3. dron salle smuour (eured) v-vie pee SPM probably not till about the Shohei and Tenkei eras (931-946) that individuals began to furnish their own armour.> Later the Minamoto clan became possessed of the HACHI-RYT NO YOROI (see below) and then the military class generally made their own leather suits— a task of several months duration it seems.® The tradition, by the way, that one Handa, a member of the Sakonye-fu (Left Bodyguard), made armour is not based upon any authoritative record. The HACHI-RYd NO YoROI (eight suits of armour) were as follows: HACHI-RYU (eight dragons) USUGANE (thin metal) (GENDA-GA) uBU-GINU (swaddling clothes) TSUKI-KAzU (number of months) HI-KAzZU (number of days) TATE-NASHI (requiring no shield) HIZA-MARU _ (knee-round)? oMoODAKA (pattern of lacing; water plantain) They are mentioned in the Gosannen-Ki (History of the Three Years’ War of 1086-1089), in the Hogen and Heiji Monogatari, (Histories of the Hogen War of 1156, and of the Heiji insurrection of 1159), in the Gempei-seisui-ki (History of the varying fortunes of the Minamoto and Taira Clans, covering 16Sane ner ia a OPEL tte eer LE Fe TL tla \the period of 1160-1185), in the Nagato text of the Heike Monogatari (History of the Taira, late twelfth century), in the Taihei-ki (History of the period 1318-1368), in the Baishd-ron (Discussion on Plum and Pine) and other works. Their makers are still unknown despite the fact that they are set out in a ‘private record’ (shi-ki of the Reike, officials whose duty it was to settle the letails of civil and military uniform, etc.), as also in the Idzu-butoki-roku, ‘Chronicle of the Glory of Military Virtue’, a work in the possession of the Myochin family. Even such details as the names of the Emperors who con- ferred the suits and of the generals (shdgun) who received them are given, as well as the colours of their lacing. But like so many of the statements met with in works by military men and reike, all this is untrustworthy and not sup- ported by early records and drawings. Modern armourer families include the Iwai, the Haruta, the Ichikuchi, and the Mydchin. The last named originated in Takeshiuchi-no-Sukune (?) whose sixteenth descendant, Munetsugu, made a suit for the Emperor Tenchi (reigned 662-671); and the family were appointed hereditary armourers to the Imperial house. But these statements rest on uncertain authority. Myochin Munesuke, Idzumo-no-Kami, lived 1184-1189 and the family still preserve an autographed document of the Shégun Yoritomo in which the recipient, Munesuke, is lauded as Tenku muhi Fujiwara no Munesuke (the unrivalled FUJIWARA NO MUNESUKE).? The nineteenth Mydchin Master, Kyidayi (Hara and other authorities give Kyfitard) Muneiye,!° made an armour for the then Emperor (Okimachi, ro6th Emperor, who reigned 1558-1586, or his successor Go Y6zei, 1587-1611). The family similarly preserve the Imperial autograph granted him on this occasion. The antiquity of the Myéchin school is thus well established.® No signatures appear on armour until the great Munesuke’s tenth and eleventh descendants,!! Yoshihiro (1390-1393) and Yoshitoshi (1394-1427). Since their time signatures have become the rule. Authenticity certificates (KIWAME-FUDA, Plate IV, a) were first issued for the family’s work by the twenty-first Mydchin Master, Kunimichi.'? In these a special nomenclature was invented for types of helmets, the prices varying accordingly; these names, such as DAIYENZAN, HEICHOZAN, etc., are re- ferred to in a later chapter (II). Such appraisals are to be relied upon," but the prices should be regarded as a private matter.14 The Honnami family give opinions on and valuations of swords, a regret~ table custom which originated in the following manner. The Ashikaga Shdguns near the time of their downfall in the sixteenth century, having no 17 2-MOAAHKa MUNEYUKI ay a SSL LLL Ciara MUNEYASU YOSHIHIRO YOSHITOSHI FIG. 2. Helmet shapes said to be those made by the first twelve Mydchin Masters. estates nor money wherewith to reward their supporters, ordered Myo- honnami to classify swordsmiths by merit into three classes and then granted their followers as rewards weapons thus classified. As with armour, these prices serve in a measure as standards for judging the excellence of a sword. Myochin armour is unsurpassed, and the phrase Kessaku (j.¢,, masterpiece) is commonly applied to it.!5 A warrior deficient in courage cannot but become a very rae with the hope of a Myéchin armour as a reward for bravery before his eyes. 18Armour is classified according to its date as follows: 1. Antiquity (j6dai; to 1532) 2. Middle Ages (chitko; 1532-1614) 3. Modern Times (kindai; from 1614) 1. The armour of antiquity includes such helmets as the DATYENZAN (or 6-Bosut; see later), sH1KORO such as the 6-MANJV, cuirasses such as the YOKAWAMONO, HARAMAKI, DO-MARU, pauldrons such as the G-soDE, greaves such as the O-TATE-AGE sUNE-ATE, also the tsuTsU type of KOTE, etc. Generally speaking it seems to have combined utility with orna- ment. 2. Medieval armour, i.e., of the date 1532 to 1614, belongs to a time when the great progress then taking place in the evolution of tactics and arms laid the foundations of modern principles in these particular matters. It is to be regretted that the same thing cannot be said about armour, which in the Middle Ages found its sole raison d'etre in the necessity of giving the wearer perfect freedom of action. The armour worn by noted warriors (of those times) should be closely studied by us and serve as our models; the result can only be perfect confidence and security. A mere glance at such examples with their eminently soldierly appearance is enough to make us realise the benefit of closely examin- ing and copying their styles. 3. Modern armour is unpractical and ill-considered, being made on mere arm- chair principles (‘mat’ principles, as the original has it). We need not dicuss it. Arai Hakuseki’s'® work on ancient arms and armour, the Honchd-Gunki-ko, was certainly an excellent guide for later generations in the collection of the arms and accoutrements of antiquity, diffusing as it did knowledge of these for the first time in modern ages. Now the majority of modern armourers have grown to neglect the medieval models which proved so efficient in the severest battles of Japan’s history. The more ancient styles have monopolised their attention and those of the Middle Ages have practically dropped out of general knowledge. Even Mydchin Kunimichi, the twenty-first Master (1624-1643), and his successors followed the more ancient models, and particularly the DALYENZAN helmet (Chapter II, section 1), to the exclusion of medieval styles, for which they received no orders. Hakuseki’s work appeared a hundred years after the age of battles (Senyoku- jidai, roughly 1490-1600), at a time when military accoutrements of the Middle Period had almost faded from knowledge. The Gunkiké misled people into forgetting them entirely. 19On the introduction of fire-arms'? into Japan, good armourers such as My®chin Nobuiye, Mydchin Takayoshi and My6chin Yoshimichi turned their attention to the production of a bullet-proof armour. After much experiment- ing they invented the sixty-two-plate helmet called KOsH6zaN (Chapter II, section 3), which proved of great suitability. People of our day do not realise the great pains they took in this matter. In 1585, 6th day of the 2nd month, the Shogun Iyeyasu (here referred to by the honorific Jinso, ‘divine ancestor’, specially reserved for this personage) ordained that none but knobbed or sixty-two-plate helmets or those made at Yohagi in Mikawa province should be used. Armourers of those days showed loyalty and filial piety; in times of peace they had war ever before their minds. But nowadays few people properly appreciate arms and armour; the craze is all for the collection of pictures of ancient accoutrements such as the Tomo (archers’ leather wrist shield), models of KEssHu’® and tinder-bags (H1-ucHI-BUKURO) from the Kitsubu-hikun. Illustrations of ancient armour and helmets are also greedily sought for and the masterpieces of the Middle Ages are completely neglected. The spirit of the curio-collector is abroad, evoked by the publication of the GuNKIKO. All grounded opinions are widely believed, trivial details insisted upon, and the wildest statements made. It is upon these regrettable principles that modern armour is fashioned, the only consolation being that this revival of interest in the subject has necessarily encouraged an awakening of soldierly feeling. Nevertheless, it is a matter of keen regret that military writers have passed on their ill-digested fireside opinions to their pupils and the latter have applied the principles to the reno- vation of existing medieval examples.!? The true inwardness of the medieval style is known to few, although that of the earlier age is familiar from extant monuments and ancient pictures. My friend Arai Kiiisai Katsumasa, an aged retainer (HANCHU) of Lord Matsudaira of Tatebayashi in K6tsuke Province,?? and a man possessed of great knowledge of ancient military science, regrets that the advantageousness of medieval armour is so little known. His wide-reaching investigation of the armour of famous medieval warriors, an indispensable adjunct for the battles of their day, has equipped him with a minute knowledge of the styles suited to an age of the most strenuous fighting. Our tastes are the same. We meet every morning and evening and discuss with enthusiasm the spirit of the great medieval warriors. As a result I have written this book with his kind assistance. The work opens with a discussion of seven important considerations in the 20manufacture of armour. Next are treated the advantages and disadvantages of various details of the armour, such as whether they should be rigid or yielding, points all minutely discussed. The reader is begged to read it through slowly and fully. NOTES 1, Giles Dictionary sub. saNG (mulberry-tree) says: a phrase used in the sense of endur- ing safety, from a sentence in the yi-ching ‘though (threatened by) overthrow, (yet is he) securely bound to the mulberry-stem’.—a.J.K. . This sentence gives in a few words the real reasons for the great change from scale to x solid plate construction which took place in the second quarter of the century.— HLRR. 3. Literally, Middle Ages Armour and Helmets Manufacturing Treatise. 4- Literally, armour-maker. 5. It is more likely that the nobility bought and kept their own armours at all times. Certainly when they died it was buried with them up to the eighth century A.p.— FRR. 6. I would question this when professional armourers already existed. —H.R.R. 7. Honché Gunkiko describes five of the eight armours of the Minamoto as follows: HACHI-RYU laced with black Chinese twill and bearing eight gold or silver dragons. TSUKIKAZU laced with tawny brown Chinese twill. HIZAMARU laced with the hide from a thousand cows’ knees. USUGANE, HI-ODoOsHI flame red leather. TATENASHI, KURO-ITO-oDosHI, black silk lacing, with suso-KANAMONO of SHISHI-NO-MARU type. 8. Mr Hachiro Yamagami, the leading modern Japanese authority on armour, con- demns the Myéchin genealogy before about 1500. The only evidence he can find regarding this famous family is that they were bit makers at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Nobuiye and Yoshimichi, both working in the first half of the sixteenth century, are certainly the earliest Mychin names to be found on signed pieces of armour. Fine armours signed by the Haruta family go well back into the fifteenth century.—H. R.R. Munesuke, the first Master (shodai) of the Myéchin School, was also the first to bear the family name Myéchin instead of that of Masuda. He made the helmet, armour and bridle used against the fox-women Tamamo-no-maye, in reward for which he received from the Emperor Konoye the kami title above quoted (the first instance of 2° 2110. & 14. IS. 16. 1, 20, +. such a title being honorarily conferred) and the name Myschin derived from the Imperial criticism of the work as mei-haku chin-ki (‘rare and excellent work indeed), His was also the first instance of the honorary conferring of the Fujiwara clan-name. Sn, Muneiye, son of the eighteenth Master Sadaiye, died in 1614 at the age of seventy- four. He made for Iyeyasu, the first Tokugawa shogun, a helmet called Da1zEN- HEICHO-ZAN to go with the sHrpaYA-ODoSuHT or ‘fern lacing’ suit of armour.— AK. . The eleventh and twelfth Masters.—A.J.K. Before the honorary territorial titles Nagato-no-Kami and Yamato-no-Kami; flour- ished 1624-1643.—A.J.K. | The certifying of pieces of armour by the Mydchin may have been inspired by the Honnami family’s success as sword experts but with one big difference. The Hon- nami certified swords by all smiths while the Myéchin only certified pieces of armour as being the work of their ancestors. —H.R.R. Tt was not etiquette for Samurai to discuss money matters openly. In this work it is often referred to as Sakumono (the make).—a.J.K. Famous litterateur, born 1656, died 1725. The Honcho Gunkik6 was published in 1737-—A.J-K. TEP?G, literally ‘iron fire-arm’, introduced in 1542 by Fernao Mendez Pinto, the first European to land on the shores of Japan. He showed the governor of Tanegashima island, where he landed (Tanegashima Tokitaka by name), the use and principles of fire-arms, and Tokitaka thereupon started the native manufacture of these weapons. —ALJ.K. The lock mechanism copied by the Japanese was the snap action matchlock com- monly used in the first half of the sixteenth century throughout Europe. The Japanese locks have always been entirely of brass, even to the springs, which are sometimes of coiled type.—H.R.R. ‘A.J.Ke . 1am unable to explain this—a.J.x. . Examination of the many surviving armours from the Edo Period will reveal pieces such as HACHt and Dé of the sixteenth century which have been greatly altered in appearance by the addition of ancient and modern features, totally at variance with the original severe character of the pieces.—H.R.R. : The Ochi Matsudaira were enfeoffed at Tatebayashi from 1706 to 1728 and again from 1746 to 1836.—A.J.K.CHAPTER I SEVEN IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF NEW ARMOUR! I. WHY MEDIEVAL ARMOUR SHOULD BE VALUED The spirit of the armourer of the Age of Battles was quite different from that animating his brother of the Age of Peace. So, also, the warrior of the former period ordered good armour from expert makers and spared no expense. Wearing it at once and going forth to battle, if he fell a victim to arrows or gunshot wounds in the armour, even his own family could not feel more poignant grief than the armourer himself. The thought that he had failed his client’s trust in his skill and labour would lead him to register a vow to do better next time and devote as much energy to his work as if he himself were to wear it in action. Thus his soul would enter into the iron and perfection be obtained. Far otherwise with the present Age of Peace. Armour is looked upon as a mere appurtenance. Inadequate tests of its bullet-proof qualities are relied upon by the customer, while the maker is all the time thinking of his estimate and the cost.? Prices are reduced for only partial tests, so that the iron is not of the same quality throughout. War is a thing of the past and so for lack of actual conflicts tests are never made. Armourers are thus free from the remorse of their predecessors in the Age of Battles. Our preference for medieval armour is based on the above considerations, but your modern armourer, living in an age of peace, forgets that armour is for use in war. Think of the disgrace which will fall upon the memory of the maker of today should his work be pierced by arrows or gunshot a hundred years hence and the wearer fall a victim in consequence.? Let him but take this to heart and he will lavish the greatest care on his work in the true spirit of those who labour hand in hand with their clients. Nor should the soldier himself be lulled by the peacefulness of the age into carelessness as to the quality of the materials and the work put into the armour worn by him. No less disgrace must attach to the ancestor whose descendant, 23wearing an armour handed down from him, perishes in battle owing to its shortcomings. If we must pass our armour on to our posterity, let it at least be as perfect as we can make it. 2. ON THE MAKING OF THE PLATES The method of forging armour plates must first be considered. A plate should consist of an outer surface of steel and an inner of iron,‘ the former being half the thickness of the latter. Iron is produced at the following places, arranged in order of quality: 1. Idzumo and Harima provinces. 2. Bitchii and Bingo provinces and the towns of Sendai and Hiroshima. 3. Hoki, Mimasaka, Iwami and Hitiga provinces. 4. The province of Tajima. Various varieties are known as CHI-WARI, YAMAGATA-WARI, HIRA- WARI, NAGA-WARI, JUROKU-WARI, MAN-WARI, KO-WARI, etc, including a very good quality known as KIKU-ICHI. Disused hoes and spades afford the best inner iron for plates.> Any steel remaining at the edge of the implement is stripped off and the part that remains, being very flexible, must be folded and forged for its new purpose. Steel and iron have the same origin, but a different nature. Repeated forging of iron makes it hard and sharp; steel by excessive forging becomes soft and dull. The steel produced in the Shiso (also pronounced Shisawa) county of Harima province is considered best of all and is known as Chigusa steel, from the village where it is sold; next in quality comes that produced at Inga in Idzumo, next that of Hdki and Mimasaka provinces, and lastly that of Idzuha in Iwami. The steel known as NAMBAN HYOTAN HAGANE is imported by the Dutch in gourd (uyGTAN) shaped masses. Now the three kinds of iron— HIN (guest)—TETsU, JO (ingot)—TETSU and KEI (thorn)—TETSU, men- tioned in the Honzé Kémoku as being excellent for swords, are certainly not indigenous to Japan and may possibly be identical with the NAMBAN material. This latter, though hard and keen, is too brittle for armour and helmets; like the HAAKA or KApPURI (a type of dagger or sword; names probably derived from the Dutch language) imported by foreigners, its edge will notch if used on hard substances. 3. METHODS OF FORGING There are several of these, two being employed for swords, viz. MASAME- KITAYE (‘straight-grain forging’) and1t A ME-KITAYE (‘board-grain forging’). 24a wade] TRaAwiKe KR Ate | Atha Se A PRT eye: Heer aot Spade We-Ee Hey wY SidesMid XVIIL Victoria anThe former is apt to split and the latter to flake, while neither will withstand arrows or bullets. They are therefore unsuitable for armour. Still, it is a true saying that, depending on how it is forged, the same piece of iron may become either an arrowhead or a piece of armour in the hands of a good maker, and for the latter the proper method is that known as JU MONJI-KITAYE (‘cross or two-ply forging’), explained in the accompanying diagrams (Fig. 3). This plate is cut across the middle into two equal halves each 2 sun square whicl are superimposed with the grain running the same way as in diagram B. Fic. 3. Diagram of the method em- D E ployed to forge an armour plate. This process is called oru (folding). The plates thus superimposed are heated and beaten out to the original 4 x2 sun. The process is repeated but this time the grain is set different ways, as in C, whence the term JUMONJI- KITAYE (‘cross forging’). The result is a piece of iron with a grain diagram- matically represented in D. In welding together the steel and the iron for a finished plate the welding surfaces are grooved chequerwise so that in the hammering the lime and charcoal have avenues of escape (Fig. 3, E). Steel undergoes the same OR1-K1TAYE process, which in its case must not be 25repeated more than five times; otherwise it will turn soft and dull. Iron, on the contrary, may undergo it fifteen times and only increase in hardness and sharpness, Hoe and spade iron may only be worked five times or that too will become soft and dull. An ingot of steel is heated red-hot and plunged into water, when it gives off hissing sounds and brakes up into smaller masses as well as dross (TosEK1). Hammering the masses produces more dross, a process facilitated by their smallness. It is worth noting, however, that a smith prefers the saving of time involved by hammering fewer and larger masses. This process is called ‘water- beating’ (mipzu-ucut) and is not included in those of the ORI-KITAYE. Steel for the outer plates comes chiefly from Idzuha in Iwami, a very hard and suitable variety. Iron for the inner surface is mixed with Shiso steel in the proportion of seven to two; or with steel from the yAK1BA (tempered edge) of swords, the proportion being then two of spade iron to one of the steel. This YAKIBA steel is always used in the case of Midzuta iron and is taken from. swords of the MORO-KITAYE NO YAKIBA’ type. YAKIBA steel should be got from worn-out swords;® those of Nara make are never cut down like other makes, but then they are not of a quality fit for the purpose of armour. In welding together the outer steel and the inner iron, the latter only is hammered, and being softer is beaten out wider than the other; the surplus part is trimmed off and may be used over again for another plate. Generally speaking, when the iron with its coating of loam is heated in the fire, the colour it takes on decides the degree of heating. This should be moderate, neither too much nor too little—in the former case it will lose the nature of iron, in the latter it will not stand hammering or tempering. The degree of forging, on the other hand, may be ascertained by bending the iron, an infallible criterion to an expert smith, If the fold looks rough, further forging is desirable; if smooth, the forging has gone far enough. The reason for having steel outside and iron within is this. The former resists the arrow or bullet, the latter deadens the force of the impact. An all-steel plate would simply be shattered by a blow, an all-iron one dented and pierced, but the combination of the two materials, by mutual interaction, effectively prevents cither catastrophe, and the harder the outer steel the better. The iron, on the contrary, is more difficult to manage, as if it be too soft it will be easily pierced, and if too hard it will be shattered. It should be repeatedly forged with the hammer wetted in water—the more this is done the stronger it becomes and the process is called MipzU-KITAYE (‘water forging’). For a cuirass? 5 kwan (nearly 414 lb av.) of metal is required. The beating 26and tempering of 100 momme (nearly r Ib av., costing for spade iron 60 sen) reduces it in weight to 30 momme; so that the 5 kwan above prescribed will become actually only 1$kwan (about 12}1b av.). The thickness of the finished plate is 7 rin (about 0°08 in). Smiths’ hammering assistants are called BANKO, while the finishers of the plates are called HARUTA. In the Ancient Period the Mydchin, the Ichikuchi and the Haruta did all the preparatory work for themselves, so that down to the Middle Ages armour was specially made. In modern times the preparatory work is got ready-made from the material makers and even the Mydchin smiths are mere HARUTA. The armourer thinks only of decoration and neglects the all-important hammer-work. The true principles of armour are forgotten as though it were but the plaything of an age of peace. ‘Take medieval armour for your model, carefully studying the makes of the iron plates. Not but what there is good modern work. Choose therefore a skilful maker and give him old models to follow. For parts where the iron is thin, such as KOTE (fabric sleeves with applied plates and mail), sopE (shoulder-guards), and suNEATE (shin-guards), the old work is considered the best, but a modern piece will be preferable to an old one with the defective parts. The comparative advantages of both should be carefully weighed and strength preferred to elegance. The same may be said for the linings, lacings, leatherwork, etc—utility before ornament. 4. IMPORTANCE OF THE MAKE-UP OF ARMOUR The function of armour is to protect from arrows and bullets as well as to impart the maximum of freedom in action. Some nevertheless look upon it as a mere ornament and favour enrichments of gold and silver, with gold brocade for the linings. Nara iron, too, is in great demand. Too much stress cannot be laid on the fact that armour is a thing to be used in war. Still, even here differences in rank must be indicated and it must not be forgotten that the adornment of armour is the subject of one of the branches of etiquette. 5. ON THE MATCHING OF THE VARIOUS PARTS An examination of a YOROI-HITATARE (coat and trousers worn under armour) of the olden times will show it to be uniform in material and colour, the KIAHAN (gaiters worn below the suNEATE) included. The same may be said of the helmet and the armour, the difference due to a coating of lacquer or rust colour being disregarded. No part should stand out separately.1° 27HIG. 4. YOROI-HITATARE. Robe u1taTARE and matching trousers, HAKAMA worn under armour in the Ancient Period. The colours should be chosen with care as there is a special tradition regard- ing the hues of the lacing. Thus certain ancient historical works quote “HI-ODOSHI YOROI' (red leather laced armour) and five-plate helmet of the same ‘hair’ (KE). Here the word ke, means the lacing should be all of the same pattern or colour. This matching of colours in armour dates from early times and formerly applied to saddle and stirrups, as old pictures prove. 6. ON THE REDUCTION OF WEIGHT OR PROVIDING EASE OF MOVEMENT Light weight is a good thing except for cuirass and helmet, where thickness is required to ward off arrows and bullets. This is, however, a matter of the wearer's skill and nee In any case elaborate decoration means increase in weight. Hence medieval armour was purposely lightened and such features as 286-FUKIGAYESHI,'! 6-sHIKORO,!? FUKURIN,!3 1GAKI'4 and SHINODARE!S were omitted as of no practical use. It is usual for a DS (cuirass) and its KUSAZURI (tassets), if of iron, to weigh from 2 to 2 kwan (ca. 16} to 21 lb av.), excluding the minor fittings. 7. THE AVOIDANCE OF CONSPICUOUSNESS Armour should not be showy, although the custom of ages favours gorgeous colours. Red shows up the complexion and adds to the gallant appearance of a warrior. Hence the red lacquering for the inside of MEMPO (masks) and gay colours for the HIsHI-NUI (lowest plate of SHIKORO, SODE, or KUSAZURI). Even ‘black’ armour, it should be mentioned, is not all black. 8. ON LACQUERING In general, lacquering is done over the outer steel surface of the plate as it comes rough from the scraping-knife (sENROKU) or the coarse whetstone, and over the inner iron surface with the hammer-marks still showing on it. The processes are as follows: I. KO-ITA-NURI—a single thin layer of sesHIME-URUSHI (twig lacquer) —a thick layer would cause flaking in time. Care should be taken to see that the lacquer is carried right round the edges of any perforations in the plate. 2. A layer of MUGI-URUSHI, ic., a mixture of wheat flour (muUGI-KO) and SESHIME-URUSHI, is laid over a covering of cloth. The latter must be smooth and creaseless and be brought round the inside of any holes in the plate and carefully lacquered down in these spots to prevent rusting and the consequent rotting of the lacing braids. If any of these holes are finally to have metal eyelets, the place of these is temporarily taken by plugs of paper pasted on. On the completion of the processes the paper is removed and the eyelets inserted and turned in nice and flush. The cloth covering should be FUKURO-GISE, i.e., a complete overlay on both back and front of the plate. It is first stretched over the various perforations, then pierced at these spots and the cut edges turned in and carefully lacquered down. 3. Any uneven places are filled up with koKuso (a mixture of chopped hemp and lacquer) or with MUGI-URUSHI. TONOKO (powdered whet- stone) should not be mixed with this filling as it tends to cause flaking of the lacquer in the course of years. 4. A thick layer of szsuime lacquer to give the cloth a smooth surface, 29followed by polishing. This process is called NUNO-GATAME-NURI (cloth-hardening process). 5. A coating of saBiNuRI (lit. rust lacquer, a mixture of sEsHIME and TONOKO) followed by polishing. 6. A repetition of No. 5 called saB1-GATAME-NURI. In all these processes the inferior sEsHIME lacquer is used. Now comes the ‘middle lacquering’ (NAKA-NURI): 7. A coat of Ro-iro (ordinary black lacquer, here called KUROME- uRusHI)—followed by polishing. FIG. §. XVIII century armourer at work. He is adjusting the edge-lace of a sopp after completing the lacing. 8. No. 7 repeated. 9. Ditto. ro. Another coat of ro-iro, followed by the usual polishing with charcoal (sumt, obtained from twigs of the camellia (TsuBAKI)) powder and calcined deer’s horn. 11. The same repeated. The work will now have a dull black lacquer effect, something like polished whalebone. If a glossy surface is required a coat of Yoshino lacquer may be applied with a dabber. A pad of thin soft paper known as YOSHINO-GAMI is best for this purpose. The brush is never used for this quality of lacquer. 30A dull finish is, however, preferable; it looks plain and serviceable, is not marred by dust or fingering and will not easily chip. The processes numbered 1 to 8 are applied to the inner surface of plates exactly as described except that a coat of gold foil is laid over the last two layers of lacquer. In putting on the under layer, if a mixture of MAKKG,!6 TONOKO or Jinoxo!” with lacquer is chosen, oil must not be used to facilitate working, or long exposure to damp will cause the lacquer to flake away. Some careless workers, too, will use paper pasted on instead of the proper cloth layer referred to in process 2, and will thus deceive even an expert. For these reasons it is inadvisable to give armour-makers an absolutely free hand. Armour lacquered as I have described will withstand soaking in water for months at a time; it will not easily chip nor will its appearance be affected by cold or hot weather. NOTES 1. Lit. sx1ncH6, a phrase applied to a newly made armour or suit of clothes.—a.J.K. 2. This was also the most likely reason for Mydchin Kunimichi creating his family’s genealogy and for certifying old armour as the work of his ancestors.—H.R.R. 3. How the worthy author would have opened his eyes at the stupendous changes in Japanese equipment which were to take place less than ninety years from the time at which he wrote!—a.J.K. . Apparently throughout this work TeTsu is a general term covering both iron and steel. Steel, here as elsewhere, is rendered by HAGANE; iron by NAMAGANE—‘raw iron’ —A.J-K. . This hoe and spade iron is dealt with later in the section dealing with the sH1kORO of small plates.—a.J.K. (page 56). . NAMBAN, lit. ‘Southern barbarians’ was the general Japanese term for any foreigners. —ALJ.K. . Lam unable to explain this term.—a.J.K. . SURI-AGE-MONO— ‘worn and shortened’. The term AGEM1is applied to a sword in which the shoulder has been advanced up the blade, thus increasing the length of the tang.—A.J.K. ). —‘Body armour’; here the KANA pronunciation is sHINK 6; later it is D6.—aA.J.K. 10. It was a frequent practice in our author’s day for armours to have certain parts laced é 2 2. © 31I 12. 13. 14. 35: 16. in a different colour to the rest. He means here that the lacing and the fabric of an amour should be matching —H.R.R. Large turn-backs at the front edges of the neck-guard, Large neck-guard. Omamental metal edgings. ‘Splendour hedge’, ornamental metal plates at the base of the helmet plates. “Sort hang down’, spatulate ornaments on front, back and sides ofa helmet bowl. MAKK6 is a very cheap kind of incense; in any case bad to use for this purpose.— AJ.K. 17. JINOKO is a stone powder somewhat coarser than TONOKO.—A.J-K.OATH. All the join at the back aiaal ice became a Christa until 1614 when he was exiled to A ‘Armouries, H.M.A light blue silk laced modern armour of Momoyama fashion with SHAKUDO and gilded KANAMONO, made for Collection of the late Rev, W. Richards, on loan to UniA. MOSHI-KABUTO With SHIKAMI-GASHIRA KUWAGATA-DAI _B,TO-KAMURI NO KABUTO of Toyotomi (1537-1598) with Late XII century. Kofukuji Temple, Nara DARAN NO USHIRODATE Yaishi-kwan, Yasukuni-jinsha shrine, Kudan, Tokyo C. Helmet of Tokugawa Iyeyasu (1542-1616) with SHITA= D.NAGA-EHOSHINO KANUTO Of KATO KIYOMASA (1562-1611) JikoRO of lined mail and SHINA NO MA MAYEDATEMONO Tokugawa Art Museum, Nagoya City (Fern leaf crest) PLATE xitt Toshdgi Shrine, Shizuoka PLaTe xCHAPTER II THE KABUTO (HELMET) I, THE DAIYENZAN! OR O-BOSHI? TYPE This dates from early days,> being indeed the oldest in existence and in my opinion the proper shape for a helmet. It is small and low-crowned, of rounded form, with a wide TEHENS (hole at the top). A common name for it is ZARU- NARI (basket-shape). Its other appellation 6-BosHI, ‘great star’, has reference to its being modelled on heaven. Its sH1KORO (nape-guard, see section 28) is of five plates and is of the O-MANJU or KASA-JIKORO type. The FUKIGA YESHI (turn-backs) are some- times a prolongation of all five plates, but generally the HIsHI-NUI-NO-ITA (lowest plate) is excepted. These wings or turn-backs and the peak are covered with leather of various colours and patterns, mostly sHOBU-GAWA (sweet- flag leather)§ and 1ro-KawaA (coloured leather). Near their edge comes a border of ruse-Gum1 (flat-lying braid) of a herring-bone pattern fastened by decorative studs (HAN A-BY6, flower (K1KU) rivets), the edge itself having an ornamental metal rim (FUKURIN). The ancient peaks are thus not flanged at the edge. The DAIYENZAN type is not known to have been used by medieval warriors. The origin of the name is uncertain but it was probably invented by the armourers; at any rate it is not vouched for in the old records. The same applies to the names KOsH6ZAN, etc (see section 3), but as they are popular and convenient for classification I have adopted them. In this type the join of the KosHIMAKI (see section 19) was at the back in early times—a principle followed by Mydchin Munesuke and the nine succeed- ing masters. Medieval helmets have it in front, while the older style has been adhered to in more recent times by Mydchin Kunimichi (twenty-first master, first half of seventeenth century) and his successors. As for the TEHEN (hole at the top), all the Mychin masters down to the tenth Muneyasu made it large. 33 3-MOAAHric. 6. A & B. Two warriors from the picture roll of the Gosannen War (1086-1089) showing the MoToport. C. From the same source, a warrior wearing EBOSHI, WAIDATE and one Kote. D. Two warriors wearing TENUGUI and one with MOTODORI projecting through the TEHEN of his helmet.Yoshihiro (eleventh master) and his medieval successors made it small, but from Kunimichi onwards it has been made large in blind imitation of the earlier style and in pure ignorance of the reasons for its size. This is a regrettable state of affairs and the next section will throw some light on the matter. 2. REASONS FOR VARIATIONS IN THE SIZE OF THE TEHEN It is common knowledge that on donning a helmet the hair is untied and a HACHIMAKY’ (head-cloth) bound round the head; the custom dates from the middle of the sixteenth century and has been thought to impart a brave and soldierly air, giving the impression that the wearer did not intend to leave the battle alive. ; FIG. 7. Samurai EsosHras worn under the helmet 7 \ up to the end of the x11 century. From the GUN-YO6-KI. In earlier days the helmet was worn in a different way, the comprehension of which will at once show the reason for having a larger TEHEN. Down to the Gempei period (i.c., the wars between the Minamoto and Taira clans (twelfth century)), and even until the middle of the Ashikaga period (fourteenth century), the head was not shaved, the hair being tied in a bunch at the top with a MoToyut (tying cord) extending to near the end of the MoTODORI (queue) thus formed. This is illustrated in the accompanying pictures (Fig. 6) from a pictorial roll (yz-mAKIMONO) of the Gosannen War (1086-1089). Over the hair thus dressed was put a cap (EBOSHI) and over this the helmet, or if no EBOSHI was worn then a sort of towel was bound over the forehead and knotted at the crown to act as a pad to take the weight of the helmet (Fig. 6D). These illustrations from the same source as the two previous figures show two examples with the towel-ends divided into four and brought down over the helmet to be finally tucked inside at the back and sides. They probably passed through gaps between the actual helmet and its s1KoRO. Such a thing 35as the UKEBARI (cap lining) was therefore unknown in the helmets of early times. Now a man with much hair would be caused great inconvenience by the projection of his MoToport. This was therefore passed through the TEHEN, which was made large enough for the purpose (see Fig. 6D). From the Heike Monogatari (Nagato text, Vol. 14) we learn that Niuzen Kotar6, a native of Etchii and eldest son of Miyazaki Tard, at the age of seventeen fought with a Taira general, Takahashi Hogwan Nagatsuna. As the young man was thrown to the ground, his uncle, Beppu Jirs Tameshige, came by and grasping Nagatsuna by the Motoport which projected through his TEHEN cut off his head. The latter seems thus to have been wearing no EBOSHI. Moreover the passage proves the absence of UKEBARI (helmet linings)® at this date. Once we realise that anciently the MoTODORI was worn at the top of the head, not further down as now, the above episode becomes completely in- telligible. As a corollary, a large TEHEN is in these days quite unnecessary. The present custom of shaving part of the head,? which dates from the Middle Ages, has led to the introduction of the ukEBARI with a consequent increase in the height of the helmet. This increase in height involves an increase in weight, hence the invention of the cHIKARA-GAWA (leather supporting straps). The TEHEN, as we have said, is at the present day obviously unnecessary and exists merely as a decorative survival; it were better away, but if there must be one at least let it be small. A helmet worn by Shidzume Ichizayemon Koreaki, one of the Seven Spearmen (Shichihonyari) of Uyeda in Shinano, has its TEHEN actually blocked up by a metal ornament of uRAGIKU design (conventional chrysan- themum seen from behind); it is a twenty-cight-plate example, by the way, and seems to have been made by Mydchin Muneyasu (tenth master, second half of fourteenth century). Moreover, even in ancient times, helmets of Toppa and EBosHI type had no TEHEN,"” being of sufficient height to take the MoTODoRI. Some declare that the TEHEN is for breathing purposes; as ifanyone breathed there! Even the ventilation theory will hardly hold good, seeing that the quilted (momoyE-zasHt) silk of the UkEBARL is stiffened with lacquer.! An even more absurd theory insists that if a warrior falls into water and wishes to sink below the surface he cannot do so owing to the buoyancy of the air within his helmet, should it have no TEHEN to admit the water. As if a bowl some nine or ten inches across could prevent a man of 9 or 9$ stone weight (1s to 16 kwan) from sinking® to say nothing of the lacquering of the UKEBARI preventing entry of the water as if no TEHEN were there.!? 363. THE KOSHOZAN!? TYPE This appears first in the Meitoku and Oyei eras (1393-1427). It differs from the DAIYENZAN type (section r) in being taller and fitting the head better; the shape is not so round and the TEHEN is smaller. A common name for it is DzZU-NARI (‘head shape’). A high-fronted variety is called zENSHOZAN (‘fore victory mountain’); a high-backed one, KOsEIZAN (‘rear power mountain’); a hollow-topped one, TENKOKUZAN (‘heavenly valley moun- tain’). These names are first found in the certificates of Mydchin Nagato-No- kami Kunimichi (twenty-first master, first half of the seventeenth century) and do not date from ancient times. The appearance of this type followed on the great changes in armour and helmets which took place at the time of Mydchin Muneyasu, who himself made some of the head-pieces of the HENKOKUZAN type.'4 In his day, too, gay colours and elaborate decoration were the rule; hence, no doubt, the elegance characteristic of his work, reflecting the growing feeling for refine- ment among the military classes. Gilt metal edging (rukuRtN) for the helmet ridges and sninopare and 1¢Ax1 for the other parts, highly decorative metal studs, and lacing done with proverbial skill, all impart an air of the greatest elegance to the work produced by this artist. 4. THE SIXTY-TWO-PLATE HELMET! In ancient times thirty-two-plate helmets were sometimes made, and later came the sixty-two-plate type.1¢ Knobbed helmets, so fashionable in the earlier period, ‘went out’ in the Middle Ages.7 Plates became thicker, but designs were altered so as not to increase the weight therewith. The suy1-BAcui (‘ridged bowl’) type arose in which the plates are so narrow and the overlap so great as to double the thickness throughout (Fig. 10). As fire-arms had come into use, the new style had its advantages. Knobs on sixty-two-plate helmets are uncommon! and curiously enough are never found on those of thirty-two plates. They occur occasionally on examples by Myochin Narishige (working 1558-1569) and Mydchin Nobuiye (seventeenth master, contemporary). 5. THE SEVENTY-TWO-PLATE HELMET This type is said to symbolise the seventy-two constellations (KG), or be intended as a mere tour de force or for generals’ wear—all absurd ideas. It is never knobbed. As with the sixty-two-plate type, those made by the Yoshi- ryi'? are thick and high-sided. At the overlaps there is a space between the plates, because the cross-section 37is of flattened S form. This device, intended to weaken the impact of a bullet, was invented by Yoshimichi (younger brother of the sixteenth master, Yoshiyasu, first half sixteenth century) and since his time the ‘Yoshi’ group and many others adopted it. Its presence can be detected by passing a paper spill through one of the H1BIKI-NO-ANA (sce section 13) and seeing whether this can be pushed right down to the bottom.”° On the other hand, although a contemporary, Myéchin Nobuiye rejected the device and consequently no high-sided helmets were made by the Nobu-Ryi.?! Being of the main line of the family he would doubtless not have imitated the design of a branch line. Still even the Yoshi-Ryi did not make thirty-two-plate high-sided helmets— thirty-two plates are heavy enough already without the additional weight involved in the high-sided type. oe HG. 6 Sebsiogs OF heimas plese, ‘« A. Nou-ryd, B. yosui-ryd. 6. THE EIGHT-PLATE HELMET Here there is a front and a back, and three plates on each side. The shape resembles that of the KG6sHOZAN (section 3). The TEHEN is occasionally absent but most examples have the sH1TEN-NO-BY6 and the HIBIKI-NO-ANA (see section 13). A large number of them are of the class known as HIAKU-HANE- MONO ‘[helmets] for a hundred heads’, i.e., not made to special order; some of these are signed, however, and they are generally the work of Nobuiye and Yoshimichi.?? It was an age of battles and armour was wanted in great quan- tities. Some have Hineno-type MABESASHI (peaks) and some have HON- MABESASHI (‘regular peaks’). 7. THE THREE-PLATE HELMET Here a single plate runs from front to back with another at each side. The peak is of Hineno type. It is a vulgar-looking style and is used with common armour, although it was favoured even by men of rank during the Tensh6 era (r 573-1591), as for example Lord Satsuma-no-kami Tadayoshi, whose helmet is now preserved at Gifu in Mino. It has its advantages in battle although its plainness makes it unpopular. 8. THE HUNDRED-AND-TWENTY-PLATE HELMET Both Mydchin Nobuiye and Neo Masanobu of Nara made helmets of this 38type, but they are mere tours de force and quite unpractical. Even sixty-two plates is considered an excessive number, as the rivets towards the top must necessarily be irregularly arranged (see section 21). Neo Masanobu belonged to an age of peace and was inclined to skilful rather than practical work. There is an idea that the regulation (HoNsH1K1) helmet should have no rivets;23 hence possibly their needle-like slenderness in this type. A helmet of this sort is not a desirable possession. 9. KAGA, ECHIZEN AND OSHU HELMETS WITH A NOTE ON SOME MYOCHIN ARMOURERS OF THESE PROVINCES Some particular folk will have none but Myéchin helmets, but any perfectly made example is worthy of being worn and some ancient helmets are quite ood. : The helmet shapes of these three provinces resemble the KOSHOZAN (section 3), but, while knobs are absent from the Oshii examples, those of Echizen and Kaga are provided with a type called za-Bosut (with flanges at the base, lit. sitting stars). Myochin Kaga-no-daijs Munesada was employed by the great Date Masamune of Sendai in Oshii for an income of soo koku of rice and a large estate, and had a number of pupils who turned out a large quantity of armour, including those Sendai cuirasses and helmets now brought from Oshii. Mydchin Sakon Yoshimichi had a pupil (grandson according to Hara) named Iwaki Yoshimichi from his residence at Akayedani in the Iwaki district of Oshii. His descendants became hereditary swordsmiths to the Naito Bingo-no-Kami (who were enfeoffed at Iwakidaira in Oshii between 1622 and 1747). His son, MySchin Jirobei, had a son, Mydchin (Yohei) Munckata, who became armourer to Tsugaru Etchii-no-Kami (enfeoffed at Hirosaki for the Tsugaru district of Oshii), Munekata was the seventh in descent from the founder (Nobuiye),2# and his son Munemasa?5 came to Edo and succeeded to the Myéchin headship, becoming twenty-fourth master (b. 1688, d. 1740). Munemasa’s son-in-law, Munetaye (or Muneté), also called Mondo and later Osumi-no-Kami, became the twenty-fifth My6chin master. Want of space forbids my enlarging on other famous makers of medieval and modern times. 0. THE HACHI OR CROWN OF THE HELMET On examining a helmet one is apt to consider weight an advantage, but a certain moderation in this respect is advisable. Helmets by MySchin Narishige (see section 4) are too light, while those of Myéchin Muneyasu are lighter than those of Mydchin Nobuiye and Mydchin Yoshimichi. Provincial makes tend 39to heaviness. A good average weight is from 400 to 500 momme (ca. 34 to 44 Ib av.) exclusive of the sH1KoRO. Choose a helmet without crooked parts to ensure it against breaking. First fix your eye on the KOsHO-NO-KWAN (back ring, see section 16) and then examine the sides. To judge of the arrangement of the plates look inside; the lacquering will conceal this from the outside. If there is any gap between the plates rust will ensue; to judge of this, tap it with your fingers and a crackling sound (s1r1R1N) will betray an ill-made pieces; do not, however, mistake the sound given out by the tying-cord rings. A helmet with its knobs visible on the inner side (the burred-over ends of the rivets) is called MYOKENsEI, and conversely JINSHINSEI—names not found in the old chronicles but probably given by armourers and in common use among military men. II. LACQUERING FOR HELMETS The exterior of the HA cHt should be lacquered. This practice was universal in the earlier period, not so in the Middle Ages. It is generally effectual in resisting the attacks of damp, cold and heat. For methods of lacquering the reader is referred to Chapter I, section 8. The black lacquer of dull finish is considered the best, but was not common in the Middle Ages; it has the advantage of not being easily scratched or dirtied. Various other lacquer processes are as follows: 1. So-called ToGIDAsHI or TEDZAYA-TORI. Strictly this is merely the ordinary black lacquer (Ro-iro). 2. HANA-NURI (flower lacquering), better known as HANA-URUSHI, a cheap kind of lacquer. 3. NURITATE-RO-iRO, a common polished black lacquer in one layer only. The last two processes were common about the Keich6 era, 1596-1614, and were applied to common livery helmets, but not to specially made ones. 4. TETSUBIAKUDAN (iron sandalwood); better known as SHUNKEI-NURI from its inventor; it is translucent and therefore the plates in this case must be well polished. It does not easily resist damp and is resorted to by those who wish to show the good quality of the armourer’s work. Flaws are sometimes concealed by lacquering. Old work should be exam- ined for this. For the same reason the H6j6 School omit lacquering entirely in order to show their good finish—a matter solely of pride in one’s work. It would be preferable and make for greater durability to assure oneself first that 40A. Heavy bowl of 6-wostt type illustrating ASHINAGARE —B, MACHT of the AKITA armour certified as the work of Mydchin XVII century Munesuke I by Kunimichi, A forgery of the mid XVI century Collection Sloane Wilson, Kansas Victoria and Albert Museum E, Hachi of akoDA-NaRt typ Collection of T. B. LindsaB, 32 plate acu signed My3chin Nobuiye dated 1542 Collection Capt. J. F. Rowntree ned Myéichin Nobuiye dated 1528 jon L, J. Anderson C. 62 plate wacut si { My@chin Muneyoshi dated 1851 D. 62 plate wacut f pure Nobu type Coll Collection of Cmdr. A. R. Newman This heli eu Ha pln ic dg Nobely A iguy Sis dowal Gilt B48 pln waa ete ena ype wih pl oft meraiel voll pete MGs een aged sales aut mole cy Gust see Colkatna Goe Te Res piarn xin THE KOSHOZAN HacItome Moriiye late XVI or early B. 72 plate HACH signed Saotome lychisa late XVI century yyal Scottish Muscum Collection Dr. Peter Parsons C. &D, 32 plate wosH1-nacut signed Saotome Lyechika, early XVII century. Collection L. J. Anderson tah E. &F, 62 plate sust-pacitt signed Saotome Tyetada XVII century. Collection I. M. Clark HACHI of the Saotome School Yosur type All these #acHt are of hig]= oe ne High crowned helmet of unusual form with 11NENO- B. 62 plate high-sided helmet with HINENO-J1KORO, inscribed HACHIMAN 11KoRO and hoo =DATE (back cre I-nosasw and dated 1537, Mounting mid XVI centur XIX century. Collection of Axel Pete Collection Capt. J. F. Rowntree kanuro, XVII cent Collection Capt. J. F. Rown D. (right) Momo-Nant Ne Kanuto, mid XIX century Collection of L, J. Anderson E. (lef) NAMDAN-AcHI. A converted Italian morion of ¢.1570 Royal Scottish Museum F, (right) SAmUBO-NARI_NO KABUTO. A three plate Hineno sta cit with a large scallop shell built up in paper wood and ont, the whole lace quered red, XVIT century Collection of L. J. Anderson iron laced on ththe work is good and then to have it thoroughly lacquered within and without. 12. THE RIBS*6 OF THE CROWN The phrase ‘sixty-two-ribbed helmet’ refers to the sixty-two plates of the HaCaT, each of which has its suJ1 or flange forming a single rib. With such a large number, owing to the plates narrowing upwards, they appear all rib and the thickness of the crown is apparently increased. This is the case with helmets made by the Yoshi Ryii (see section 5), but the Nobu Ryd, as also Mydchin Narishige, filed down the ribs as they approach the rE1EN, thus obviating this apparent thickening and producing a chrysanthemoid effect. Generally this depends on the actual thickness of the plates. Some of the Saotome?? and provincial makes have good suj1. Occasionally a thirty-two-plate helmet has a suj1 on alternate plates only, while conversely some cight-plate examples have extra suJ1 faked in lacquer to the number of thirty-two or even sixty-two—a fact discernable only by examining the interior. Gilt edgings (ruKURIN) to the ribs were the rule from ancient times down to Muneyasu, the tenth Mydchin master (second half fourteenth century) but with the Yoshi Ryi this style is rarely found. In the Middle Ages these FUKURIN went out of fashion as involving the disadvantage of a large number of perforations—or, according to some, as liable to be broken off in action and dangle before the wearer’s eyes. Occasionally the FUKURIN are imitated in A B Fic. 9. A. HACHT with normal plates. B. asHINAGARE (legs drifting). The lower ends of the plates should project forward (see Fig. 9A) rather than backward (as Fig. 9B). The term AsHINAGARE (legs drifting) is applied to the latter case, a fault usually only found in cheap helmets. 1}. THE SHITEN-NO-BYO AND HIBIKI-NO-ANA In certain helmets are found four or fewer small holes, each with a knob or short spike just above it; if four in number they are set to right and left of the front and the back of the HAcHI (see Plate XIII, p). The holes are called HIBIKI-NO-ANA”® and the knobs or spikes sHITEN-NO-BY6.?? AIIn the earliest period the spikes are absent, being introduced only at the time of Myédchin Munesuke (first master), and then not becoming the universal rule. Similarly, the holes, instead of four, are occasionally only three innumber, as on the TATE-NAsHI helmet of Késhii province and two old helmets at Mitake, or even entirely absent. Each hole is generally filled by a small loop of braid held by a knot inside; these loops are called Has and their function said to be that of supports for the cape (HIKIMAWASHI) or other protection from rain. Some recommend the omission of the HasA so that the holes may act as ventilators to the HacHI, others on the ground that without the braids they will deaden the concussion (H1BIK1) caused by a blow on the helmet. There are other theories, but I cling to the first mentioned and further regard the sH1TEN-NO-BYO as serving to divert ram or dew away from the holes. The position of these knobs and holes should be low, as in the DATYENZAN type of helmet (section 1), rather than high, as in the Nara and Saotome styles. The Yoshi group raised theirs a little higher than the Nobu group. When a Saotome helmet is being faked to look like a sakuMONO* (regular make, i.e. one by the main Mydchin house, the Nobu group), the lower part of the plates is cut away and the original kosutmaxi (brim plate, see section 19) is set higher up, thus apparently lowering the sH1TEN-NO-BY6 to the position favoured by the Nobu group; this can be detected from the mterior as the faked helmet will show only five instead of the usual six rows of rivets, unless it is of the 6-Bosui (DAIYENzAN) type, which does not follow this rule. The sHITEN-NO-BY6 of the Nobu group, unlike those of the Yoshi type, are of moderate length and taper to a point. 14. THE HACHIMAN-ZA OR TEHEN In section 2 we have discussed the differences between the ancient and medieval TEHEN (hole at the top of the helmet). This part, known nowadays as HACHIMAN-ZA (Scat of Hachiman, the war-god), a name given to it by the armourers of later ages, was in both the ancient and medieval periods provided with a metal fitting, low in height and built up in four stages. In the early age the lowest stage was riveted to the HAcHI, generally by round-headed studs (saNsH6-BY6, peppercorn studs), and was usually of the outline known as Ao1 (like the ao1-TsuBA, i.e., with indentations of Aoi or heart shape). From the various chronicles, records and histories, we gather that warriors used their helmets as pillows, so that these TEHEN cannot have been very tall. The old fashion partially survived into the medieval period with bottom stages of KARAHANA,”" chrysanthemoid or HATSURE-YUKI? form, second stages of 4auRAGIKU®? or of openwork chrysanthemum shape, third stages plain washers,>4 and the topmost of raMABUCHT’S form—all combining to make an erection of no great height. In modern days the KOKONOYE-zA%® style is used with ornamental mounds such as the suMI-ZA (Mount Sumera stage) or the AGE-DAMA (the same as TAMABUCHI but higher); they have not, however, as attractive an appearance. During the Tenshé era (1573-1591) iron was used for the HACHIMAN-ZA but with no very happy effect. There is no need for strength here and a helmet should display contrasts of strength and weakness. It is a custom of long standing that the decoration of the HACHIMAN-ZA should be en suite with the metal fittings (kANAMONO) of the rest of the armour, whether it be by the KeBort (light engraving), the NANAKO (fish- roe ground) or other process. I5. THE SHINODARE The sHiNoDARE* are the ornamental bands laid over the front and back of the HACHI and sometimes over the two sides also. Those with plates below them are called DAI-sHINODARE (stand sHINODARE). Those on the front sometimes have HOsHu shaped ends,3 those at the sides occasionally end in HOKO-GATA (halberd shapes). HAPPO-JIRO (white, i.e., brilliant on eight, i.e., all, sides) is a term used when the sHINODARE are of gold (gilt) or when they appear in four pairs (or four threes); also, it may be remarked, when the various metal borders (FuKURIN) of the helmet are completely gilt. The phrase may have some reference to the ROIN (old men’s retirements [the eight points of the com- pass]); similarly with the eight heirloom armours of the Minamoto clan. Thename sHIRO-BOSHI(white stars) or HOSHI-J1R O(stars—white) is applied to a helmet of which the Ha cutis black lacquered with gold-coloured knobs. One with a single gold-coloured sHiNODARE on all four sides is always called sHIHGJIRO. These styles belong to the earlier period, since which so many changes have taken place in the styles of armour that it is no easy matter to discriminate as to their comparative advantages. Up to the time of Mydchin Muneyasu (tenth master, second half of four- teenth century( helmets were provided with sH1Noparg, 1GAKI (splendour hedge) and the like, and sometimes with metal edgings to the ribs. During the sixteenth century there was a feeling against making too many perforations in a helmet, so that we can perceive why such decorative features were abandoned. 43They added to the weight, moreover, so that their practical use was completely overshadowed by their decorative qualities. The changes which came over armour generally were accompanied by alterations in the metal fittings and smaller adjuncts. Such changes are exemplified in the evolution of the old DAIYENZAN helmet into the AKoDA type of Muncyasu and later into the medieval KOsHOZAN shape; also of the KOZANE type of body-armour into the DGO-MARU and MOGAMI-DO styles. The name 1GAKk1, like HACHIMAN-ZA, SHITEN-NO-BYO and SANKO- No-ByY6, alludes to the supposedly divine nature of the helmet. 16. THE KOSHO-NO-KWAN This the back ring on the Hacut, dates from early times, as does apparently the aceMakI, the tasselled cord tied in a peculiar bow depending from it; the function of the latter is to prevent the jingling of the ring. HG. 10. Types of MasEzAsH1. A. Ancient; tumed downwards. B. xiv and xv centuries. C. Medieval; Nobu type; tured outwards. D. Medieval; Yoshi type; less turned outwards, known as KOMA-NO- TSUMA (horse hoof). E. Hineno type, known as sutsuke. The Nara type follows that of the Nobu-Rya. KOSHO-NO-KWANis another instance of armourers’ nomenclature andisnot found in the old records. In ancient times it was known as KASA-JIRUSHI-NO- KwaN. That the KASA-J1RUSHI (hat sign or badge) was originally attached to this ring is clear from a passage in the Adzuma Kagami? which runs as follows: 44‘In 1189 when Yoritomo (the first ShSgun) was entering on his punitive expedition against Fujiwara no Yasuhira, the treacherous murderer of Yoritomo’s brother, Yoshitsune, he was presented with an armour by Shimokdbe Shji Yukihira. The latter brought it before him in person and himself opened the case. On examining the armour Yoritomo found that it was complete with its H1T TARE (under robe) of dark blue brocade and also that the KASA-JIRUSHI was attached at the back of the helmet. On asking why this was not on one of the sope (shoulder-guards), he was informed that in this matter the auspicious example of his vassal’s ancestor, *° Hidesato, had been followed; the warrior’s chief aim was to be the first in the breach, and, while the enemy could learn his identity by his shouting out his name and style, his friends would know him by the su1rusut at the back of his helmet.” Now seeing that Yoritomo himself had to inquire about the custom from a man of advanced years, we need not wonder at the ignorance of modern folk on this head. Nevertheless even in Yoritomo’s day it was not apparently the custom to fix a KASA-JIRUSHI to the helmet, no mention being made of it in the old histories. FIG. 11. KASAJIRUSHI. A. Attached to the KASAJIRUSHI-NO-KWAN. B. Attached to a stick in the OHARAIDATE from GUN-Y¥6-KI. The KOsHO-No-KWAN by the Middle Ages had degenerated into a mere ornament. There is an idea prevalent that the helmet AGEMAKI was customarily of a gay colour, that on the back of the D6 (cuirass) being of sober hue. I cannot believe this, for I have never seen an armour in which the colour was not the same for both. 45Another idea, equally unfounded, has it that below the KGsHO-NO-KWAN is placed the HOROTSUKE-NO-KWAN (a ring to which was suspended the H0RO,4! a large spherical structure of basketwork covered with cloth in- tended to catch stray arrows). Confusion has probably arisen owing to the existence of a hole in the back of certain examples, which is probably for the ormamental ring with split shank turned over inside the #A cut known as USHIRO-DATE (back crest socket).4? For the AGEMAKI bows, by the way, the best material is supposed to be cEnji-ucHi (silk cord of Genji pattern); there are also, however, YATSU- ucui (eight-fold cord) and kaRA-ucuHI (Chinese cord). 17. THE PEAK‘ Ancient peaks have a more downward tendency than those of the medieval period, as will be seen from Fig. 12. c FIG. 12. TOSEI-KAGO-BORO. A. HORO. B. o1KAGO. C. HORO ‘wrapped round 01kA¢0 on #oRO-Dar (stand). A and B fromTankiyoriaku Seisakuben. C from Buki Nihiaku Dzu.In the earlier period, too, down to Myédchin X the peak like the FUKIGAYESHI was covered with leather, near the edge of which rusEGUMI (flat-lying braid) was applied and fastened down by round-headed studs (sANSHO-BYO). On the free edge of the peak was fastened an ornamental metal rim (ruKURIN), a feature which from the medieval period onwards went out of fashion for reasons already mentioned; instead the metal of the peak was merely flanged at the edge, a stronger and less dangerous method. The sanK6-NO-BY6 (studs of the three luminaries); three rivets used for fixing the peak to the HACHI, are of iron, but this style dates only from the middle period. In the earlier age ornamental studs of gilt copper were used over the peak leather and proved of far less strength. Ic is said, and with truth, that the red lacquering of the M1AGE-oR (under- side of the peak) dates from early times.*4 Certainly during the Middle Ages fifty per cent of peaks were so treated, a few being black. The red ones are sometimes enriched with powdered gold, with NasHIJ1 or with poems in MAKiyE lacquer. Some ancient peaks are covered on both sides with leather of the same or different pattern; others have the signature on the inner side (see section 21). Modern peaks are lined with vermilion-coloured leather (s16j6-H1) or with dark red leather (BENI-GAWA). 18. THE OHARAI-DATE Anciently merely an ornamental metal fitting in the centre of the KUWAGATA- pat (socket for the horns),45 this feature has since the medieval period been made of iron and is occasionally of L form like orrKuG1 or picture hooks. FIG. 13. OHARAIDATE. A. Nobu-Ryd, H1RAME. A B B. Yoshi-Ryi, KADOME. As Fig. 13 shows, the onaRAI-paTE of the Nobu group have HIRAME i.e., two little holes, one above the other, in the front near the top; the end is also flat. Those of the Yoshi group, on the other hand, have KADOMg, i.e., the two holes side by side, while the end is of rounded form (TOMBO-j1RI, dragonfly’s tail). This rule is not, however, of universal application. Anciently sHakuDG was used for this part but was of little practical advantage and the modern use of this alloy is here quite wrong. The name OHARAI-DATE (August prayer-slip stand) is derived from its “aahaving been used in ancient times to keep the Shint6 prayer-slips in; for this it was made of large dimensions.4® Since the middle ages it has been used to hold the fore-crest (MAYE-DATE-MONO). 19. THE KOSHIMAKI‘7 This, the lower brim of the helmet, must be strong and so is made of a single iron strip bent round and joined. Down to the time of Mydchin Muneyasu (tenth master, second half of fourteenth century) the join generally, though not always, came at the back; from Yoshihiro (eleventh master c. 1390) onwards, invariably at the front. But Kunimichi (twenty-first master, c. 1624-1643) and his successors, follow- ing in archaistic spirit the rounded basket shape of the DA1YENZAN helmet of ancient times, rather than that of the medieval KGsH6zAN, placed the join at the back. In cheap helmets makers often save trouble by using an extra piece for the front part of the KosHIMAKI, In the ancient 6-MaNyU and KASA-JIKORO types (see Fig. 18) the KOSHIMAKt, instead of being upright, warps outwards considerably, to the inconvenience of the wearer owing to its causing the sHIKORO to press the SASHIMONO,*® (the banneret carried at the back of the cuirass). Attention should be paid to the degree of this warp, which is not found in the earliest helmets, first making its appearance just before MySchin X. This feature tends to greater strength in the KosHIMAKI; it will be dealt with further in the section on the sHIKORO (section 28). Should an old kosuiMakt be pierced with any holes for which there is no further use, they should be filled up with lead, not with iron, unless they are quite small. The signature occasionally appears on the KOsH1MAKI—especially about the Tenshé era (last quarter of the sixteenth century). 20, INTERIOR OF THE HACHI Anciently helmets were lacquered interiorly in the Ko-1TA-NuRIstyle (plain lacquering). In modern times gold foil is used, with the idea of keeping off the heat of the sun, it is said. Care should be taken to see that this gilding has not been added to conceal defects. ‘The signature generally appears on the front or back of the interior but also, as already stated, occasionally on the peak or the KosHimAKt. Nobuiye’s signature with date and 1NGY6 (seal shape, ic., KAKTHAN or personal trade mark) is generally found engraved rather than chased, 4821. ARRANGEMENT OF THE RIVETS. Whether the helmet be one of eight or as many as seventy-two plates, the rivets are always arranged in six horizontal rows,’ the lowest being on the KOSHIMAKT itself. When the number of plates is sixty-two or seventy-two, the two uppermost rows are necessarily a little irregular, but the lower four are always perfectly regular, as the diagram shows (Fig. 14). As already stated in section 13, when a Saotome helmet is being altered into the lower-crowned shape of the Nobu type, the lowest row of rivets is cut away, the KOsHIMAKI being moved up to what was the second row from the bottom. This can be detected by examining the interior. Rivets should be well hammered over and neatly finished inside; a narrow head*° at this part is usually inadvisable. According to the degree of thickness of the plates the method of riveting differs, thus the thicker plates of helmets by the Yoshi group have the rivets in pairs and so make an ATEGANE (supporting metal, a washer) necessary.5! This is not found in examples by the Nobu masters. On some ancient helmets the upper rivets are of sHaKUDO.5? FIG, 14. Diagrammatic section of a multi-plate helmet. A. 2 irregular rows of rivets. B. 4 regular rows of rivets. 22. THE LOWER END OF THE HACHIMAN-ZA Between the turnover of the lower end of the HACHIMAN-~ZA tube and the iron of the #Acut1 is placed a washer of copper or leather, sometimes one of each. Tanned leather is the best for this purpose. 23. THE YOGAI-NO-ITA This name (literally protection plate), is applied to an ATEGANE (supporting metal) or small iron plate at each point where the peak touches the HACHI to right and left; here there is but one thickness of metal on the KosHIMAKI? (see Plate XII, F). Its absence in any example is merely due to its having been broken away and lost. 24. THE TYING CORD AND ITS ATTACHMENTS The cord by which the helmet is tied on is called sH1noBI-NO-0 (concealed 49 4-MOAAH