The study adopted the tripartite engagement framework of Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris (2004) that

specifies behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement. We operationalized these forms of

engagement by way of students’ academic participation, their school enjoyment, and their educational
aspirations respectively. Across various studies, when students actively participate in school, enjoy
school, and have positive educational aspirations, these are shown to be desirable ends in themselves
and also means to desirable ends. For example, in regard to participation, learning environments
fostering students’ participation enhance their commitment to learning and achievement (Martin,
Martin, & Evans, 2016; Richter & Tjosvold, 1980); conversely, a lack of participation is associated with
emotional withdrawal and poor identification with school (Finn, 1989). In terms of aspirations, several
researchers have shown that when students have future academic intent, they tend to attain greater
achievement, are more motived, and have more positive future course intentions (e.g., Burns, Martin, &
Collie, 2017; Martin, 2007, 2009; Meece, Wigfield, & Eccles, 1990). As relevant to emotional
engagement, enjoyment of school is a key factor in students’ academic outcomes (Lee, Sheldon, &
Turban, 2003; Remedios, Lieberman, & Benton, 2000).

Prior research has found that high quality teacher-student relationships are positively associated with
students’ participation, enjoyment, and aspirations (Martin, Marsh, McInerney, & Green, 2009; Martin,
Marsh, McInerney, Green, & Dowson, 2007); but in these studies, teacher-student relationships were
represented by an overarching domain-general scale requiring students to rate their relationship with
teachers in general. In contrast, the present study is focused on assessing the number of negative and
positive teacher-student relationships in five school subjects and links to school engagement
operationalized by way of aspirations, participation, and enjoyment.