Application Report

SLOA034 - September 1999

Signal Conditioning Wheatstone Resistive Bridge Sensors

James Karki Mixed Signal Products

ABSTRACT

Resistive elements configured as Wheatstone bridge circuits are used to construct force and
pressure sensors. The resistive elements used to make the bridge change resistance in
response to mechanical strain.

This report discusses the basic concepts of resistive bridge sensors and three circuits
commonly used for signal conditioning their output.

Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Signal Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1 Single Op Amp Differential Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Three Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Two Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

List of Figures
1 Wheatstone Bridge Sensor and Thevenin Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Single Op Amp Differential Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 Sensor Output With No Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4 Thevenin Equivalent Shows Required Gain is 50% Higher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
5 Three Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
6 Two Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1 Introduction
There are two main technologies used to create resistive bridge sensors: strain gauge (or gage)
and integrated circuits.
Strain gages are widely used and have been available for many years. Typically, the strain
gauge is bonded to a rigid structure, and when a force acts upon the structure, the strain gauge
changes resistance. Strain gauge sensors are commonly used for both force and pressure
measurement. For more details refer to The Pressure Strain and Force Handbook, Omega
Engineering, Inc. http://www.omega.com.
More recently, monolithic resistive bridge sensors have become commercially available as
integrated circuits. The bridge circuit is constructed on a silicon die. When a force is exerted on
the die, the resistance changes. Normally this type of sensor is used to measure pressure. For
more information refer to Solid–State Pressure Sensors Handbook, Sensym,
http://www.sensym.com.

1
 Figure 1 shows a resistive Wheatstone bridge circuit and its Thevenin equivalent. When an
excitation voltage is applied between Vexc and GND and all resistances are equal, the voltage
at SIG+ and SIG– is 1/2 Vexc.
Wheatstone Bridge Sensor Thevenin Equivalent
R2 ∆ R << R ⇒ RTH ≈ R 2
Vexc
Sig+

R+∆R +
R–∆R VTH+
– Vexc ± Vsig
R2 VTH± =
Sig- Sig+ Sig- 2
R–∆R R+∆R +
VTH– –

Figure 1. Wheatstone Bridge Sensor and Thevenin Equivalent

Sensors are designed so that when acted upon, opposite resistors in the bridge change
resistance as shown by ±∆R. The voltage at SIG+ and SIG– is then offset from 1/2 Vexc.
In a measurement system, the differential voltage, Vsig = (SIG+) – (SIG–), is the electrical signal
indicating the amount of force or pressure acting upon the sensor. With four active elements, the
output voltage is: Vsig +
Vexc DR . Since ∆R is proportional to the force or pressure, this
R
can be rewritten as Vsig = Vexc × F × S, where F is the force or pressure and S is the sensitivity,
or output voltage, of the sensor in mV per volt of excitation with full scale input, as specified by
the sensor manufacturer.
Wheatstone resistive bridge sensors can be analyzed using Thevenin’s Theorem, where the
circuit is reduced to voltage sources with series resistance. Figure 1 shows the Thevenin
equivalent circuit. ∆R is normally very small in comparison to R so the Thevenin equivalent
series resistance, commonly known as the source resistance, can be taken as equal to R. The
Thevenin voltage sources have a common mode component equal to 1/2 Vexc and a differential
component equal to 1/2 Vsig.

2 Signal Conditioning
Normally full scale output voltages are in the 10 mV to 100 mV range, and need to be amplified
in a data acquisition system. Three circuits commonly used for amplification are the one op amp
differential amplifier, the three op amp instrumentation amplifier, or the two op amp
instrumentation amplifier. These amplifiers amplify the differential input voltage, and reject the
common mode input voltage. They are well-suited for use with Wheatstone bridge sensors.
Depending on design requirements one may be better suited than the other.
All three circuits require resistor matching to achieve good CMRR. Variations of these amplifiers,
which add gain and offset adjustment, can be found in various application literature.

2.1 Single Op Amp Differential Amplifier

The single op amp, differential amplifier is shown in Figure 2. Its input impedance is relatively
low and requires the source impedance of the sensor be considered in the gain calculation.

2 Signal Conditioning Wheatstone Resistive Bridge Sensors

 R2 R4
Sig-

_
R4
R1 VO = [(Sig +) – (Sig –)]x
Sig+ R2
+

R3 R1=R2 and R3=R4

Figure 2. Single Op Amp Differential Amplifier

The Thevenin equivalent of the sensor is useful in calculating gain. For example:
Given a sensor having 1 kΩ elements and a sensitivity of 10 mV/V is being used with 5 V of
excitation. At full-scale, the resistors will have ∆R=10 Ω and 50 mV will be seen from SIG– to
SIG+ if measured with a high impedance voltmeter. Refer to Figure 3.
5V

990Ω 1010Ω

Sig- = 2.475 V
1010Ω 990Ω
Vsig = 50 m V

Sig+ = 2.525 V

Figure 3. Sensor Output With No Load

Assuming full scale at the output of the amplifier is 5 V, a gain of 100 is needed. Choosing
R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ and R3 = R4 = 100 kΩ seems to be correct, but when tested the output is 30%
lower than expected. What is wrong?
The source impedance must be taken into account. As shown in Figure 4, using the Thevenin
equivalent of the bridge, it is obvious that R3 and R4 need to be 150 kΩ to get the required gain
of 100.
500Ω 1kΩ 150kΩ
2.475 V

_
500Ω 1kΩ VO = 5.000 V
2.525 V +

150kΩ
SENSOR

Figure 4. Thevenin Equivalent Shows Required Gain is 50% Higher

Note that the impedance seen at the negative input (SIG–) is not constant. It varies with the
output voltage which causes slight non–linearity.
Due to its low cost and general simplicity the single op amp differential amplifier circuit is
attractive, and is often used with success.
2.2 Three Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier
The three op amp instrumentation amplifier, or in-amp, uses three op amps. The circuit, shown
in Figure 5, has high input impedance, and source impedance does not play a role in calculation
of gain.

Signal Conditioning Wheatstone Resistive Bridge Sensors 3

 To achieve better CMRR performance, use a resistor pack for resistors R1–R4 and RF. Set the
gain using Rg.
SIG - +
_
Rf
R2 R4

Rg _
R4 2Rf
R1 VO = [(Sig +) – (Sig –)]x x +1
+ R2 Rg
Rf
_ R3
R1=R2 and R3=R4
SIG + +

Figure 5. Three Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier

2.3 Two Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier

The two op amp instrumentation amplifier, shown in Figure 6, also has high input impedance like
the three op amp in-amp, but requires one less op amp. Source impedance does not play a role
in calculation of gain.
SIG + + R2 2R2
_ VO = [(Sig +) – (Sig –)]x 1+ +
R1 Rg

R2 R1=R2 and R3=R4

Rg R1
R4

SIG – +

R3

Figure 6. Two Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier

Again, using a resistor pack for R1–R4 and setting the gain using Rg will help achieve better
CMRR performance. This amplifier is not as balanced as the 3 op amp in-amp. A signal at SIG–
passes through both op amps, whereas, only one op amp is seen from SIG+.

4 Signal Conditioning Wheatstone Resistive Bridge Sensors

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