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Buddhist Insight - Alex Wayman
Buddhist Insight - Alex Wayman
INSIGHT
Essaysby
Alex Wayman
MOTILAL BANARSIDASS
Delhi Yaranasi Patnq Madras
i-.i{
ISBN :089581-041-7
Part I. BuddhistPractice
l. Buddhaas Savior 1l
2. Ancient BuddhistMonasticism 29
3. Aspectsof Meditation in the Theravd,daandMahiSdsaka69
4. The BodhisattvaPracticeaccordingto the Lam Rim
ChenMo
or
onset.,' But there are in BuddhiSm "Three Trainings"
on
instructions; and the "morality" emphasized in the essay
monastic life is only one of them. The practice of "meditation
upon
is yet another-indeed, it is a mental training which follows
And so there follows
the right establishmentof moral behaviour.
the informative essay, "Aspects of Meditation in the Theravdda
are
and Mahisasaka." Since the Theravdda and Mahisd'saka
sects of Early Buddhism, the final essay in this section-"The'
Bodhisattva Practice According to the Lant Rim chen i'[s"-
turns our attention to the stage of discipleship called the bodhi'
sattva within the MahdYana.
third
Part two can be looked upon as a presentation of the
training-training in f insighf"-5inss it takes up the "Doctrine"'
by
which must be "discerned" once the mind has been "calmed"
and
meditatron. This is by far the longest section of the book,
it opens with a discussionof "The sixteen Aspects of the Four.
Truths
Noble Truths and their opposites." The Four Noble
taught by Gautama Buddha at his first
are said to have been
to see how the basic doctrine grows
sermon; and it is interesting
times the
with the tradition to encompass eventually four
..truth,, complete with opposites or o'coverings"which obscure
that
these truths for ordinary persons. Buddhists ares aying
is generally misperceived ; and
ordinary rcality, called salnsdra,
will not perceive the extra-
unless one seessaqnsdracorrectly, one
to the
ordinary reality called nirvdrya. Having been introduced
'owheel" with sixteen aspects
religious use of the symbol of the
the essay'
or spokes, we encounter the symbol of the "mirror" in
..The Mirror as a Pan-Buddhist Metaphor-simile." The
the imagi-
materials presented are particularly rich, capturing
the data move
nation u, t.ligiorrs symbols are intended to do; and
the tantric
through the varied traditions of Buddhism, including
the short
formr. This is all by way of prepatation, I think, for
vision'"
but important statement, "The Buddhist Theory of
begins to justify his translation of prajfia as
Professor wayman
ooinsight" (rather than as "wisdom," a translation preferred by
but it is
,o*.-; toward the close of the essayon "Meditation;"
sense the significance of a translation that
really here that we
'oseeing." FOr it is "seeing"-4nd having
preserves
^the a nuance Of
"eye" for it-which servesas the primary symbol of under-
standing throughout the history of Buddhism'
Introduction 5
While the successful yogin must "see" the Four Noble Truths
in their multiple aspects,he must also seeDependent Origination.
There follows, then, the long and complex discussion, "Depen-
dent Origination-the Indo-Tibetan Tradition." Published only
recently, this essay is a culmination of the author's previously
published researchon the subject; and the extensive notes provide
a sort of sub-text for the body of this essay. Avidya is the first
member of this twelve-member formula for conditioned reality,
and FrofessorWayman focusesupon it in his article, "Nescience
,and Insight According to Asanga's Yogdcdrabhumi." Actually,
we learn that "nescience" is a general translation of avidyd
since it might better be rendered "ignorance" as the first
member of Dependent Origination so as to preserve an unex-
pected meaning as a kind of "waywardness'oin association with
"feelings," the seventh member of the formula. "fnsight"
opposes"nescienceo'in any form, and Asanga'slong list of meta-
phors for prajfid-including the most telling ones that have to do
with "light" -can be found here. But the problem of "ne-
science"for the ordinary personis a persistentone; and so we read
next of "The Twenty Reifying Views''. These must yield place
in favour of the Buddhist view called "non-self" which is, in
this instance, the view of the five skandhas,each denied in four
ways as being "self." As the section comes to a close, we are
treated once again to the Buddhist penchant for a four-fold
analysis in the essay,"Who Understands the Four Alternatives
of the Buddhist Texts?" This is the most philosophical, in some
ways the most technical, essayin the volume; it goes directly to
problems of logic-and Wayman takes on a number of his col-
leaguesin debate. The subject matter itself includes such ancient
problems as this: Does the Tathdgata exist after death? And so
the section closeswith the topic, "The Intermediate-State Dispute
in Buddhism." Here, the debate is among Buddhists alone.
And the question is whether a person who is not yet Enlightened
goes directly to his or her next life upon death, or goes to an
"intermediate state," some state in between. I think it is im-
portant to seein this essayand elsewherewithin the volume that
a dispute among Buddhists may exhibit the difference between
the Hinayana and Mahayana forms but may just as readily cut
acrosssectarianlines.
Part three is entitled "Interpretative Studies of Buddhism"
6 nuddhist Insight
BUDDHISTPRACTICE
BUDDHA AS SAVIOR
zThe passage
wascalledto my attentionin A.K. Coouluswauv and
I. B. HonNnn,GotamatheBuddha(London,1948),p. 43,but the translation
is my own.
Buddha as Savior 13
ordinary person is called the prthagjana, wrile the one who be-
came a disciple is called the arya. The Pali scripture sarpyutta-
nikdya describes the ordinary person (p. puthujjana) as the one
who has not heard the Doctrine or been disciplined in it, who has
not come in contact with the noble ones (ariya) or illustrious
persons; and this ordinary person identifies his self with the five
personal aggregatesof form and so on.e According to the teacher
Asanga, the arya person, the Buddha's disciple, views illustrious
persons, is skilled in the noble doctrinesi he knows, as it truly
is, suffering as suffering, the source as the source, cessation as
cessation, the path as the path.ro rhus the disciple knows the
four Noble Truths, or Truths of the Nobles, proclaimed by the
Buddha in the first sermon, Setting into Motion of the wheel
of Dharma.
while the dryais the one who "enters the stream," and proceeds
on the Buddhist path, this does not mean that the "ordinary
person" was neglected. According to a Mah6y6na scripture
called Kulagdra-siltra, ordinary persons were called "fish."ll
Ananda, "fish" is a term for ordinary persons (prthagjana).
The "fishing hook" is a term for the Tathdgata's generating
(in them) the root of virtue (kuiata-muta).
The "line" is a term for the "means of conversion.,,
"Fish(erman)" is a term for the Tathdgata.
"Fish rescuen'is a term for installing sentient beings in the
Nirvdqa-fruit.
eSarpyutta-nikdya,iii (Khandha-yagga,42).
10A. wevuaN, Analysisof the sravakabhumi Manus*ipt (Berkeley,1961),
p.67.
rr rhis scripture,found in both ribetan and chinese,was
cited in a
nativeTibetanwork by Tsor.i-xna-ra,his sansrgyasso lrta,imnonrtogsdart
|
lha ska'iphyagtshad,Tashilunpocollectedworks,Vol. Da.
12D. SeyFonrRuncc, "pali GottafGotra and the term
Gotrabhfrin
16 BuddhistInsight
Blessed Ones are (only) preachers. Those who enter the path
and practise meditation are releasedfrom ihe bondage of Mdra
(death, sin)."re Along these lines there is a verse of unknown
source which I cited elsewherewith annotational expansion:20
The Munis do not wash away the defilements (of the streams
of consciousnessof the sentient beings) with water (as though
it were a matter of washing away dirt). And they do not
remove the suffering of beings with a hand (as though it were
a matter of pulling out a thorn). They do not shift to another
the (features of) comprehension of reality (as though it were
a matter of shifting a tool from the right to the left hand).
(But rather) they liberate (the beings from the cyclical flow)
by the Teaching (provided the beings meditate on its meaning)
of the truth of real nature (or absolute truth).
It is possible to overly stress this self-reliance, as though the
Buddhas are only preachers. This is because all the scriptures
begin with "Thus by me it was heard" (evam mayd Srutam),
admitting that the disciple did not derive the scripture from him-
self but from another. In Tibet, the author Tson-kha-pa cited
the Tathagata, "The one rvho has heard (it) from another, is
liberated from old age and death." And the Tibetan author
added:21
;
t
I
t
Buddhaas Savior 19
"irlirl.^r-Lre PoussrN,viifiaptirnatratasidcthi,
,rfil;. Tome rr (paris,
suzuxt, studiesin the Lankavatdra
,r;iTil" rliIii." siltra (London,
z8cf' pnasaNN.q, K_u^{aRAcuan"o, Dictionary
(London'1927)' l
pp' l7-1g,saying,".-ii d"not", of Hindu Architecture
-'tends'...itimpries un ouj."t onwrrrctsomething
the baseorlne corumn,beingthe
:haft and the pedestal, if memberbetweenthe
there beany.,,
zvKe.zt Dawa-sauDup,
tr., W. y. EvaNs_WrNTz,
dtid Secret Doctrines (London, ed., Tibetan yoga
tgZSl, p. 264.
22 BuddhistInsight
Subhuti responded:
TnersrrR oF THEsALVrFrcACTIVITy
As though to underline a conclusion that the Buddha's teach-
ing of the Path-valuable as this is-did not constitute "saving"
as later followers of this religion would prefer it, there arose other
deities to do this job. Thus, there was the Buddha Amitabha or
Amitiyus whose o'heaven"is called sukhdvati, along with scrip-
tures followed by the chinese and JapaneseBuddhists for many
centuries. Then in Northern India there arose the cult of the
goddessTarn (the Savioress), popular in Nepal, Tibet, and
Mongolia. Twenty-one forms of this deity are presented
at the close of this volume. There were other deities too.
In Japan the name Amitdbha occurred as Amita or Amida.
In the classic of shin Buddhism, the Kyogyoshinsho,we read:Bz
Now the Buddha Meditation Samadhi is the truly superb and
38I translated
this work in 1970whilestayingin Dharmsala,
H. p. India.
28 Buddhistrnsight
asSeeChapter 22.
2
IxrRooucrroN
There have been many studiesof Buddhist monasticism,oriented
both to the ancient forms and to modern features in certain
Buddhist countries of Asia and south-east Asia. Many of these
studies have been prepared by fine scholars. It is impossible to
deal with the manifold aspects in one paper. So the present
writer restricts the topic, first of all, to the ancient period, while
stressingthose particular aspectsas appear to be of vital concern
in all periods. It is well to admit that there are a number of
disputed points in regard to the ancient form of Buddhism
portrayed in this paper, and to mention that this writer will not
shirk the responsibility when such points deservefair appraisal
and conclusions. In the first part, emphasizingthe pratimokqa,
vinitadeva's commentary on the vinaya is employed to suggest
a new rendition for the term; the theory of two oral traditions-
vinaya and Dharma-is combined with a division into two
Prdtimoksa-s to advance a position that various vinaya lineages
were in Buddhism from the beginning and that the separationinto
Buddhist sects was due to doctrinal and not vinaya disagree-
ments. In the second part, emphasizingthe monastery inhabi-
tants, there is exposition of well-establishedfacts of monastery
life with a comparison to the Brahmanical "stages of life." In
the third part, emphasizing the offences,only some of the pre-
birth
supportsthe rendition"Liberation-onset.":this onsetis a
in the inner precinctsof Buddhism,so the monasticfollowers
of the
were called samarydSakyaputtiyd,"asceticswho are sons
Ruddha."16
T heDigha- nik a y a p a s s a g e (I,6 2 )th a ts h o u l dnow bementi oned
is from the well-known scripture samafifia-phala-sutta:
(s. pravra'
when the ascetic(s. iramalta) has thus gone forth
by the Pdtimokkhasa{nvara (s'
jita) he dwells restrained
prd,timoksa-sar.nvara).He has the perfection of good be-
views
havior and of lawful resort (dcdragocarasar.npanna),
fearfullyeventheminort}ringstobeavoided.Herightfully
(s. iiksapada),
takes and learns the "points of instruction"
whileaccompaniedbyvirtuousactsofbodyandvirtuous
equipped with
acts of speech. With pure livelihood and
morality,heguardstheSensedoors,accompaniedbymind-
fulness and awareness. He is happy'
"Patimokkhasamvafa'"
This brings up the important expression
means a "vow," the solemn promise.lG As used
Here sarytvara
but ccnveys the sense of
here, it does not mean "restraint,"
..holding together," i.e. adhering inthe streamof consciousuess;
phrase "while accom-
becauseu vow is not to be forgotten. The
actsof speech"raises
panied by virtuous acts of body and virtuous
mind, since Buddhism
it . q,r.riion: why not by virtuous acts of
of karma, three of body' four of speech' and
,p.ui, of ten paths
makes up ten, a typical number of the
tirree of mind? This
BuddhistVinayacode.However,morality(ii|a)perseamounts
bad acts of body
to the seven abstinences, i.e. from the three
so the number seven also is im-
and four bad acts of speechilT
detailed variously, as in the citation
portu"t for Vinaya theoiy, but
(Book of Sevens' Vinayavagga)
below. The Aiguttara-'nikq'a
possessed of seven natures (dhamma),
states that when a monk is
of the Buddhist discipline,
he is a vinayadhlra (holder, or retainer
Vinaya), as follows:
(Suttavibhanga)
15Cf. I. B. HonNBn, tr. The Book of Discipline Yo]l. l
p' lii'
(London, 1g4g),translator's introduction'
pa; and in this
16The term sar.nvarais translated into Tibetan by sdom
languagetherearesdomgsumbooksonthe'othreevows,"namely,thePrati-
mokga, the Bodhisattva, and the Mantra vows'
l?Cf. DpaKKUMAR Blnu.r., An analytical Study of the four Nikayas
(Rabindra Bharati University, Calcutta, 1'97t)' pp' 128'129'
AncientBuddhistMonasticism 35
which is not pure." For the Buddhas "know with their own
minds the minds of their followers and then instructed them.'o
That is to say, the Buddha knew with superhuman vision the
minds of the persons assembledfor the Pdtimokkha-recitation;
but the monks themselvesare not able to assesstheir fellows by
this supernormal faculty: they have to rely upon the more obvious
acts of body and speechwhich define "morality" for them. Hence
the distinction: the monks will concern themselvesin the Pati-
mokkha of the Uposatha with "moraliry" in the meaning of the
sevenabstinences,among others;zl while the Buddha will do the
exhortation which requires knowing the minds of others.
Let us try out the new rendition of the term "Patimokkha"
in two important passagesof the scripture "Upili and the Pati-
mokkha" (from the Anguttara-nikdya, Book of Tens):
In consideration of what purpose were the "points of instruc-
tion" prescribed for the disciples (5. iravaka) by the Tathd-
gata and the Ltberation-Onsetrecited? (Upali is told, in
consideration of ten purposes,to wit:) For the excellenceof
the Congregation (Sar.n-uha); for the well-being of the Congre-
gation; for chastising errant persons; for the comfort of the
virtuous monks; to restrain the (defiled) fluxes (asrava) of
the present life; to prevent the (defiled) fluxes in the future
life; to instill faith in those of scarcefaith; to promote even
more those with faith; to establish the illustrious Dharma;
to assistthe Vinaya.
Then UpAli asked in what circumstances the Liberation-Onset is
suspended,i.e. recitation of it postponed; and was told there are
ten such, to wit:
When a "defeated" person is seatedin that assembly; when
talk of whether one is "defeated" is not finished; when an
unordained person is seated in that assembly; when talk of
whether one is unordained is not finished; when a personwho
has repudiated the instruction is seated in that assembly;
when talk of whether one has repudiated is not finished;
when a eunuch is seated in that assembly; when talk of
whether one is a eunuch is not finished; when a seducerof a
2lThree offences of body and four of speech (as the ten paths of karrna
has it) is not the only classification; cf. Bnpar and Hrnartwa, Shan-Chien*
P'i-P'o-Sha, pp. 535-536, for allusion to the Vinaya breakdown of the numbers*
AncientBuddhistMonasticism 37
Vol. 40, 1951, p. 254, n., mentioning that the compounds dharma-vinaya
and siltra-vinaya(of course,meaning the same: dharma:siltra, and vinaya)
are frequent in the accounts of the Council of VaiSali; and pp. 260-261,
agreeingwith N. Durrn Early Monastic Buddhism,on the important distinc-
tion dhammadhara and vinayadhara, retainers of the dhomma (5. dharma),
and retainers of the vinaya.
27As one Tibetan source, cf. Mkhas grub rje's Fundamentals (n. 24,
above), pp.67-69.
zaCf. LtN Lt-KouaNo, L'Aide-Mdmoire de la Vraie Loi (Adrien-Maison-
neuve, Paris, 1949), pp. 194-228,for a lengthy discussionof these matters;
but his sourcesmake somewhat different correlationsbetweenschools and
languages.As we shall see,this difference, per se, does not matter much:
the main thing is that such correlationsare made at all.
zeFnaurr,INEoceRtoN, BuddhistHybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary :
Vol. I: Grammar (Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1978),pp.t-2.
40 BuddhistInsight
perhaps later, the canon was also rendered into Sanskrit, and this
is the language of both the Sarvdstivddin and Milasarvasti-
vddin, supposedlydescendedfrom the son Rdhula. But it appears
now that the attempt to create a Middle Indic canon in a Prakrit
form or the Sanskrit canon of the scriptures was done either
with an exemption or a compromise that it would not extend to
the Vinaya, the disciplinary code. Hence, the various forms of
the Pratimoksa-siltra. For the other two, first take the Mah6-
sdr.nghika,said to have used Apabhrarysa and to have descended
from MahakaSyapa. It is of interest that the Vinaya of the
Lokcttaravadin sect of the Mahdsdryghika, preservedunder the
title Mahdvastu, uses a kind of language that Edgerton calls
"Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit" and includes in the earliest form of
this mixed language. Th.is is not how the word ApabhrarySa
("fallen-off language") is used nowadays, but conceivably it
applies to the languageof the Mahdvastu.Tltelast one mentioned,
the Sammatiya, is attributed a dialect called PaiSdciso and said
to descend from Upali. This suggestsa confused association
of names and is hardly identifiable l,vith the remaining extant
Vinayr,s, those of the Dharmaguptaka and the Mahi(asaka;
and it is dubious that Updli, the great Vinaya-dhara of early
Buddhism, rvould be more associatedwith a tradition leading
to these vinayas than to the others. This alternate traciition is
obviously too neat, with its fourfold description, to suit what is
probably a complicated situation. In any case,the partial truth
of this tradition cannot account for the doctrinal divisions among
the Buddhists: it rather points, albeit confusedly, to a diversity
of Vinaya lineages.
It appears then that the division into Buddhist sects, said in
some accountsto have amoun.tedto eighteen,is an independent
matter from muitiple Vinayas; and this lends credenceto the
position Bareau has argued at length, attributing the initial split
to Mahadeya'sfive theses,which were of doctrinal nature.sl The
defilements. The former two are on the side of the one in the
religious life (pravrajita); the other two are on the side of the
householder (grltastha). Those gone-forth have reflections
from recalling experience of (mundane) sensory objects; and
elaboration from that swaying addiction. The householders
have attachment from living amidst (mundane) sensory
objects; and (mundane) ideas resulting from adherence to
attachment's sign-sources.
Asanga reveals the mind of the rnonk, his fixed ideas in five
situations:a6
(1) the idea when entering a city that one is enteringa prison;
(2) when in the monastery, continually having the idea of the
monk, e.g. "f have abandoned the home attire and adopted
one of bad color, so am not 'good-looking,"' and so on.
Twenty-two points were stated in the sutra;a7
(3) the idea of antidote to the sickness that is continually in
f ood;
(4) the idea when in seclusion, that in regard to forms to be
perceived by the eye, the sounds to be perceived by the ear,
one is blind and deaf and dumb;
(5) the idea when lying down, that one has stretched out his
hands and feet like the deer of the hermitage.
Asanga may perhaps speak more for himself than for the
generality of monk and nun. There are of course a wide diversity
of such persons, who ordinarily started out as a Buddhist layman
-male, the updsaka, or female, the upasika.
In the beginning the Buddha conferred the "going forth" (p.
pabbajjQ ordination of the male novice (Srama4era),perhaps the
first female novice (iramaperika), and postulants (iikgamdnd);
and he conferred the "full ordination" (P. upasampada)of the
monks (bhik;u) and perhaps the first of the nuns (bhiksuni). But
as Buddhism spread to other parts of India, it became necessary
for qualified monks to be permitted to conduct these two kinds
using high and big beds, taking meals at wrong times, and
accepting gold and silver. The dcdrya says something like,
"Fine!"
For the vow of the monk, the following also comes from
Mfrlasarvdstivdd,a practice0z: The novice having attained an
age, of which the minimum is stated as "twenty" (as before,
presumably l5+5; and with inevitable exceptions), asks the
upddhyaya for an alms-bowl and religious robes. He also asks
the karmakdraka bhik;u (previously called the karmq-dcarya)
and the rahonusdkato conduct their proper rcles in the ceremony
and asks some other monks to participate. The information is
given tbat at least five vinayadharas (retainers of the vinaya
code) had to participate in the upasanpadd ardination. The
candidate makes his salutations, then squatting in front of the
upadhydya, three times implores him to act as the upddhydya
fcr his full-ordination. Assenting, the upadhyay,aprovides the
candidate with three robes either already made up, or with cloth
for the same; and the two go through a robe conflerment cere-
mony with formulas repeated thrice. Then comes exhibition of
the bcwl, and afterwards the upadhydyaconfers the bowl. Three
times the candidate states the proper use of the bowl. The
candidate is moved to the side, standing wirh folded hands, but
in view of the assembled Sar.ngha.
The karmakdraka bhikpu now asks the rahonusdsaka bhiksu
if he is willing to make the confidential inquiries to the candidate
with the named upadhyaya.upon getting the assent of the ral.io-
nuiasaka bhik;u the karmakaraka bhiksu makes a muktika-
jfiapti-apparently meaning his motion to the assembledSdr.ngha,
upon his sitting down-that the rahonuiasaka bhik;u be permit-
ted to make his confidential inquiries to the candidate. There
foliows the jfrapti-kq,rmq of the rahonuiasaka bhiksu apparerftly
meaning his questions to the candidate, out of ear-shct of the
Sdingha (hence as the "confidant") on various private matters,
starting with "Are you a man?" "Do you possessthe male
organ?" "Are you at least 20 years of age?" "Are your three
robes and bowl complete ?" and going down to questions
of whether he is a thief, a king's soldier, nun-seducer, indebted
to someone, aflicted with various illnesses, and so on (in fact,
i) no matter how old the nun, she should bow her head,to the feet
of a monk, even one ordained that day; ii) being a virgin of eight-
'een years she requests the Orders of monks and nuns for two
years' training at the end of which she may be fully ordained;
iii) nuns may not addressmonks regarding the true and the false;
a monk may address nuns regarding the true but not the false;
iv) the nuns must wait until the monks have been supplied with
food, bedstead,and lodging before being themselvessupplied; v)
.a nun guilty of a grave offence must apply to the Order of nuns
for the severe penance of isolati on (mdnatva) for half a month
and certification of rehabilitation from both the Orders; vi) every
half month the nuns should desire the coming of the monks on
Uposatha day, for instruction; vii) the nuns may not spend the
rainy seasonat a place devoid of a monk; viii) upon the conclu-
sion of the rainy seasonthe nuns should desire to invite each other
before both the Orders (to be open about what transpired during
the rainy season).'
Then for the monks comes a section of thirteen Sanghddisesa
offences. One of the traditional explanations for the title-
whereby it is rendered "beginning with (Adi), and remaining with
(sesa) the Sangha,"e6 i.e. entirely within the purview of the
Sangha-seems confirmed by Vinitadeva's commentary on the
Vinayavibhanga, with the S. SdryghdvaSesa ("remains in the
'Sdrygha"). Thus Vinitadeva: "depends on the Sar.ngha" (Tib.
'dun Ia rag 'dun
dge lus pa); "entailed by the Sdr.ngha" (dge dan
'brel 'dun
ba); "arises from the Sar.ngha"(dge las rnampar ldan par
'gyur);
and "'without a remainder' (would be) becausethere is
'with a remainder'
no common (shared) means of purification;
(would be) becausethere is a common means of purification."e?
Hence, the term Sanghddisesaseemsto have been adopted to
contrast with the Parajika ("defeat"), namely, where there is a
means of purification within the Sdr.nghafor a serious offence
and where there is no such means.As to the list, the first five relate
to sexual indiscretions short of sexual intercourse. Then come
offences relating to construction of morrastic dwellings, false
are reborn as lovely fairids; and earlier the 'oGreat Chapter" has a passago
that a woman enslavesa man in eight ways.
e6For a discussionof the title, cf. FIoRNER,The Book of Discipline, Vol. f,
Introduction, pp. xxix-xxxii.
gzPTT,Yol. 122,p. 313-4.
AncientBuddhistMonastioism 63
1. a grave thing, e.g. the four defeats. But the beginner can
have them in a pre-defeat form, which taken care of in
time, can ayert a "defeat.,'
2. non-contentment with lack of things one might want
more of.
3. creating incidents, or opportunities, to have offensive
relations with nuns, etc.
4. acting in such a way among raity as to causethose without
faith not to get faith and for those with faith to lose it.
5. trading or trafficking in merchandise and precious things
like gold and silver.
6. lust, leading to sexualdischargesand to erotic advances.
7. hurting othersby calumny,etc.
8 . causinginjury to othersby requiringthem to carry excessive
loads,etc.
9. interruptingthe progressto "heaven" (sugat by breaking
)
the concordin the Sangha.
'
INTRoDUcrroN
Monks, if a monk should wish: "May I be agreeableto my
fellows in the pure life, liked by them, revered and re-
spected," he should be one who fulfills the moral rules
(sila), who is intent on calming the mind (cetosamatha)
within, whose meditation (jhdna) is uninterrupted, who is
endowed with discerning (vipassand),a frequenter of soli-
tary abodes (sufifidgdra).
?L. S. CousrNS,
"BuddhistJhdna:Its natureand attainmentaccordingto
ReligionIIl, 2 1973,pp. 115-31.
thePalisources,"
sDaNrtt GotrMeN, "The Buddha on Meditation and States of Conscious-
ness", Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, IV, l, 1972, pp. l-44.
72 BuddhistInsight
in the former and latter parts of night for meclitating, if one is not
also to practice moderation irr food
sBuddhistMeditation,p. 9g.
10It is difficult to assign a good rendition for
vitakka. My suggestionof
"conjecture" (or "specuration") is based on the availabreevidence
that the
term (in Sanskritvitorka)is an abbreviationfor .'inquiry and investigation,,
(uitarkavicafa)(seelater, "progress in theRealm
of Form") ofthe type in the
Realm of Desire,hencedefiledby lust, hatred,and delusion.
nAmong Westernthinkers,it is especially
Hegelwho insistedthat character
is revealed by movement; cf. J. B. Bl'LrE, tr., Hege|s phertomenotogy
of
Mind (London, rev. ed., 1949),p. 349: "The true being of
a man is, on the
contrary,his act; individuality is real in the deed.,,
rzBuddhistMeditation, p. ll0.
13Wayuau, Analysis, pp. 86-7.
Aspectsof Meditation in the Theravddaand MahiSdsaka IJ
vagga of the Pili Vinaya; and WupoI-l, RlHura,, What the Buddha Taught
(Bedford, 1972 reprint), pp. 95-97, for the equivalent Sfrtra translated from the
Saryyutta-Nikay a.
tsBuddhist Meditation, p. 139.
zofiaNnrtaort, The Path, p. ll3.
21So also in Buddhaghosa's Abhidhamma commentary called Atthasalini;
cf. Pe Maung Tinn tr., which CanortNr Rnvs Dlvms edited and revised,
The Expositor,Yol.I (London, 1958 reprint), p.248, in reference to the kasi4a,
"But why was this method taught? Because it led to the produrction of
jhdna."
22P. V. BAnAt, Vimuttimagga and Visuddhimagga: A Comparative Study
(Poona, 1937), p. 57.
2sCaRotrNe Ruvs-Davros, Preface, P. xii, to F. L. Woodward, Manual of
a Mystic (London, 1916).
24G. CoNsraNr LouNSBERy, Buddhist Meditation in the Southern School
(New York, 1936), pp. 43-44.
76 BuddhistInsight
pRocRESS rN AsaNca.'s
A srnrcH oF MEDTTATTvE scHool.
35Asertensively
setforth in "Calmingthe Mind".
36As cited in "Calming the Mind,,.
3;Cf. Cousr\s, "Buddhist Jhana." pp. 120-22, for an
eraborate discussion
of the meditatii'e "rapture" (5. priti) by its plii form ptti.
ssrherefore one must now correct Erraor, yoga, p. r69, "Real
Buddhist
meditation begins with experiencing the four psychic states called jhanas
(cf. Skr. dhyana)," since one may not have attained the Jhana states
even
when having achieved one-pointedness of mind by elimination of faults of
meditation.
of Meditationin theTheravdda
Aspects and Mahi6dsaka 8l
60Rfipakayenamanaltkdyenaveditasukharpca prasrabdhisukhar\pratisam-
vedayate;shukla, srdvakabhumi,p.453-9. improperly separatesvedita from
sukharyt.
51PTT,Vol. 109,p.278-3.
52ArBx wnylaaN, "studies in Yama and Mh.ra," Indo-Iranian Journal,
Vol.III, No.2, 1959,p.116.
53Thereferenceis of courseto the celebratedincident in the Buddha'slife
of the "Assault of Mdra," when the Buddha appealedto the "authority', or
"measure"(prama4a)of earth by touching it with his right hand, while his
left hand indicatedby the "equipoisegesture"(sarncipatti-mudrtl)
his n-reditative
attainment,an incidentwhich long ago I attemptedto interpret, per "studies
in Yama and Mdra," op. cit., pp. 117-18.
Eal,outsor La vanfn PoussrN,L'Abhidharmakoiade vasritandlzr,Septidme
et huitidmechapitres(Paris,1925),p.209.
55cf. Arrx wAyrrrl.N,"climactic Times in Indian Mythology ancl Rerigion,"
History of Religions Vol. 4, No. 2, Winter 1965, pp. Z9S-318.
Aspectsof Meditationin theTheravada
and MahiSdsaka 85
56Cf.Ssurra,,Sravakabhfimi,
p. 454-8-11.
5?PTT,YoL 147,p. 265-2.
58SHUKLA, Sravakabhumi, p. 454.16.
seSo reads the Tibetan: PTT, Vol. 110, p. 119-l-4,withthewordserns(con-
sciousness), and included in the Sanskrit as properly edited at this point by
Shukla (p. 454.18-19): cittaryt...aniryjyaryt santi;thate. But then he gives a
wrong reading, sarvaiijitayatenat.n, while the Bihar Society's manuscript which
he used (l3A-7,last line) reads: sarvveftiitapagatatn, verified by the Tibetan,
g'yo ba thams cad dan bral bas na,"being free from all shaking."
6ol-auottp, Le Traitd, II, p. 1031.
oll-euorrr, Le Traitd,III, p. 1289.
86 BuddhistInsight
Buddha and the aryas,but here associated with the Fourth Dhydna, in contrast
with Asanga's assignment of them to the Formless Realm, the base of infinite
perception. Of these terrns, the praqidhi-ifiana is a type of knowledge of the
future; and the four "special knowledges" ale of entities (artha), scriptural
elements (dharma), denotation (nirukti), and eloquence (pratibhana).
zoPTT, Vol. 109, p.276-4-7.
7?PTT,Vol. 109, p. 276-2-2,3'
zsThis seems to be involved in a disputed point among the Buddhist sects
aS Bareau, Les sectes p. 267, summarizes, "Il y a riiparaga dans Ie seul,
rupadhatu," meaning that craving for forms is restricted to the Realm of Form,
which the Andhaka and the Sammatiya sects concurred in, and the Theravida
rejected.
Aspects of Meditation in the Theravdda and MahiSdsaka 9l
zesamdhitabhfimi,
PTT, vol. 109,p. 276-5-5.
sosamahitabhilmi,
PTT, vol. 109,p. 276-3-4,ff.
stBuddhist Meditqtion, p. 481.
92 Buddhist Insight
Eigfri**."G". (samapatti)
.t"ti"*t fttl ara) of eqr-ripoise
FORMLESS REALM
REALM OF FORM
3 3 Fourth Dhyana:
, E u n s h a k e nb y p l e a s u r e - c e s s a t i o n Third Liberation; bases of
)of "nrotiuaiion of body" Mastery 5-8; basesof Totality
c 5 - 8 ; 5 . b l t r e ,6 . y e l l o w , 7 . r e d ,
2 lThird Dhydna: 8. white
Sshakenby pleasure
)
I :SSecondDhyana: SecondLiberation;
,-cmeditativeobject basesof Mastery,3-4
)steady:cessation Bases of Totality,
I of "motivation of [. earth, 2. water,
h speech" 3. fire, 4. wind
F First Dhyana: First Liberation;
Caryd j meditativ-eobject basesof Mastery, 1-2
samdpatti unsteady
of them from any other one as wished, for Tathdgatas and Bodhi-
sattvas who have passedthe second incalculable aeon (explained
in the Prajffdparamitd tradition as the last three stages,8th, 9th,
and 10th of the Bodhisattva path).88
THs INSTRUCTToN
oF INSTcHT
The instruction of insight-the third of the three instructions-
is frequently set forth by the term "discerning" (uipasyana). Thus
Sutralarykara,XIY, 8:
One should know his path of calming and the concise
statement of the doctrines; one should knolv his path of
discerning-the deliberation of the meaningsof that (concise
statement).
As was indicated previously, the path of discerning,which gradu-
ally perfects insight (prajmA),is meant to eliminate the deep-seated
traces (anuSaya)of defllements,whereas the training in concentra-
tion of the mind aims at a one-pointednessleaving no room in the
mind atthat time for a defilement. This position, so much stressed
in the writings of Asanga's school (the later Mahisasaka) is also
what the Theravdda says.se
But, while calming the mind was already set forth as necessary
to attain the threshold of the First Dhydna, one does not continue
through the various stations depicted above by calming alone.
Thus the Yogdcdra sub-commentator Sthiramati states in his
commentary on the SutralarTtkara(XVIII, 65-67) that in the first
three Dhyanas, discerning is major, calming minor; while in the
Fourth Dhydna there is the pairwise-union (yuganaddha)of calm-
ing and discerning. He means, starting from the main paft
Qnauli) of the First Dhydna.
The path of discerning, otherw.isecalled the instruction of
insight, presents methodical mental orientations in terms of
deliberating, investigating the object. Thus the Visuddhimagga
includes under this instruction such matters as understanding the
personal aggregatesto be void of self or of what belongs to self,
observingimpermanence,and the like. It is not necessaryto have
precededthis path of discerningwith calming of the type associat-
ed with the cathartic and rapture; because,as was cited, "(Still,)
88Cf. LBssrNc and WAyuAN, Mkhas grub rje's, p. 21.
ssBuddhist Meditation, p. 341
96 BuddhistInsight
dear must give way to holding others as dear. And if one manages
that conversion,then even that person who'had been considered
one's worst enemy and who caused disagreeablefeelingsjust by
hearing his name-becomes converted into a friend who would
causedispleasureby his mere absence.This changeof heart comes
about through cultivating this view of personality interchange.
Now, somebody challenges this procedure on the grounds that
another's body is certainly not our body, and so it is questionable
that anything like our own mentality could be generated therein.
The answer given is that we did something analogous when we
descendedto rebirth in a habitation formed from materials of the
father and mother, who are "different" from us, although we
ooourbody." Having come to see the benefit, he then
speak of
proceeds to 2, the steps of cultivating the interchange between
oneselfand another. Now, one should not confuse this procedure
with the thought, "f am seeing through his eyes," and so on.
Rather it is the interchangeof feelings,taking on another's suffer-
ing, installing in him one's bliss. There are two hindrancesto this
interchange. (a) One has the thought, "This is mine" and "That is
his" much the same way as the colors green and yellow are
distinct. One counteracts that with a contemplation given in
Bslqb btus (final verse section):
Through the repeated cultivation of the samenessof oneself
and another, the Thought of Enlightenment would be firmed.
The relation-oneself-and-another-ness-like this side and
the further bank (of a river) is in falsehood.
Not becauseof our own is that bank the other one; for, with
relation to what is there a "this side" ?
Ego is not proved by our own; in relation to what would there
be the other (where the "other" is ourself)?
(b) One has the thought, "His suffering does no harm to me;
why try to dispel it?" One counteracts that by contemplating in
such a caseone should make no provision for old age, becausethe
suffering of the aged does no harm to the youth; and by contem-
plating that in such a case one should not bother to use a hand
to relieve a foot from something distressing, becauseit is
ooanother." An objection is raised that the old man and the
youth have a single stream of consciousness,and the foot and
hand are in the same set, while in contrast one cannot say the
to4 BuddhistInsight
same of oneself and another. The answer points out that the
stream of consciousnessis momentary and the set is subject to
reformations. Thus it is a similar situation and one could just
as well posit oneselfand another self in the caseof the youth and
the old man. Having in that way eliminated the wrong ap-
proaches,one can attend to 3. the basic method of cultivation.
Make sure, O mind, that I belong to the other;
And exceptfor the aim of all the sentientcreatures.henceforth
you must not plan.
These eyes,which are theirs, must no longer see my aim:
These hands, which belong to another, must not work my
aim; so also all the other organs of action.
(S p y o d U u g, V III, 137-138).
How lead away all fishesand so on, that I may not kill any?
When the abstinent thought is achieved,there is the Perfection
of Morality.
Without it, one's own aim as well as that of others is out of reach.
for the samework (II, 48) says:
BUDDHISTDOCTRINE
5
The sixteen aspects of the four Noble Truths are not canonical
and are not found in the Abhidhamma of Southern Buddhism.l
They are a specification resulting from the version of the First
Sermon of Buddhism, the Setting into Motion of the Wheel of the
Dharma, which, after stating the four Noble Truths, adds a triple
turning of the wheel with twelve aspects.This is the tripariuartaqn
duddaidkaram of the Mahauastu.2The sixteenaspectswere possibly
representedby the aniconic symbol of the wheel of 16 spokes,
four main ones and twelve intermediate spokes. A number of
illustrations of theseDharmacakra are collectedby Dhanit Yupho
in a Bangkok publication.s The sixteenaspectsare treated in the
Northern Abhidharma, as observedin vasubandhu's Abhidharma-
koia, Chap. VII, verse 13, where a number of theories are pre-
this mentions the four Noble Truths, and the .Vrtti clarifiesthat the
rejectingis of sufferingand the sourceof suffering,that the accept-
ing is of cessationand the path. The beyond means theparolc,sa(what
is beyond sight), namely, the chief aim, Nirvarla, which therefore
has to be inferred. Tson -kha-pa takesfor granted that his audience
knows the sixteen terms and their opposites that are referred to
in the Pramdnasiddhi chapter of Pramdnaudrttika, namely in the
block of versesin Miyasaka's edition 146-283.11 But Tson -kha-
pa expands to sixteen terms using Abhidharma-type vocabulary,
and this is reasonable,since Buddhist logic has an Abhidharma
base.l2 The Abhisamaydlaqnkdrasummary of the Prajfiaparamitd
includes the sixteenaspectsof the four Truths as a concentration
in the path of the Srdvaka (as does Asanga), and a feature of this
path is the identification of Nirvdqa with the Truth of Cessation
(nirodha-satya).13
While the list of sixteenwas included, or generallyalluded to, in
a variety of texts as mentioned above, there is a question of how
viable a classificationit is, i.e. to what extent such terms help to
explain this cardinal teaching of Buddhism-the four Noble
Truths. We should note that not only does the Southern Abhi-
dharma textual tradition not use the sixteen-term system,rabut
also the SatyasiddhiSdstraof Harivarman, completely devoted to
the four truths, appears opposed to employing this organizational
INrRooucrroN
The extensive literature of Buddhism contains works of sharply
contrasting spirit: some are dry metaphysical treatises; others,
inspired sermons; and there are a host of ritualistic works, even
on how to conjure rain. If one passesfrom one work to another
collecting material on a given topic, it is easy to amassnumerous
undigested passages. But the authenticity of the mirror metaphor
rests-I believe-on the easewith which one can go from one work
to another, written centuries apart, while paying attention to this
metaphor and assemblingthese passageswith an overall senseof
relevance. In the end I shall expressa reservation about bringing
together so many passagesin one article.
Even so, it is as though-here a metaphor-Buddhist religion
and philosophy were an enormous tangle of string, and we should
happen to notice among the innumerable loose ends a certain one
to pull and thereby begin to resolve the entire tangle. If other
scholars-except for a sinologist like Demi6villel-have not
deemed this study important, they can be excusedon the grounds
that it looked like just one of many loose ends.
Indeed, the importance of the mirror metaphor was enhanced
when Buddhism spread from its native India to various Asian
countries. China was fond of mirror symbolism; and Asian
zsPTT,103:271-4.
2eBnrrruu NANAvtott, trans., The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga)
(Colombo, 1956), p. 639.
30U. Woctnau, ed., AbhisamayalarykcTraloka Prajiiaparamifivyakb,a
(Commentary) on Aslasahasrika-Prajfiaparamita): The ll'ork of Haribhadra,
fasc. 7 (Tokyo, 1935),p. 841.
T h e M i r r o r a . sa P a n - B L r d d h i s tV l e t a p h o r - S i m i l e 139
sTTranslationby P. B. Yampolsky,ThePlatformSutraoftheSixthPatriarch
(New York, 1967),p. 130.
ssTranslationby Yampolsky,p. 1.32.
seThefullerform of thisbriefritualis translated
in A.Wayman,TheBuddhist
Tantras:Light on Indo-TibetanEsotericism(New York, 1973),pp. 68-70.
142 '.
Buclclhist
Insight
out turbulence:ungraspable,inexpressible.
truly arisen from
causoand action lhetu and,karnia].
Just like vajrasattvaon a mirror that is clear, pure, without
turbulence;so also rhe Buddhas,uni.,rersal lords, themselves
abide in the heart o1'thee,lny son.
Noiv that you have so understood the dltarmasas without
intrinsic nature and lvithout location, may you perf,ormin-
comparably tlie aim of sentientbeings so they may be
born as sonsof the protectors!
Tsori-kh.a-pa goes on to explain: "Tl^,oseversesenjoin (the <lis-
ciple) to understandin generalthat all dharma.sare like a reflected
image, and in particular that the Vajrasattva dlvelling in one,s
heart is like a reflectedimase in a rnirror."
4gPTT,87:162.
50PTT,vol.2, chap.19of theSambarodaya-tantra, p.212.
sUudgmentsceneswith largekarma-minorsare depictedin TheAncient
BuddhistArts in CentralAsia ond Tun-Huang(Kyoto: Hozokan, 1962),
pl. 504, A and B. Accordingto the Englishintroductionin a monograph
thereinby YushoTokushi,"PaintedManuscriptsof the Shih-Wang-Sh€ng-
Ts'i-Ching,"thesearepart of the picturesof theten kingsfoundat the Caves
of Thousand-Buddhas, Tun-huang.They belongto the late T'ang, tenth
century.
s2CnaRrEs Lvx, TheSurarigama Sfrtra(London,1966),p. 182. This work
is probablya nativeChinesecomposition andshouldnot beconfused with the
The Mirror as a Pan-BuddhistMetaphor-simile
145
lated: "There is a mirror reflecting a glaring,cand.le. In the day-
time it is not able to store the image - the mirror of karma and.
the jewel of a fire, reveal the stored karmaandmake various affairs
experienced."ss The karma-mirror is mentioned in a native
Tibetan sddhana of Yama (lord of the dead) where four fearful
goddesses,called "mothers of worldly existence',(Tib. srid pa,i
ma mo) each hold the karma-mirror in their right hands along with
the sack of diseases,the destructive ball of thread, and the notched
board of the Maras, and in their left hands hold a pair of dice.ba
one mirror in art representationsthat is difficult to explain is
that depicted as held by the dancing musicians in paradise, for
representationsof which one may consult Stein's work.br Now, it
is not impossible that these representationsare of the shaman in
his mystic flights, who in his frenzy can give prophecy. Also, in
the veda the gandharua was a musician in the intermediate space,
but later on in Buddhism the gandharua became the being in ttre
intermediate state (antardbhaua) between death and rebirth. If
the beings depicted in those representations can be construed
as gandharuas,the suggestionis that the mirror reflects the being's
future destiny, which was decreed by the karma-mirror.
More particularly about the predictive mirror itself, the theory
that the prognostic descendsinto the divinatory mirror is already
in the Pdli scriptwe Digha-nikaya l, which twice has the expression
dddsa-pafihaan(questions put to the mirror), on which the com-
mentary states: "adase devatan otaretvd pafiha-pucchenan.,'56
Here, otaretua means "having brought down," so "having brought
the deity down into the mirror, (then) to ask guestions."az
CoNcruorNc Rnuanrs
F. D. Lpsstuc,'oMiscellaneous
68See LamaistNotes.I. Noteson theThanks-
givingOffering,"CentralAsiaticJournal2, no. 1 (1956):58-71.
The \4irrorasa Pan-Buddhist
Metaphor-simile
ApprNorx
?zH.Inagaki,"Kukai's Sokushin-Jobutsu-Gi
(Principleof Attaining Buddha-
hood with the PresentBody)," Asia Major n.s. 17 (1971-72):215.
7
the "eye of insight" and added the "eye of dharma" and "Buddha
eye" to make a Mahiydna set of three eyes. Thus vasubandhu's
commentary on the Ak;ayamatinirdeia-sutra (Derge Tanjur, Mdo
lrgrel, Ci, l5b-6, tr) states: "The three eyes are .eye of
dharma,' 'eye of insight,' and ,'eye of Buddha',' (f spyan gsum ni
chos kyi spyan dan/ 6esrab kyi spyan dah / sans rgyas kyi spyan
no/). Kamalasila's commentary on the vojracchedikd (Tohoku
No. 3817,Derge Tanjur, Sesphyin, Vol. Ma,25la-2,ff.)also sets
asidethesethree eyes,defining them as follows: "He has the 'eye
of insight' toward the object which is the selflessness
of person and
nature (pudgala-and dharma-nairdtmya). The 'eye of dharma' is
toward the realm of dharma alone in the conventional sensewhen
there is the appearanceonly of dharmawhile personality (pudgala)
is void, there being no personality (in view). The omniscience
concerningall forms of the knowable is calledthe'eye of Buddha'."
(lean zag dan chos la bdag med pahi yul la ni Sesrab kyi spyan
mnaho/kun rdzob tu chos tsam du snan ba iid de gan zag ni ma
yin na zes gan zag sroir ste/ chos tsam gyi yul la chos kyi spyan
no / sesbya thams cad rnam pa thams cad du mkhyen pa ni sans
rgyas kyi spyan Lesbya ste/).
A complete explanation of the five eyes from the yogdcdra
standpoint is in Sthiramati's commentary on the Mahdydna-
sutrdlarykdra (Bodhipakqya chapter) from which the essentials
are given here:6
(a) The eye of flesh seesforms in present time.
(b) The divine eye is of two kinds, both seeing forms in past
and future: (1) that born of past action (karma), the eye of the
gods; and (2) that born of contemplation (bhauand) in the
samddhi of a yogin, and which seesthe sentient beingspassing
away from here and going to various destinies in accordance
with past actions.
(c) The eye of insight is the non-discursive knowledge which
understands the individual and the general characteristic of
the dharmas,seeingthem in the absolute sense(paramdrthatas).
(d) The eye of dharma understands without impediment all
Rgyud lrgrel, Ga, 75b-6, ff., states the five eyes as eye of flesh, divine eye,
eye of insight, knowledge eye, and eye of Buddha, thus omitting the eye
of
dharma and having in its place the knowledge eye.
6I have included this summary in my "Buddhism",
Historia Religionum.
The BuddhistTheory of Vision 157
10Ascited by Hjam dbyans bzad pabi rdo rje inhis Mthak dpyod of Chapter
8 of the Abhisamayqlarnkara(Tibetan text).
8
DEPENDENT ORIGINATION_:
THE INDO-TIBETAN TR.ADITION
INrnooucrroN
In the Mahd-niddna-suttantaof the Digha-Nikdya, the Buddha
reproved Ananda for saying that while Dependent Origination
looks deep it is clear to him. The Buddha announcedthat it both
looks deep and is deep. In this casethe Buddha was on the side
of the gods, becausethe Brhadaranyaka-Upani;ad(IY, 2,2) says,
"The gods love that which is hinted at darkly, and hate that which
is uttered directly." As William Blake puts it, the "dim Windows
of the Soul ... leads you to Believea Lie When you seewith, not
thro', the Eye"-because Dependent Origination not quite "is"
and not quite "isn't".
This signalsthe difficulties which authors of the past and present
have experienced with the Buddhist formula. They considered
Dependent Origination as something before their eyes to see in
clear relief, as one might see a book. This essay claims that
Dependent Origination could not become clear in such a way,
since there are two distinct and contrasting interpretations of the
series,the first one which I label "discovery and seeing", and the
second "lives of a person," and since both interpretations are re-
quired for understanding the formula. The first, without concern
for particular persons, attempts to develop the Buddhist Doctrine.
The second, recognizing individuals, showsthe role of defilement
and karma in successivelives. In order to demonstratethis inconti-
164 BLrddhist
Insight
it, orient your mind well, and I will explain" "Agreed !" those
monks responded to the Lord. The Lord spoke as follows:
"Monks, with the condition of nescience,there is motivation.
With the condition of motivation, there is perception. With
the condition of perception, there is name-and-form. With
the condition of name-and-form,there is six sensebases. With
the condition of six sensebases,there is sensecontact. With
the condition of sense contact, there is feeling. With the
condition of feeling, there is craving. With the condition of
craving,there is indulgence. With the condition of indulgence,
there is gestation. With the condition of gestation, there is
birth. With the condition of birth, then old age and death,
grief, lamentation, suffering, dissatisfaction, perturbation,
appear tcgether. Such is the source of this entire mass of
suffering.
"And what, monks, is old age and death? Whatever,of this and
that sentient being, in this and that group, is aging, decrepi-
tude, falling apart, whiteness of hair, wrinkled skin, affiiction
of life force, spent sensefaculties, this is called old age. What.
ever, of this and that sentientbeing, in this and that. group, is
falling or passing away, separation or disappearance,death
which is concretedeath, the appointed time, collapseof per-
sonal aggregates, laying down of corpse, severance of life
faculty, this is called death. Such is this old age and this
death, that is called old age and death.
o'And what, monks, is birth? Whatever, of this and that sen-
tient being, in this and that group, is birth-process,the beget-
ting, the entrance (into life), definition and differentiation,
manifestation of personality aggregates,acquisition of sense
organs, this is called birth.
"And what, monks, is gestation? There are three gestations:i'
gestationin the realm of desire,gestationin the reaim of forpn{
gestationin the formless reahn. This is called gestation. ( ,
o'And what, monks, is indulgence? There are four indul- \
gences: indulgence in desires (kdma), indulgence in (false)
views (drsti), indulgence in (fruitless) rules and vows (S.
birth, and old age and death, by sets of terms that are near-synonyms
(5. paryaya), and the remaining ten members by varieties (5. prabheda).
DependentOrigination-The Indo-TibetanTradition 169
But also, from its inception Buddhism never denied that a Tatha-
gata arises,or that dharmasarise.l1 It was claimed that anything
that arises,arisesdependently. Therefore, there must be a usage
of DependentOrigination to cover the arising of particular beings
or natures. Indeed, some Pali specialistshold that this is what the
Buddhist formula amounts to. For example, Jayatilleke asserts
that the formula expiains rebirth and karma anilifie-arising gf
suffering while avoiding the extremes of atman-eternalism and
nihilism of Materialism.lz Now rebirth is necessarilythe rebirth
of a particular being, and so this is the secondkind of Dependent
Origination as applied to lives of a particular being. This kind of
Dependent Origination has been popularized in the West by re-
productions of the "Wheel of Life" especiallyfrom its Tibetan
version.
To further clarify this kind of Dependent Origination, I shall
translate below from Sanskrit a passageof the
@lhyantauibhdga
along with Vasubandhu'scomment.ls Defilem'enffi p6minenlly
sufgested by the verb kliiyate ("is tormented or defiled"). The
glossfor "perception" (uijnana)rendersit "a conducting" (nayana),
i.e., to the birthplace, and the comment brings in the "habit-
energy of karma." This pa.ssageis therefore concerned with the
past, present,and future life of some person or being:
with right knov,'ledge(: clear vision) rvhat has arisen with the
condition of 'nescience'li.e. 'motivation'], there is no apprehen-
sion at all ol either arising or passingaway. That very thing is
\u,.::r3;s tiris life (:the dltarruaseen),22 and the requirement is
i.-,:: ' -. :e-ki't)'a)." Here is a version from the Bodhisattuapilaka-
|t - .:,. ' ; . . r \ lahay dna s c ri p tu re .2 s
\' \\-hatever is the meaning of Dependent Origination, is the
meaning of Dharma; whatever is the meaning of Dharma, is
the meaning of Tathagata. Therefore, whoever seesDepen-
dent Origination, seesDharma; rvhoeverseesDharma, seesthe
Tathagata. Also, seeingthat way, and accordingly fully under-
standing in the senseof Thusness,still one seesscarcelyany-
thing. What is that "scarcely anything"? It is the Signlessand
the Non-Apprehension; the one who seesin the manner of the
Signlessand the Non-Apprehension seesrightly.
I
Those passagesby Asanga, Ndgirjuna, and in the Bodhisattua-
pilalca, agree that the "seeing" is not the ordinary concrete o'see-
ing." But also, these works persist in using a word meaning
"seeing." Sthiramati ri'ould erplain: becauseit is without discur-
sive thou_sbt(rtirt'ikalpa).2t In the terminology of "eyes" it is ex-
33The abovediscussion
of thefour foodsis basedonmy treatment
in Analysis
of the SravakabhumiManuscript,chapter v, "Asanga'sviews on Food,"
pp. 135ff.
182 Insight
Buddhist
(Promethean). Perhaps this member gives the mane bhaua-cakra
(Wheel of Becoming) to the whole seriesof tr,velvemembers.Ba
The follorving, based on Tson-kha-pa's Dependent origination
section, probably cannot be worked out in the commentarial
tradition consistent with the Theravdda. of course. all these
Buddhist schoolsbelievedin rebirth.
Life No. I : the producing life, the previops life. This consists
of 8. craving, f. indulgence,and 10. gestation.se
Life No. 2:the life produced, the present life. It is possible
to have a seriesof these. Each such life consistsof 38. resultant
uijfidna,4. name-and-form,through 7. feelings; and these consti-
tute a set included within 11. birth, and 12. old age and death.
Life No. 3: the forecast life, the future life. This consistsof
1. nescience,2. motivation, 3,\. causal-uijfidna.
Past Life:
1. nescience,2. motivation.
Present Life:
3. perception,down to 7. feeling. This is rebirth process.
8. craving, f. indulgence, 10. gestation.This is karma process.
Future Life:
I 1. rebirth, 12. old age and death.
The remarkable difference between this solution and the pre-
ceding Tibetan solutions, by suggestion of Asanga's workq
is
that while the Theravdda Abhidharma tradition assigns the last
two members-birth, and old age and death-to the future life,
the Tibetan solutions all place these two members in the category
of suffering of the present life.
what they all, including the Theravdd.a,agree upon is that the
sequenceof twelve conditions does not by virtue of that order
constitute a temporal sequence.There is a time factor, and it is
stated in terms of "past life," "present life," and .,future life.,'
In Asanga's school, as the Dependent origination section of the
Lqm rim chenmo puts it, there are "two cyclesof causeand fruit."
This means that the chief temporal factor of the series is the
alternation of cause(hetu) and fruit (phala) ifl terms of lives, while
the sequenceof conditions (pratyal,a) is the sufficiency causesfor
the members to arise. The two cyclesare Asanga's groupings of
the members into o'downcasting" (Nos. 1-3A) and "producing"
(Nos. 8-10) as against the members "cast down" (Nos. 3B-7)
and "produced" (Nos. ll-l2l.at Asanga's structuring permits
the solutions in the Tibetan tradition to shift blocks of members,
differing in this matter from the Theravida which sticks to the
usual order of the twelve terms.
Another difference is that the Theravada, by not accepting an
Intermediate State, was obliged to place nescienceand motivation
in the past life. A more subtle differenceis that the Theravdda
had only one solution in comparison with the three from the
Tibetan tradition's working over of Asanga's teachings. This
indicates that the Theravdda insists on a single interpretation of
the series, and so followers of that traditicn would likely not
accept my organization of materials into o'two kinds" of Depen-
dent origination-and in terms of "original Buddhism" they
might be right.
+srhus,Tsor.i-rsa-pA,
in theDependent
originationsection,mentions
from
Asanga's Bhumivastu (the first part of the yogacarabhumi): ,,The members
reaching from viifiana down to vedana have the characteristic of being mixed
with the members birth, old age and death; that being so, why does one teach
two kinds? For the purpose of teaching the difference of characteristic as
the basis of suffering, and for the purpose of teaching the difference between
the downcasting members and the producing members." By further citations
of Asanga, Tson-kha-pa shows that the rnembers vijftana (No. 38) down to
vedana (No. 7) are the "seed" of suffering , while jati (No. 1 l) and,jara-mara(ta
(No. 12) are the manifest suffering.
188 Buddhist Insight
46WlvuaN,"BuddhistDependentOrigination",p. 202.
4Tl-ours TomeI, pp. 150 and
or La Vanfe PoussrN,Vijfiaptimatratdsiddhi,
181.
190
Buddhist
Insight
manner employed some years ago, while interpreting
the cele-
brated Yogacdra work Marthydntauibhdgato have two
realities:
"Thus, the Buddhist text replaces the sarnkltya purusa
'imagination with the
of unreality ' (abhutaparikalpa)and repla cesprakrti
with 'voidness' (iunyatd). In this tsuddhist system, both
'imagination the
of unreality' and 'voidness' are real, co-exist, and
are yet distinct."a8 Enforcing my theory, "nescience"
and
"motivation" are added to the replacement correspondences:
Dependent Origination Madhyantauibhdga Samkhya
terminology terminology terminology
V. CoxcrusroN
Certainly much more is written about the formula of Dependent
Origination in the Buddhist canon and commentarial traditions
than can possibly be conveyedwithin the limits of this paper. In
the application of writings from a long time span,it was inevitable
that the "discovery" and "seeing" of the serieswould be inter-
tn'ined. It could also be argued about the two kinds of Depen-
dent Origination that if one can 'osee" Dependent Origination,
one can see both kinds in the form here organized, or perhaps
"see" just one kind. But if what I have tried to show is indeed
the case. much of the past argumentation misses the mark.
Those theories were not based on "seeing" Dependent Origina-
tion, but rather on the premise that if one theory about the series
is right, the others must be wrong.
9,
BVronusnr,KHARA of AcaryaAsartga,
BnnrracnnRvn, The Yogacdrabhumi
Part I (Universityof Calcutta,7957).
Nescience
andInsightAccordingto Asanga 195
*@ilosophyEastandWest,YII:|-2.,April,Ju|y,|957,
pp. 21-25. I no longerusethe rendition"unwisdom," but my conclusions
thereare consistentwith the presentstudy.
\Analysis o.f the SravakabhumiManuscript, pp. 169, 180-181'
zThis observationsets the position of Asanga-Vasubandhu in opposition
to that of Dharmakirti, according to the previous passageof Tson-kha-pa's,
where it representsDharmakirti as assigningselflessness of person(pudgala-
nairatmya) the role of countering nescienceas the first member of Dependent
Origination.
sAnalysis,p.29.
andInsightAccordingto Asafiga
Nescience 197
the religious life in the Buddhist sense. Some (the irduakas and
pratyekabuddhas) manage, by non-self of personality, to be not
caught by craving with its attendant defilement. Some (the
bodhisattuas) manage not only that, but also, by non-seif of
dharmas, to be not caught by delusion.
Previously it was mentioned that in Asanga's school, the first
kind of nescience, that of ignorance, is the first member of Depen-
dent Origination. That leavesthe problem of where in Depen-
dent Origination is the emergenceof the secondkind of nescience,
that of waywardness. In this case there is an irnportarrt passage
in the Pdli scripture MadhupiqtQika Suttcr of Maijhima-nikdya
(I, 111),in my translation:
12Forillustrations
of thesetracesin sleepin termsof the three"poisons",
seechapter2.1,whereTable1 givesdreamdefilements of thesix senses.This
essayis reprintedin this volume.
l3EusNNs LAnaorrn, ed. and tr. Sarydhinirmocana Sfitra (Louvain, 1935),
p. 132 (Tib. text) and p. 244 (French translation).
and InsightAccordingto Asanga
Nescience 201
Nescience as lgnorance
Asanga in the latter part of the Sauitarkddir bhumi (text, p.20a)
presentsa list of nineteen entities about which one rnay be igno-
rant, each with brief explanation. Then he mentions (text, p.
205.11,ff. : PTT. Vol. 109,p. 260-2-3,ff.) a list of sevenignorances:
confusion about time (adhua-sollxmolza),confusion about entity
(.uas
t w"), confusion about transfer (sarytkrdnti- "), confusion about
the excellent (agra-'), confusion about reality (tattua-"), con-
fusion about defilement and purification (sarTtlcleiauyauaddna-"),
confusion about pride (abhimana:).
The same group of seven has been subdivided and partially
explained in the Artha-uiniicaya-likd (author unrecorcled), in
Tilretan (PTT. Vol. 145, p. 172-3). Here there ?.re sevorrkinds
of confusion (sarytmoha) :
.a. Three degreesof nescience(auidyd\-
1. rninor nescienceis delusion (moha'),confusion about reality
(tattua).
2. middling nescienceis nescience,confrision about defilement
and puriflcation.
3. great nescienceis blind obscuration, confusion about pride
(abhimdna).
b. Four fornrs of ignorance (aifiana)-
4. confusion about time (i.e. the three times), is ignorance.
5. confusion about entity (inner, outer, and both inner and
outer), is not seeing (adariana).
6. confusion about transfer (i.e. karma ... Dependent Origina-
tion) is "not understanding" (anabhisamaya).
7. confusion about the excellent (the Three Jewu.ls of the
Buddha, Dharma, Sangha) is darkness (tamas).
This subdivision helps to clarify Tson-kha-pa's remark as was
prerriously cited: ooWhenone analysesthat confusion, there are
two: confusion about karma and its fruit, and confusion about
the meaning of reality (tattua)." That Artha-uiniicayclcommen-
tary includes "confusion about realityl" as a degreeof nescience
(auidya), and includes "confusion about transfer" (which involves
.karma and its fruit) as a form of ignorance. This implies that it
202 BuddhistInsight
Nescience as Waywardness
As was previously indicated, the second kind of nescienceenters
the mind as a concomitant of the o'feelings" that are the seventh
member of Dependent Origination. With this condition there
arises "craving" the eighth member, which is followed by "indul-
gence'o (updddna), the ninth member. It is this ninth member
which according to the Abhidhqrmakoia is of four kinds, indul-
gence in the five strands of desire (the five senseobjects), indul-
gence in any of the 62 views of the Brahmajdlosiltra,indulgencein
rules and vows, indulgence in the self-theory.
Along these lines, Asanga explains "waywardness" in the
Sauitarkddir bhumi, (Sanskrit ed., p. 166):
There are seven kinds of waylvardness(uiparydsa),as follows:'
(l) waywardness of idea (sarpjfrd:), (2) waywardness of view
(dfsli-"), (3) waywardness of consciousness(citta-"), (4) way-
wardness that considers impermanent as permarrent, (5) way-
wardnessthat considerspain as pleasure,(6) waywardnessthat
considers impure as pure, (7) waywardnessthat considersnon-
self as self. What is the waywardness of idea? It is the
discursive thinking (parikalpa) of idea that considers the im-
permanent as permanent, etc. What is the waywardness of
Insight as qn Instruction
The division established previously of two parts of Dependent
Origination is consistent with the first sermon of the Buddha,
setting forth th.efour Noble Truths (or Truths of the Nobles, the
dryas), where the Buddhist path begins with operating on the
implications of the last fi.ve members of Dependent Origination,
and the candidates are those caught by craving and henceheedless
in sense flelds. So in that sermon the Buddha stressed the
avoidance of the extremes of indulgence in sensegratification
and mortification. These two extremes may well be what were
referred to among the ten defilernents as "passion" and "exag-
geration of rules and vows."
Furthermore, the Buddhist training was expressedby the three
Instructions, of Morality, of Mind-control, of Insight. Asanga
(Cintdmayi bhumi, PTT, Vol. 110, p. 18-4) says, "Thus the one
rightly enterprising, basing himself on the morality set (adhiiila),
generatesthe mind-control set (adhi-citta); basing himself on the
mind-control set, generates the insight-set (adhipraiiid)." In his
Viuqrana-sarTigrahant (PTT. Vol. I I 1, p. 244-5) he says: "By the
Instructions of the morality-set and the mind-control set, there
is non-lust, non-hatred, and non-delUsion. (Thus,) the absence
of the four rvayu'ardnessesbelongs to the Stageof accumulating
(merit) (sarpbhdramarga)and to the stage ofl praxis (prayoga-
mdrga). clear sight (uid|,a)and liberation (uimukti)belong to the
Instruction of the insight set, the stage of vision (dariana-mdrga),
stage of contemplation (bhauand-mdrga), and ultimate state
(ni;lhdgamana-mdrga)." Here Asanga combines the early
Buddhist theory of three Instructions with the Mahdyana classific-
ation, developed in the Prajiidpdramitd exegesis,of five paths
(marga), although the Tibetan word sa in each case shows that
Asanga used the term bhumi rather than marga.rT
In the Viniicaya-saqngrahaltt, Asafiga points out that the four
Obermiller,"The
1?Thetheoryof fivepathsis workedout in detailin Eugene
Doctrine of Prajfla-paramitl as exposed in the Abhisamayalar.nkara of
Maitteya," Acta Orientalia, Yol. XI, 1932.
206 BuddhistInsight
Terminology of Insight
Asanga has a rather remarkable list in his parydya-sayngraharli
(PTT , V ol. 111,p . 2 3 2 -1 ,2 ,3 ).So me c o rre c ti onsw ere made by
consultation of the equivalent chinese section in Taisho, (vol.
30. 751).1e one of the most striking features of what follows is
the set of similes emphasizing light, with five entries that are in
the Pali "Book of Fours," Chap. XV. Here five paragraphshave
the sarne form, e.g. "There are four olustres'(abhd), that of the
moon, sun, fire, and insight, and the last one is greatest." Like-
wise, four "beams" (prabhd), "lights" (dloka), "secondary lights,'
(obhdsa),and "lamps" (pajjota). But there is no hint in the pdli
scripture that these similes have the implications which Asanga
makes explicit. This is indeed a mystery of Asariga's sources.
persons (bata\, namely, 1. not having attained initially the native insight;
2. not having obtained insight arising by reason of others' words; 3. not
having a.ttainedthe insight of the iryas; 4. remaining with entrapment of
confusion; 5. conjoined with the traces of that (entrapment). Thus, Asaflga
admits that the irrational personmay lack or be deficientin this native insight.
Nescienceand Insight According to Asanga 2ll
X is a self,
or the self has X.
TheTwentyReifyingViews(Sakkayaditthi) 22t
INtRopucrroN
The Buddhist four alternatives are often referred to by their
sanskrit naine cctuskoli, and given in the form that something is,
is not, both is and is not, neither is nor is not, with observation
that each of theseterms may be denied. As we proceed we shall
see that this is not the oniy manner of presenting a catu;koli.
since so many authorities and scholars of ancient and modern
times have discussedthis cardinal matter, sometimesheatedly, it
is not possibie to deal rvith all the previous studies. Certain dis-
cussions wiil be considered herein within the scope of my five
sections: I. The four alternatives and logic, II. The four alter-
natives in a disjunctive system, III. The four alternativesapplied
to causation, each denied, IV. The four alternatives applied to
existence,each denied, v. The three kinds of catugkoti,various
considerations.
My findings differ from those of the western schorarsthat have
come to my notice, and the differences stem frorn my having
published a translation of Tibetan work that deals in several
places with the formulal. In fact, Tson-kha-pa's separationof
rTsor.r-t<rrn-pA's
Lam rfm chenmo, the sections"calming the Mind and
Discerning
theReal."Thefour-alternatives
discussionoccursin theo'Discern-
ing the ReAl" section. see A. wavuaN calming the Mind and Discerning the.
Real (Columbia University, New York, 1978),
226 BuddhistInsight
2Thepassage
is in the TibetanTanjur,photoedition,vol. 103,pp. 39-4-8
to 40-2-2.
who understandsthe Four Alternatives
of the BuddhistTexts? 227
the Lord, it was safe to inform them about all those divisions
of the world that "all is not genuins", i.e. "all is spurious",
because they rnomentarily perish and charrge. (c) Certain
select disciples could be told 'all is both genuine and not-
genuine'. That is, that the sarne element which is genuine
to the ordinary person is not-genuine or spurious to the
noble person who is the Buddha's disciple. He tells them
this, so they may become detached,i.e. not see it in just one
way. (d) To certain advanced disciples, far progressed in
viewing reality and scarcely obscured, he taught that "all is
neither genuine nor not-genuioe", just as in the case of the
son of a barren woman, one assertsthat the son is neither white
nor black ( : non-white;.zc
azThisconclusion,however,goesagainstvariousspeculative sclutionsthat
havebeenadvancedto <ietermine particurarschoolsto go with thevarious
denialsappliedto existcncc,namely,those of JayatilrJ<e.
EarryBuddhist
Theoryof Knowledge, pp. 243ff.: Murti. The Centralphitosophy, pp. 130_
131: I(' v' Ramanan,Nagarjuna's phirosophy (varanasi: Bharatiya vicya
Prakashan, pp. 155-158.
1971), It is noteworthy that thereis littleagreement
betweentheseauthors'solutions,ancl their arbitrariness itseif stemsfrom
humanreason,while to ccuntersuchpositionsNdgdrjuna
wourdalsohave
had to use ordinaryhurnanreason.
aETheRdtfiagotravibhaga Mahdyanottcratdntraiastra.
ed. E. H. Johnston
(Patna: Bihar Researchsociety, 1950), pp.
10-il : confer, arso Jikido
Takasaki, A study on the Ratnagotravibhaga (uttaratantrc)
Roma : rnsti_
tuto Italiano per il Medio ed EsrremoOriente, 1966),pp.
163-166.
aeBosauqurr, The Essentialsof
Logic, p. I29.
242 BuddhistInsight
have this "true nature" ? These, the eye, etc. have this
suabhdua. And what is their suabhdua? Their uncreate
nature and their non-dependence on another; the self-nature
which is to be understood by knowledge (in dryasantapatti)
free from the caul of nescience (and its associated habit-
'oDoes
energy). When it is asked, that sort of thing exist?"
who would answer, "No."? If it does not exist, for which
goal do the Boddhisattvas cultivate the path of the perfections?
For what reason do the Bodhisattvas, in order to compre-
hend the true-nature, assumemyriads of difficulties that way?55
fn short, Candrakirti explains the suabhduaof MK XV, 1-2, as the
"true nature" of the scriptures, and in a manner equivalent to the
dharma-sun of the Ratnagotrauibhagapassage.s6
SUayarnrEKE, o'Logic," p.
82.
246 BuddhistInsight
stood the early forms."58 This is well stated and is meant not only
to reject Jayatilleke's criticism of Ndgdrjuna and others, but
apparently also to justify the application of symbolic logic. How-
ever, I have brought up sufficient evidence to show that Ndgdr-
juna, in the matter of the catu;ko!i, is heir to and the continuator
of teachings in the early Buddhist canon (in Pali, the four
Nikd:yas; in Sanskrit, the four Agamas). Furthermore, I cannot
concede that the catuskoli is just a form. Indeed, if Ndgdrjuna
had used it in new ways, Jayatilleke would have been more
justified in his attribution of misunderstanding to N6g6rjuna.
Next, we observe by the foregoing materials that the flrst kind
of catu;koli is a disjunctive system that was used to explain the
Buddha's teaching. The second, applied to causation, each of
the alternatives denied, is a meditative exercise,and besides serves
to classify some of the philosophical positions rejected by the
Mddhyamika. The third kind, applied to existence,each of the
alternatives denied, is another meditative exercise, and besides
serves to establish the absolute by negating the notional activity
of the mind (sorytjfiaskandha) and its net of imputed quali-
fications.ss
The priority of the causality to existencetreatments-as I have
already insisted upon-is consistent with Ndgdrjuna's Modhya-
nnka-kdrikd, which devotes chapter I to conditional causes
(pratyaya), beginning with the denial of four alternatives concern-
ing origination of entities, but in the same chapter begins alter-
natives of existence,nonexistence,etc. So MKI,6: "Neither
an existent nor a non-existent entity has a valid condition
(pratyaya). What non-existent has a condition? What is the
use of a condition for an existent?" The next verse (I,7)
shifts to the word dharma: "Whenever a featute (dharma) neither
existent nor non-existent, or both existent and non-existent,
operates, in that case how could an operator-cause be valid?"
(and it is not valid.) MK chapteresIII, IV, and V, deal with the
CoNcrusroN
Now we must revert to the initial question: who understands the
four alternativesof the Buddhist texts? It is easierto define the
personswho do not understand: as was shown, they are the ones
who do not want to understand, or are not confident of their
own ability to understand. Besides, no one understands the
four alternatives, but perchance one does understand the four
alternatives in a disjunctive system,or the four alternatives applied
250 BuddhistInsight
12F.Eocrntor.t,BuddhistHybridSanskritReader,New Haven1953,p. 24 :
sar.nkalpakalpajanitena ayoniSena
'sya kaScit
bhavate avidyd na pi sar.nbhavako
'sti
samskdrahetu dadate na ca salnkramo
vijfldnam udbhavati sar.nkramanam Watitya ll
13As cited in Santideva's Sik;asamuccaya (ed. by the Mithila Institute),
135, 12-13.
14A. Wayman, 'The Fivefold Ritual Symbolism of Passion', in Studies
of EsotericBuddhismand Tantrism ,Koyasan, Japan, 1965,p. 133.This essay
also appears in A. Wayman, Buddhist Tantras (Samuel Weiser, New York,
re73).
256 BuddhistInsight
This is part of the teaching that among the five kinds of non-
returnees (anagomin),there is the antard-parinirudyinwho, accord-
ittg to the interpretation which vasubandhu follows, reaches
Nirvdna in the intermediate state. He refers to the satpurugagati-
siltra for varieties of the antard-parinirudyin (infra.).
vasubandhu explains the intermediate-statebeing in two verses
(ibid., IIr, 13-14):
Also, the intermediate state lasts for seven days. But when
there is not the condition for rebirth, and when there is the
condition for rebirth-is an uncertain matter. And when this
[condition] is not attained, then it lasts from seven days to
seven times seven days after one has died, while the condition
of rebirth is not being attained. When that period has elapsed
certainly one attains the condition of rebirth. Sometimes in
that very place there is the "resultant" (abltinirurtti) of the one
passed away since seven days. Sometimes,in the case of one
with bad fortune (or: who is unlucky) (a "resultant") else-
where, for if another activity of the karma should change the
course, it would cause that seed of antardbhaua to change
course.
STUDIES
INTERPRETATIVE
OF BUDDHISM
13
Tartha-satvitma-vijfiapti-pratibh6sar.n prajdyate
I
vijflanam nasti cdsyarthas tad-abhivdt tad apy asat ll
vasubandhu's commentary (Nagao, Madhydntavibhaga-bha;ya, pp. 1g-19),
clarifies the word "self" (atman) as the "corrupted mind', (kti;lamanas) and
the six things as objects grasped by the six sense organs (five by the word
sattva), including mind as the sixth, in terms of six representations(vijfiapti)-
sSuch an idea is found near the beginning of Asanga's Srdvakabhtlmi,in
a passagefor which original Sanskrit is lacking; here it is translated from
Tibetan (Derge edition of raqiur, sems tsam, Sravakabhumi, 2b): ..Frow-
ever, that seeddoes not have the characteristicsofdifference so long as it stays.
apart from the six sensebases$adayatana). That seedhas been handed down
in lineage from beginninglesstime and has states obtained through the six
sense bases which are attained by means of 'true nature' (dharmata).,,
sdvayibhdvo hy abhavasya bhavah Stinyasyalakqa?am.
No Time, Great Time, and Profane Time in Buddhism ZTj
loabhfitaparikalpaS ca citta-caittistridhdtukah/
tatrirtha-drqtirvijfidnaintad-viSe,se tu caitasdbll
ekam pratyaya-vijflinamdvitiyam aupabhogikam/
upabhoga-pariccheda-prerakis tatra caitasAbI I
llWayman, "Buddhist Genesis."
274 Buddhist Insight
laWayman,"BuddhistGenesis."
276 BuddhistInsight
R.ecaprruLATroNs
It is a basic feature of Eliade's writings that h.edenies a purely
prcfane existence. The homogeneity of profane space is inter-
rupted by certain "holy places" dear to the memory of even the
profane rronreligiousman.l? While Eliade has not defined the
profane life in the terms I have employed above, I seeno conflict
with his position on this matter. I can therefore go on to agree
lsl-ucienL6vy-Bruhl,PrimitiveMentality(Boston,1966),p. 123.
16Wayman, "BuddhistGenesis."
17Soin Eliade,TheSacredand the Profane.
No Time,GreatTime,andProfaneTime in Buddhism 277
Breakthroughs
By "breakthrough" I refer to the numinous experience as des-
cribed by Otto (Das Heilige). It is an irrational revelation of
overrvlielming majesty or of mysterious power. The complete
otherness of the revelation makes it appear as a breakthrough
from a superior, nonhuman realm. According to the classifica-
tion utiiized above, this breakthrough would be from No Time
into Great Time or from No Time into Profane Time. In the
Indian context, the first case-overwhelming majesty of No Time
in Great Time-is illustrated in the Bhagauadglta by Krishna's
revelation of his cosmic form to Arjuna. This is also the saqn-
bhogalrayaof the Buddha preaching to the great bodhisattuasin
the Akaniltha Heaven. The second case-the mysterious power
of No Tirne in Profane Time-is illustrated by the Hindu-Buddhist
Act of Truth. This act is done by Sita in the Hindu epic Rdmd-
yallq.and there are many examples in Buddhist scriptures. Here
the performer declares the truth of his outstanding acts and
Participations
There is also the attempt to ascend to higher states of conscious-
ness as though to live integrally in them, reified as modes of
being-a sort of rnystical immersion-or at least to be able to
get into and out of those stateswheneverone lvishes. Hence we
spea.kof participation in Great Time or in No Time. Success
here can be understood as either discoveryor verification of spiri-
tual truth, and also as the acquisition of supernormal powers.
Eliade writes:
up'n the plane of the archaic religions, participation in
the condition of the "spirits" is what endows the mystics and
the magicians with their highest prestige. It is during his
ecstasy that the shaman undertakes, in the spirit, long and
dangerous mystical journeys even up to the highest Heaven
to meet the God, or up to the Moon or down into Hell, etc.za
whatever be the truth in these cases, it is the human mind
which so assertsit. It is a wonderful feature of Profane Time that
it assertsthe truth of religion. The higher Times have truth but
do not assert it. Great Time should include the Buddhist search
28See
FerdinandD. Lessingand Alex Wayman,trans.,Mkhasgrub rje's
of the BuddhistTantras"),(The Hague,1968),pp. 279 ff-
("Fundamentals
No Time, GreatTime, and ProfaneTime in Buddhism 283
2eSeeParavaheraVajiraffdqraMahdthera,BuddhistMeditationin Theory
and Practice(Colombo,Ceylon, 1962),p. 440:'and Mircea Eliade, Yoga:
ImmortalityandFreedon(NewYork, 1958),p. 165.
30SeeAlex Wayman,"studies in Yama and Mira," Indo-IrdnianJournal,
3 (1959):1.19.
:284 BuddhistInsight
CoNcl,usroN
If one accepts the terminology of three Times associated with
three modes of thought and further accepts that these modes of
thought allude to modes of being, he can easily grant that there
are various ways of reaching or plunging into those modes of
being as a veritable transfer or flight of consciousnessto a different
I. GnNnRarttIns
The term "art" is here employed for the visual arts-namely,
architecture, sculpture, and painting-which constitute the greatest
artistic achievement of Buddhism. In contrast, rnost of the
versified Buddhist works are of a didactic nature, emphasizing the
messagerather than poetical finesse. This is not to deny certain
outstanding works of Buddhist literature, such as ASvaghoga's
early Kavya and his drama, the works of Mdtrceta andAryaStrra,
as well as Sri Harsa's dramatic work. Probably others were
composed in the early A.D. centuries whose authors were not
sufficiently appreciated in monastic circles to have their works
288 Buddhist Insighr
o'Certainly the
agreeswith the old Buddhist series when he says:
unreal always receivesand never gives."so This is the intention of
Buddhist member No. 9, upddana,which always means "taking,"
and never "giving." Thus the new being is childlike and is free
in desire,even though to perception it rnight look helpless. And
like children, art products generally survive best in peacetime.
3sWayman,TheBuddhistTantras,p. 94.
36lcon,p. 92.
sTSusanneK. Langer, Philosophy in a New Key (Penguin Books, 1948)".
p.76.
302 BuddhistInsight
least the Madhyamika school does not allow such a status for
"voidness"; and the picture is voidness in the Ratnagotrauibhaga
([, r'erse92): "Those painters are the aspects,Giving, Morality,
F-orbearance,and so on; and the voidness, attended with all the
best aspects,is said to be the picture (pratimd)." The full list of the
"painters" (: the act of painting) adds to the three already named
Striving and Meditation. The group of five, often catrtredthe
"meairs" (updya), is essentiallynon-discursive; although language
can be employed to expatiate upcn the individual ones. This
use of the word o'means" in connection with the painting process
agreeswith Bosanquet's and Langer's point that technique is an
indispensable part of art. But why would "voidness" be said to
be the picture, as in that R.atnogotrauibhaga passage? Perhaps the
answer is in a passage of the hfahdydna-Sutrolarykdra (XIII, l7)
associated with Asanga, as cited by Coomaraswamy,ss "There
is no actual relief in a painting, and yet we see it there" (citre...
natonnatary ndsti ca, driyate atha ca). We flnd this as i,vell in the
Lankduatdra-siltra (text, p. 91), where notice is taken that a paint-
ed surface (citrakrta-pradeia) is observed in relief (nimnonnata)
though flat (animnonnata). Recalling that "voidness" in Mah6-
ydna literature is associated with illusion (mayd), we can get the
point: the "painters" rvho are the Giving, Morality, Forbearance,
and so on, are seenin relief, and yet the picture which is voidness
is really flat: the "painters" are an illusion. In the earlier period
of Buddhism, more given to realism, the relief portion is really
there, as Coomaraswamy points out: "in Vinaya, IV, 61, a monk
'raises' (uwllhdpeti)a picture (cittam) on
a cloth; and in Sariryutta
'raises
Nikdya, Comm., II, 5, a painter up' (samu!{hapeti) a
shape (rnpant) on a wall surface by rneans of his brushes and
'fhus,
colors."se passagesabout the artist's techniques suggest
the phiiosophical positions.
Now, reverting to the topic of discursive thought, in Buddhist
literature its importance is emphasized by assigning it the rather
nefarious role of prornoting nescience(auidya). And yet rve were
introduced previously to a kind of discursive thought tirat is im-
provement-oriented, the kind that serves for the Buddhist path,
which is of course lauded in Buddhist circles. Sornetimes the
38TheTransformation,p. 145.
3slbid.,pp. 144-145.
The Roleof Art amongthe BuddhistReligieux 303
L0AnExistentialistAesthetic,p. 364.
The Role oi Art amongthe BuddhistReligieux
305
fNrRooucrroN
commentarieson the Heart siltra: There are two distinct typesof
commentariesof the Heart siltra (prajfidpdramitdhrdayaiatra):
the Asian sectariancommentary,and the western non-sectarian
commentary.Here thereis easilya rnisunderstand.ing, to wit, that
whenan Asian talks in the west on the lreart sutrahe communi-
cateshis Asianlore, say,as an Asian Buddhistmonk. This is not
necessarilythe case. For example,when Daisetz Suzuki wrote
about the Heart sutra, it must be grantedthat he wrote out of his
knowledgeof sourcesespeciallyin his nativeJapanese.But what
he said,for example,l"as far as we can ascertain,the Bodhisattva
Avalokitesvaradoes not appear in any of the prajfldparamitd
sttras..." is not whatwouldhaveeverbeensaidin the traditional
Asian commentaryon the Heart sfitra: it would havebeenconsi-
dered impertinent and impugning the validity of the S[tra. In
the western sensethis is a most helpful remark. It is quite
apparentthat most of what Suzuki writes about the Heart Siltra
is not the renditionof Asian commentarybut ratherwhat he thinks
the westerner,assumedto be an outsiderto the topic, needs to
be told so that, hopefully, he will understandthis scripture. It
is almost inevitablethat an Asian (whether chinese, Japanese,
lDaisetz Teitaro Suzuki, Essaysin zen Buddhism (Third
series)London:
Luzac and Company, 1934, p. 195.
308 BuddhistInsight
saying that while the monks recite the Heart Siltra every day, he
had been unable to find anyone who could expiain what it meant,
and asking me if I could find out wh.at it means. In those days I
used to spend much time reading in the Tibetan canon, the
Kanjur and Tanjur in the Derge edition at Berketrey. So I con-
sulted the Tdhoku catalog of the Derge canon and located the six
Tanjur commentaries on this sutra in the section devoted to
Prajiiaparamitd scripture commentaries. One feature of these
commentaries on the Heart Sutra struck me quite forcibly: each
commentary seemed so different from. the others, and yet they
seemed all to show in greater or less degreethe influence of the
Mddhyamika school of Buddhist philosophy. The writers seemed
to be experiencing some difficulty in exposition, as though they
were not writing through having inherited a tradition about this
scripture going back to its original composition, but rather were
simply applying their particular learning in Buddhism to the
terminoiogy of the sutra. That would account for the great
variety of their cornments. Then, for tire most part being follow-
ers of the Madhyamike, tliey rvould sl:.olv this sectd.rianposi-
tion by their kind of citation. It occurred to me that perhaps the
Heart Sutra h.ad a different theoretical basis than what these
commentaries were irnpressing upon it, and that the basis might
actr"iaily be of Yogacara nature. Certain commentaries gave
explanations of the concluding inantras, and attempted to relate
tlie structure of the siltra to what are calledin Buddhism the "three
gates to liberation"-ysid1s55, rvishiess, and non-sign-source.
Accordingiy, I made my own translation of the sutra, using the
Max Mtiiler and Bunyiu Nanjio edition of the shorier version
and taking into account some remarks from certain Tanjur
commentaries. In those days I communicated my understanding
of the sutra to the Berkeley Buddhist Church. Later I incorporated
my interpretation of the lfeart Sutra rvithin a published paper,
"The tsuddhist'Not this, Not this'. "3 From my presentvantage
ground, the interpretation of tire Heart Sutra in this early essay
suffers from various faults, such as a misappiication of the three
gates to liberation; and I cannot commend it. There are perhaps
only two important points that I saw or rendered correctly in
those days, namely, 1) that the Tanjur commentaries, while help-
sPhilosophy
Eastand West,1l:3, Oct.,1961,pp. 109-13.
310 BuddhistInsight
ful on this or that phrase, still were not really explaining this
siltra; and that it would be more fruitful'to consult Asanga's
works; and 2) that the commentary by the author calling himself
Vajrapd4i correctly related parts of the concluding mantra to
earlier sections of the Heart Siltra. The present interpretation is
based on certain findings in my researchon Buddhist meditation;a
and in the case of the concluding mantra, based on my essay
about mantras.s Furthermore, f now find Conze's editions of the
longer and shorter Heart Sutra preferable to the editions of Miiller
and Nanjio.6 For the purposesof my present explanation I have
translated, the shorter version and added in parenthesescertain
sentencesfrom the longer version that I deem essentialfor under-
standing this sutra.
As to translation of individual words, the rendition that most
needs defending is my o'aftetwards" f,or tasmdt, which is usually
and quite properly rendered as "therefore," o'hence," and "for
this reason" as the "conclusive" interpretation of the ablative
tasmdt, for which see Speijer.T This is the reasoned conclusion,
which is a sort of logical afterwards for what went before. As is
well attested, the purely temporal interpretation of the ablative
in Sanskrit, i.e. as "after, " is rare' but as I have occasionally
noticed, when the "after" interpretation is demandedby a context
it may be overlooked for that very reason of rarity. Anyrvay,
in the context of the Heart Sutra, the usual translation of the
two tasnta-f-sas "therefore" strikes a janing note, since there
is no obvious antecedentto appeal to as the reason for saying
"therefore."
Doctrinal introduction: This commentary of mine, called "Ex-
plaining the Difficulties," would not be comprehensible to the
usual Western reader, unless prepared by introductory teachings,
at least as concerns the Buddhist three worlds and the theory of
two dharmas.
aSee Chapter 3.
sSee Chapter 22.
6For these editions, see Edward Conze, Thirty Yearsof Buddhist Studies
(Columbia, S. C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1968), pp. 148-67;
F. Max Miiller and Bunyiu Nanjio, eds., "The Ancient Palm Leaves.." in
AnecdotaOxoniensia,Aryan Series,Vol. III (Oxford: ClarendonPress,1884),
pp. 48-50.
U. S. Speijer, Sanskrit Syntax (Kyoto : The Rinsen-ShotenBookstore,
1968). Para. 444, p. 344.
Secret of the Heart Sfitra 311
Fonnrnss Rparvt
R.Barlr oF FoRM
2. Fourth Dhydna: free from inbreathing and outbreathing;
- cessation of "motivation of bodv"
(kayasaryskara).
Third Dhydna: pleasure by way of body.
l. SecondDhyana: free from inquiry (uitarka) and investi-
gation (uicara): cessation of "motiva-
tion of speech" (udk-saryskdra).
First Dhydna: inquiry and investigation.
oF DEsIRE
RB.q.rN{
b. The two dharmas. One may contrast the older and later
religious aims of Buddhism. For the ancient view there is the
verse in the Saryyuttanikdya:s
As the tortoise in its own shell withdraws its limbs, so may
the monk (withdraw) his mind's (outgoing) conjectures; resort-
less, not harming another, denouncing no one, proceed to
Purinirudna.
mouth" means born from the words which teach the Dharma.
"Born from the Dharma" means born frcim orienting his mind
methodically to the Dharma and accomplishing the Dharma
accordingly.
Then Avalokitesvara spoke to Siriputra about how the Sravaka,
Pratyekabuddha, and Bodhisattva contemplate the five personal
aggregates(skandha)to reahze"non-self of personality" (pudgala-
nairdtmya):
"Hcre, Sdriputra, form is voiclness, and voidness verily rJ
fo.rn't, voidnessis not dffirent from .form;Jbrm is not dffirent
-fi"omvoidness. What is form, that is voidness;what is voidness,
that is form. The sqi?rc is the cnse with Feelings, Ideas,
Motivatiott,s,and Perceptions."
Here (iha) means the Second Dhyana of the "realm of form"
where occurs the cessationof "speech motivation" (udk-saryskdra),
since here there is neither "inquiry" (uitarka) nor "investigation"
(as development of discursive thought) (uicdra). And here the
yogin especiallycontemplatesrevolting objects,suchasthecadaver
in decomposition, as suggested in the htahaydnasutrdlamkdra,
XIX, 50, by mention of the sign-sourcein front; Sthiramati's
subcommentary clarifies that this contemplation is meant to
destroy the immemorial attachrnentto the sign-sourceof location
(p r at i ; thdnimi t t a), the "recep tacle-realm" (bhAjanalok a), or sensory
objects (ui,raya).2o Form is voicilrcsr may be understood from
Vimatramitra'scommentary this r,vay:21 it is void of self-existence
whether form be a mode-of-being @hAua)or a designation (pra-
jfiapti). Tire same would apply to the other aggregates-feelings,
ideas,motivations,and perceptioits.
Voiclness verily is form means according to Vimalamitra the
voidnessof the "city of gandhalyss"-fusnce, also the voidnessof
a dream, of the o'moon in the waters (of earth)," and so on. Using
his hint, the statement voiCnessvuily is form and a like statement
for the other personal aggregates,can be illustrated by combining
Asanga's explanations from two placesof his Yogdcdrabhumi
for tlie similes of the ancient Buddhist canon:22
I
318 BuddhistInsight
The Teacher (i.e. the Buddlia) and the rhinocerus (i.e. the
Pratyekabuddha) up to (their individual) enlightenments at the
upper end of (the F'ourth) Dhydna, have a single basis (i.e.
of the four paths). Before that: what is conducive to libera-
tion (i.e. the path of equipment).
For the right praxis of the wise in the six perfections is the
giving of the one without wish, the morality of the one without
enthusiasm for re-existence, forbearance everywhere, the
striving to bring forth all good; likewise meditation (cthydna)
apart from the formless realm,sl and insight (prajm@ tied to
the means (i.e. the other five perfections).
srvindrfipyar.ntatha dhyanary.
azThistheory is presentedin Yiian-ts'€, commentary on sarnchinirmocona-
sfitra, T. T. Vol. l06:209e where he combines the Daiabhumil;asutra's deify-
ing of the irreversible Bodhisattvas(those of the last three stages)lvith the
Dhyana tradition, since each of the four Dhycinaheavenshas various types
of deities.Thus, in the Eighth Stagethe Bodhisattvais Mahdbrahmd.This
is not necessarilyinconsistenti,vith the previous information that Sthiramati
associatesthe "character of voidness" with the First StageBodhisattva,and
my piacementof the informaticn under the Fourth Dkyana. This is because
the present referenceto the irreversibleBodhisattvashas to do with their.
return to the realm of form, wherein are the four Dhvanas.
322 BuddhistInsieht
defile-
the Diamond being (Vajrasattva).33 He dwells without the
the upper three stages,
ment obscuration, as a Bodhis attva of
in terms
although still with obscuration of the knowable. Then,
from vinita-
of the two kinds of "insight" previously mentioned
in search called
deva,s vinaya commentary, the one involved
"knorvled ge" (ifiana) and the one after search called "vision"
(dariona), this one is the "vision." And Gautama Buddha in that
passagepreservedin the "Book of Eights" explained that when he
(devatfl
developed the "vision" he saw the forms of the deities
of the different classes.sa
at
Avalokitesvara explained that the Bodhisattva has arrived
the Summit-Nirvdna:
o,Becauseof the non-existence of thought obscuration, he
is at the summit'
fearless, having transcended waywardness,
Nirvdqa."
on the sutrd'
fearless; According to Sthiramati, subcommentary
laqnkdra, there ur. i*o kinds of fear: l) oftemporal unexpected-
i.e. of rulers, robbers,fire,
ne,ss(sadyas), floods, etc',2) of objective
(spatial) domains (ui;aya), such as planes of yoga, and sarysdra
fear for the two
itself.35 The Bodhisattva has no temporal
ooafterwards" (tasmat), and no spatial fear for the two "here-S"
(iha).
waywardness: waywardness (uiparydsa) means taking the
impermanent as permanent, pain as pleasure, nonself as self, and
the impure as pure. There are three stagesof waywardness,to wit,
of ideas (saanjfia),therr of views (drsti) attached to the ideas, and
finally of consciousness(citta) with secondary defllements going
with the view attachment.so Since the Bodhisattva does nothave
thought obscuration (cittd-auarana) he cannot have tfie last stage
i IEXTS OF ASANGASCHOOL
l6
bhrdntivyavasthanato'py utpattyanutpattivyavasthdnato'py
avasthdvyavasthanato'pi paramarthavyavasthanato,pi //
f tatra bhfimiprajfiaptivyavasthdnatah paffcavijfianasampra-
yukti bhlmir manobhfrmilr savitarka savicara ['vi]tark6
vicdramatrd ca bhfmir ekantena sacittika / avitarkdydm
av ic aruyar.nb hfl m au samapattyupapattikam asar.njfrikam niro -
dhasamapattim ca sthdpayitvd tadanya sacittikaiva bhumih
samdpattyupapattika lasam] iffiko nirodhasamdpattis ca td
(a)cittika bhnmih //
/ tatra cittabhrantivyavasthanato yat caturviparydsap viparya-
star.ncittar.n tad bhrdntam ity ucyute/ yat punas caturbhir
viparydsendviparyastar.ntad abhrantam ity ucyatef tatra yad
bhrdntacitta(r.n) tad acittam ity ucyate (p)r(akrti)bhra;tlat /
tadyathil lokair vacas uktam f unmattakqiptacittar.ndrptvd
'[yam purusapudgalo 'citta
unma]ttah ksiptacitta iti I tad
anena paryayena yad bhrdntary cittarp tad acittikd bhumir
yat punar abhrdntap tat sacittikl, //
'ttabhih
/ tatrotpattyanutpattito karaqaih cittasyotpddo
['nutpado] va / tadyatha indriyaparibheddd viqayd:ndbhisam
ayandd manasikaravaikalyddapratilabdhadvirodhdt prahdldd
nirodhdd utpadac ca f etad viparyaydd utpddo drastavya{r
kqaya(e)va karataib / tatra ya utpddakaraqais cittasyotpidah
sa sacittikl bhflmih / ya\, punar anutpadakara4air anutpddah
sd 'cittikd bhnmi\ //
/ tatr av asthdvyavasthanatab pa{ avasthdh sthdpayi tvd sacittika
bhumir veditavyd / ;ad avasthdb katama tadyathi acittika-
middhdvasthd'cittikamurchavastha'sa4rjfrasamdpattir dsar.n-
jffikam nirodhasamdpattir nirupadhiSesanirvd4adhdturyd
punar etah qad avasthd iyam acittik[ bhnmi\ //
/ tatraparamarthavyavasthdnato nirupadhiseqo nirvdnadhdtur
acittikd bhumih / tat kasya hetoh / tatha hy alayavijffdnar.n
niruddhar.n bhavati f tadanyasv avasthasu pravrttivijfidnar.n
niruddhary bhavati / yenacittika bhfimir ity ,rtu,. / Filaya-
vijfrinary tu na niruddhap bhavati / panmirthato 'cittika
bhunrir ity ucyate //
/ yogacarabhflmau sacittikd bhlmir acittika ca samaptalf
Translation of Asanga's Sacittika and Acittikd Bhumi
with minimal additions from Asanga's own comments in
V ini i cayasarltgr ahan i.
The Sacittikiand AcittikaBhDmi,Text and Translation 329
Esr.q,srrsHMENTop OccunRENcEAND
Nox-OccuRRENcE
Thought occurs or does not occur by eight causes,as follows:
f . impairment of senseorgan (six in number), 2. non-appearance
of sense object (six in number), 3. lack of attention, 4. non-
attainment (of other realms, such as the Dhyana heavens, by
reason of not accomplishing the path), 5. opposition (to a thought
by another thought which is present,as when experiencing pleasure
330 BuddhistInsight
EsrasusHMENToF STATES
One should knorv the stage "with thought" as exclusive of six
states. What are the six? As iollows: 1. state of sleepdevoid of
thought (:dreamless sleep), 2. state of faint devoid of thought,
3. non-ideational equipoise,4. non-ideational existence,5. cessa-
tion-equipoise,6. Nirvd0a-realm without residual basis. Further-
more, thesesix statesconstitute a stage"without thought."
EsrasrtsHMENToF TI{EAssorurP
This is the stage "without thought," Nirvafa-realm without resi-
dual basis. For what reason? For the reason that there is cessa-
tion of the "store consciousness" (dlaya-uiifidna). In the other
(five) states, there is cessation of evolving perception (prauytti'
uijfidna), and consequently they constitute a stage "without
thought" (in the conventional sense),but (in those flve) there is no
cessationof alaya-uijfidna: in the absolutesense,they do not cons-
titute a stage "without thought." Finished is tho Sta-se With
Thought and Without Thought in the Yogacarabhumi.
According to Asanga, there are four casesfor possessionof
al ayauij ii dna andf o r evolr'ing perceptio n (p r aurt t i-uii iidna) :
1. Possessingalayauijiidna and not possessingevolving per-
ception: personsin statesnos. 1-5 in "Establishmentof states."
2. Possessingevolving perception and not possessingalaya-
aijiidna: Arhats, Pratyekabuddhas, irreversible Bodhisattvas,
'owith thought."
and Tathagatas, when in stages
3. Possessingboth: persons other than those (mentioned
above), when in stages"rvith thought."
4. Possessingneither: Arhats, Pratyekabuddhas,irreversible,
TheSacittikdandAcittikaBhumi,fe*t arrJfranslation 331
The Paramdrtha-gdthdss
CorraunNraRy
TRaNsrauoN oF FaRaviARTHACoMMrNranyo
-/l
10Thethree "euthorities"(pramarya)
are direct perception(pratyak;a),
inference (anumatn\, and master lineage (aptagama), as described inAsanga's
hetuvidya section of the Yogacarabhtimi, a section I have translated ("Rules
of Debate") for inclusion in a separate work.
Asanga'sTreatise,the paramdrtha-githa
347
forth that rvith one gdtha (no. 27), he sets forth and removes a
fourfold objection with four pddas in sequence.With the second
(Getha 281 he sets forth the characteristic of cause-and-fruit.
With three (Gathds 29-31) he sets forth how, whiie cause-fruit is
without self, there is the delusion of self-view (dtmadrili); and that
he sets forth from the standpoints of consciousness-support
(dlambana), basis (diraya), fruit {phala), and cause (hetu). With
the first gdthd lno. 291 he proves its consciousness-support-
what is to be known of one's own self since it is formless and in-
visible; namely, since it is non-rational; in the siltra "conception
of form" (rupand) was declared "rational" (tarkaaru); and since
it is invisible : through non-display to others. With the second
lcatha 30] he sets forth the basis (diraya) and the fruit (phala) :
the immature are the basis; other (false) views are the fruit. With
the third [GathA 3l] he setsforth the cause (hetu). In that (verse),
it is generated from the self seed-the natural coherence of the
self-view, which is its traces (anuiaya). "As a result of the former
habitual practice," there is the irnagined heretic view of self.
Not only is that heretic view habitually thought, but also one
unmethodically reasons in this world. Or one hears from another
a non-illustrious doctrine consistent therewith. Thus he shorvs
the origination of the imagined view of self by the faults of basis,
mental orientation, and consciousnesssupport.
Now, with five gdthos [nos. 32-361he sets forth how that view
of self arouses suffering following upon its source; how that
suffering then becomes the reason for two kinds of misery (duft-
khatd) accompanied by egohood; and hor.vit becornesan obstacle
for release. Among them, with the first giithd [no. 32] he shows
the source (of suffering). With the second and third [Gathas
33-341he shorvsthe store-consciousness(dlayauijiidna) that incor-
porates the suffering-(dultkha) and motivation-(samskara)
miseries (dultkhata).tu That is to say, 'oHaving (formerly) made
an abode, it undertakes the (verbally) elaborated" (33c-d]-"I
shall be," "I shall not be," and so forth. "Abode" means the
3. Besides,
nlY wife Hideko gavesomevaluablesuggestions
for thetrans-
lation from the sino-Japaneseversions of the text in the yogucarabhumi,
namely, chinese trans., T30 [no. 1579i, pp. 365-67;Japairesetrans., Koku-
yaku Daizokyd, Rombo 6, pp. 462-82.
Asanga'sfurther commentarialremarks make it clear that he has in mind
the Brahma sutras of the sarltyuktagama (in pali, the sa4tyutta-Nikdya, i,
136-138),with the implication that since personsare of widely different
character and ability, there should be an appropriate teaching for the lazy
person as well as for the enterprising one.
358 Buddhist Insight
(8) Wherein the wise one trains, that one should be at first
without regret, next happy-this is the first of all instructions.
In sequence,be without regret through the Instruction of Mora-
lity; and be happy through the Instruction of Mind Training.
(10) Wherein the wise one trains, whereby one would liberate
the mind and destroy verbal elaboration-this is the best one
of all instructions.
This refers to the Instruction of Insigirt.
(11) The path said to be first, nameiy the impure way, likewise
the way to good destiny-this is held to be by itself (keuala).
Through failure of the Instruction of Morality, there is the impure
way rvhich is the way to bad destiny. Through adherence to the
Instruction of Morality, there is the rvay to good destiny. And
either one is accomplishedby one instruction alone.
The way freeing from all defilements of the three worlds and
finishing off the traces, is not accomplished without the prior two
(instructions) or by itself.
(1a) The one who trains and the one who doesn't train,
both
those are held to be wise (pa4{ita). The one who trains and
the one who doesn'ttrain,both those are held to be fools (bate.
The one who trains rightly with the three Instructions, and the
one rvho does not train in a wayward manner, is the wise one.
The one who trains in a wayward manner, and the one who does
not train rightly, is the fool.
(15) The taking of the Instruction is threefold by way of a)
renouncing possessions,b) elirninating contaminations, c)
and direct perception of the knowable.
Possessions are home, wife, etc. contamination s (dau;trhulya)
are the discordant elements lo samddhi. The knowable are the
four Truths. The versepoints to the three Instructions in their order.
One should not wear the religious garb and begging bowl in
excessso as to receive material things and respect.
(32) One should not associate with householders, who pro-
mote defilement. One should associatewith the nobles, who
purify knowledge.
(33) One should not make residence rvith friends who cause
grief and distraction. One should not tolerate the defilements
that have already arisen that generate suffering.
(34) One who has lost his vow should not utilize in any case
what is to be gained by faith. One should not repudiate in
any case the illustrious Dharma.
(35) Should one have thoughtless pleasure in a stumbling
fault of others, he should reflect upon his own stumbling
fault and in turn confess it.
(36) According as an offence has occurred, one should apply
the appropriate Dharma (right act). The wise person should
involve himself in duty for the matter concerned.
(37) With faith in the power and teaching of the Buddhas
and their disciples (irduakas), one should never blame by
noticing faults.
(38) One should not adhere to one's own view, discarding
the old lineage (paurdltam dgamam) regarding the profound
doctrines (dhsrma) which are not in the range of iogic.s
(The gatha-s 18-38 present various aspectsfor purifying the Ins-
truction of Morality).
(39) Should he be dwelling in solitude, using a resting cot in
the outskirts, he should contemplate virtuous natures, with
steadfast forward step of striving.
So as to fulfill the praxis, he has solitude of body and mind, a
resting cot concordant with his samadhi. Contemplating only
virtuous natures, he is not oppressed by secondary defllements
such as "fading" (laya) and "scattering" (auddhatya) (of the
meditative object). This is a special means of the Instruction of
Mind Training.
(40-41) Should he, having been without longing, have long-
10Seenow Tson-kha-pa's
discussionof thesesevenmental orientations,
basedon Asanga's in theSravalcabhumi,inA.Wayman,
exposition translator,
Calming the Mind and Discerning the Real (Columbia University Press, New
York, 1979), pp. 165-169.
366 Buddhist Insight
HINDUAND BUDDHIST
STUDIES
t9
For "silence" the word used was mauna (PAli, mona), related to
the word muni (one rvho has the vow of silence), used in the &g-
aeda hymo X, 136: "The munis, girdled with the wind, wear
garments soiled of yellow irue. They, follorving the rvind's swift
coufse, go rvhere the gods have gone before." The word muni is
important in Buddhism, where the founder has the title Sakya-
muni (muni of the Sakya clan). The Buddha is called "gtaatmLtni,"
and he adopted for his order (the Sangha) the soiled yellow hue
of dress that was alluded to in the Vedic hyrnn.z
The Chdndogya {lpanisad, VIU, 5, 2, in the course of its pro-
gressive expianation of breltmqcarya (the pure practice of the
'oNow, what they call 'silent asceticisrn'(tnauna)
student), says:
is really the pure practicc (brahmacarya), for only after finding
the self by the pure practice, does one think about it."3 This
passageapparently explains mqunt (ascetic silence) as a thinking
about, or contemplation of, the higher self.
The tlddnauarga, which is the northern Buddhist expansion of
the Dhammapada,has an important muni verse in its lt{irudrya
chapter (xxYI,27): "According as the Muni, with the state of
being a munia derived from himseli understands in this place
and which constitute the prayer to the sun god,by a dying person;
S. Radhakrishnan mentions, ooEvento-day they are used by the
Hindus in their funeral rites."22 The first verse can be translated:
"The face of truth is covered by a golden bowl. Unveil it, O
PDsan, so that I who have trutir as my duty (satyadharma) may
see it !"
This verse foreshadows, on the one hand, the later terminology
of absolute and con.,zentionaltruth (p ararndrt ha andsarytur t i saty a) ;
and on the other hand, the distinction between direct view (pra-
tyak,ra) and the out-of-sight (parok;a). In Buddhist literature,
both approaches are explainable in terms of the Four Noble
Truths. Thus the Mddhyamika commentator Candrakirti in
chapter 5 of his Madhyamakduatdra explains why the truths of
Suffering, Source, and Path are conventional truth, while the
Truth of Cessation is supreme truth.z3 In the case of the Upa-
nisadic verse, the "face of truth" would representabsolute truth;
and "truth as duty," conventional practice of a distinguished type.
The later formulation of view distinction is found, for example,
in Dharmakirti's Pramdnaudrttika (II, 132): "The compassionate
one applies himself in the rneans so as to destroy suffering.
When the goal (: cessationof suffering) and its cause (: the
means) are out of sight, to explain thern is difilcult."2a The emi-
nent Tibetan commentator of Buddhist logic, Rgyal-tshab-rje,
expands this verse in his brief work "Guidance on the path of
authority" (p r amdpa-mdrga) :25
are out of sight or are not eariier clear to the intellect, there is
no capacity to explain them completely utio in errorless man-
ner to others.
Here, the two truths of the causal means must be the truths of
suffering and source of suffedog; rvhile the tr,vo of the fruitional
goal must be the cessationof suffering and the path leading to the
cessation.Interpreting the PDsan verse along the same lines,
we see that only when a person first has truth as duty can he
subsequentlycommand the exposure of the face of truth.
"Those who depart hence, having found here the self (annan)
and those desires (koma) that are satya-for ttem in all worlcis
there is engagernentwith the desircs." That is, their desires are
unclr-niable(satya), as illustrated in section 2 of the chapter 7,
"If he desires the worid of the fathers, by his very conception,
fathers arise." Likewise, the world oi the rnothers, the world of
brothers, the rvorld of sisters, and so with tire worlcl of friend.s,
of periumes and gariands, of food and cirink, of song and music,
and fnally the world of r,vomen. His desires, being sa1)a, upon
being thought, are bound to happen. Then, in section 3, the
upanisad continues, oorhesesaffre are true (i.e. undeniable)de-
sires, with a covering of the false (anrta, the negation of rta)."
And it goes on to illustrate what is meant by the false : "Just as
those who do not knolv the field walk again and again over the
hidden treasure of gold and do not flnd it, even so all creatures
here go day after day into the Brahman-ivorld and yet do not flnd
it, for they are carried av/ay by untrutli." This shows that the
creatures are carried away by disorder, since snrta is the negation
of the objective truth of regularity and universal order.
This chdndogya position v/as not forgotten in subsequent
Upaniqadic literature. The Mu'qt{aka Upani;ad (III 1, 6), coming
after the rise of Buddhism, f,urnishes modern Ind.ia's motto
"Trutir alone conquers" (satyam eua jayate). This has politi-
cal overtones and rich slogan-connotation rvlr.entaken out of its
context : "Truth (i.e., tire undeniable) alone is victorious, not
untruth (artrta, i.e., disorder). By truth is laid out the path fead-
ing to the gods by which the seers (rsi) who have their desires
fulfllled prooeed to r.vhereis that supreme treasure." This trea-
sure, according to the Chandogya, is in the Brahman-world.
But the Byhaddraqryaka (III, 5, l), rvhen setting forth pro-
gressive renunciation as the way to know Brahnlcn, has a
significant opposrtion to the chdndogya's and ttte Mur3r.laka's
emplrasis on reahzing desires :
Norv l(ahola Kausitakeya asked him, "Yajfiavalkya,', said
he, "explain to me the Brahman tirat is directly experienced
and not indirectly experienced, rvhich is the self (dtinan)
rvithin everything." "This is your self which is within every-
thing." "Yajfiavalkya, rvhich one is r,viihin everything i',
"The one which transcends hunger and thirst, sorrow and
delusion, old age and death. The brdhmanas, having recog-
394 BuddhistInsight
nized (uidituO that Self, having overcome the desire for sons,
the desirefor wealth, and the desirefor'worlds (loka),live the
life of rnendicants (bhiksr). A desire for sons amounts to a
desire for wealth; a desire for wealth amounts to a d.esiref,or
worlds; for both of these amount only to desires.Bo
soThispassage precedes
immediately the previouscitationof Brhadara4yaka
Il I, 5, 1.
Two Traditions of India-Truth and Silence 385
clouds. what were the veins are the rivers. what was the
fluid of the membranous sac is the ocean. Ancl that which
was born, it is yonder sun. As he was being born, shouts and
cries rvere directed toward him, as were also all creatures and.
all desires. Therefore, at his rise and at his every return,
shouts and cries are directed toward him, as are also all crea-
tures and all desires. He who knowing it in this way, repeat-
edly meditateson the sun as Brahman, is one to whom well-
disposed shouts would be directed, and they would gratify
him, yea, gratify him.
CoNcrusroxs
In the foregoing I have attempted to set forth a rivalry of two
traditions, "truth" and "silence," while admitting that the tradi-
tions becorne distinguished especially by the opponent to a sect,
who finds it easier to mount a "refutation" by tieating somelvhat
decides it is time for the King to get his eyes back. Why cannot
Indra, the porverful one of the Gods (Deuendra),simply go ahead
and restore the eyes ? As a preliminary answer to this question,
Indra is now made to say, "Hence I shall endeavour to have his
eye produced by showing away." The word updya is used for this
w&y, or approach, which turns out to be the Rite of Truth.
Later, AryaSura will give a Buddhist dogmatic answer in terms of
the requirement of two causes (hetu and pratyaya) fot a thing
to arise. Indra asks Sibi why he still has his mind on the mendi-
cants, suggesting that the answer will remove the condition of
blindness. The King replies : "Why is there this urging of your
honor that I be made to boast ? (ko yam asmdn uikatthayitum
atrabhauato nirbandhalt). But, Devendra, pray lend ear ! Just
as at that time and at this time, the mendicants' words, which are
certainly expressions of mendicancy, are as pleasing to me as
if made of benedictions, so may one eye of mine appear." The
narrative continues, "Then, by the king's power of truth blessing
(satyddhislhdna) and by his outstanding accumulation of merit
(pu4yopocaya), no sooner had he expressed those words, than
one eye appeared,..."
Let us consider the implications of Arya5ira's account. First
of all, we observe that the Rite of Truth is conducted before
Indra, so Buddhism is here preserving a bit of the old Indra
religion for the goal of AiSvaryaprapti. It could be expected that
after Indra dethroned Varufa as the chief Vedic deity, Indra
would have to carry on in some fashion certain functions formerly
the business of Varula. While Varula was the upholder of the
rta and satya, Indra becomes the one who tests the satya and
besiovrsappropriate reward or punishment. However, in the three
stories Nos. XIV, XV, and XVI, for the goal of Duritakqaya
there is an indiffflerentrelation to Indra. In No. XIV, the R.ite
of Truth is done before the sea-traders(visible witnesses)and the
gods in the sky (invisible witnesses).In No. XV, it is done before
the King of the Devas (deuardja), who in this case is probably
Indra incorporating the function of the rain-god Parjanya; and
the story continues with a eulogy by Sakra, Indra among the
deuas. In No. XVI, it is done before the fire-god, Agni.
then soundslike roar of thunder." The original Sanskritof this text wasnot
available to us at the time of writing.
"396 BuddhistInsight
Next, we observe that the basic cause (hetu) of the eye is the
accumulation of merit, which professor BRowN's article enables
us to identify as a substitution for the Hindu dharma. This is
entirely puruSakdra, obvious acts of men, as is also the Rite of
Truth, constituting the updya as well as the anu5thdnafor a corres-
ponding adhislhdna. The blessing (adhis{hane by the deity is rhe
conditional cause (pratyaya) and constitntes a sort of daiua dis-
pensation. But note that in the Milindapaiiha account set forth
in BunrmcAME's article, pp. 437, ff., the Buddhist monk N6ga-
sena holds that through the Power of Truth and no other cause,
King Sibi received heavenly eyes. consistent with early Buddh-
ism's rejection of the necessity for an Isvara or lorcl, Nagasena
rejects any need for the adhi;trhanaprovided by the deity. Naga-
sena'smeaning of the word for "truth" implies th.ecreative agency
of vak incorporated by Truth. This is the implication also in the
category of Buddhist scripture said to be promulgated by "mind
truth-force," for exampie, "the r,vord.sof the doctrine (dharma),
which proceed from mountains, trees,vralls, ancl so forth, through
the force of having been uttered by the Bhagavat rnentally with
the power of truth (satya-bala)."s In such case, tire successful
performer of tire Rite of Truth is himself the deity; and truth is
not simply the ethical kind, included by tire Buddhists in the
"accumulation of merit," but has in addition a metaphysical
implication of "reality" as the word scfiya is translated in Upa-
nisadic contexts by Deussen.lo In the oldest vedic literature
Nagasena'sposition would be untenable becausethe first mortal
to become exemplary in dharma u'as the celebrated yama and
so he received the title Dharmaraja; but in the old tradition he
did not become a god : he was tantamount to a deua with the
commensal relation of drinking with the gods,1l and presumably
also with the interlocutory relation of talking to the gods, as is
the situation in the Rite of Truth.
Finally, there is the explicit element of boasting, which rong
SIGNIFICANCE, OF DREAMS IN
INDIA AND TIBET
B. CLASSIFICATION OF DREAMS
with regard to dreams in general, the Indian genius for classifying
comes into play. There are some differences between the Hindu,
Jaina, and Buddhist works as well as much in common. The
simplest division is into auspicious (iubha) and inauspicious
(aiubha). The division is seen to be very ancient by the words
sDapna and dultsuapnato mean good and bad dreams and also
much later in a chapter of mundane astrology.8 Esnoul points
out that the key words for good dreams and bad dreams stayed
fairly constant from the earliest lists down to the tv;elfth-century
work by Jagaddeva.eThe Suapnddhyayais based on this two-
fold division by the words i;laphala, 'ohaving desirable effect,"
and anisyaphala,"having undesirable effect." This work begins
the good dreamsby saying (s1.2-4):"rf a man seesa crossingover
of a stream or body of water, the sun rising into the sky, a blazing
fire, the vision of moon-disk among the asterisms and. planets,
a mounting in palaces or to the summit of temples, he attains
success."It begins the bad dreams (Sl. 39-40): "If one seesthe
sun or moon devoid of light or the asterisrns and other stars
tumbling down; or sees the ASoka tree, the Oleander, or the
Pald6a tree in full bloom [apparently all of red blossoms], he
attains sorrow."lo
I graha-nak$atra-tdrdndrncandrama4dala-darsanarnI
/ harmyelv irohanam caiva prdsada-Sikharepi va ll3ll
/ evam ddini samdrttvd naral] siddhim avdpnuydtll4ll
adityarn vdtha candram vi vigatacchavikamyathd ll
patar.ntacdtha nak.:atramtarakddim6ca vd Vadill39ll
a6okaln karaviram v6. paldSamvdtha pulpitam /
svapndnte yas tu pa5yetanaralt Sokamavdpnuydtll40ll.
1lRene de Nebesky-Wojkowitz, Oracles and Demons of Tibet ('s-Graven-
hage : Mouton & Co., 1956),p. 466.
lzDurgadeva, Ri;tasantuccaya,trans. A. S. Gopani (Bombay : Bharatiya
Vidya Bhavan, 1945),p. 56.
13Esnoul,op. cit., pp. 215-17.
Significance
of Dreamsin India and Tibet
403
tions of King Miltndo, there are said to be
six men who d.ream :
the foregoing three, (4.)those under influence
of a deity, (5)'those
who dream under influence of their experiences,
and (6) those
with prophetic dreams. The text adds tlat
only the last-named
dream is true.la The basic Jai'a classification
in the wonderful
book of omens, Afigauijjd, is into cliitrha, .,seen,,
; rta_di1tha,
-auyakta-clr,t{a),
"unseen"; and auatta-dillha (sanskrit : .,inscrut_
ably seen" (or both seen and unseen).1sVarious
lists increase
the number of sense organs invoived. Trre tsuddhist
Mah ayana
text "Meeting of the Father and son" (pityptrtrasamdgama)
'dreams based on all six senses, gives
the usual five plus the mind as the
sixth sense; but here again the basic classification
is three-fold by
the three "poisons," lust (:atftaction), hatred
(:repuision), ancl
delusion (:incapacity), becausethe text gives
a sampledrearn for
each of the three in termsof each of the r*r.r,
shown in Table 1.16
TABLE I
sEEi-i
T,rt','iF-[31,J?, Isc"r]nnerTrt
ir,"^i"iia"""" "' fffiwrt.illrenomv :"1"Tr"'iokli,
f i i and beine
confusedwit[
Hearing fear
I Hears ,]"gilq ff.T lame'tation I Hror. ro_ething
und, ,11."-
illt1llmgn!{ I yop" _"ih;;t';;
musicor theberre I | ,u,o,
I ritrr..'i--affi, Jr I i,?il6r.ro un-
of the land uoon iori- oi'' ony I
I dersrand the
-;i
pleasantthing ,rl."ning
|
smelling t,
1..l'] srnels
; ^^,T.li:il;l"g^_
bocly
withiandre_ ;{";
t^hqctingingI t.tlinlii,t,"r,
't;il
orher
I "ili";;?;;", | i,ii,i,lir
I^9.?d g. I of _dog, muii, o, I
pcrfumed sub I snake
rasting ,o j *uu.oot1s
hsresortsrnu,
I "{i?,1[r".:rr.
satratronvery sa- | tqeating tire seeds I
- hehasrost
hl;-^r_"i'
voryfood
i of pLinrpkiri-- i| rasre "f
gourds and other
(disagreeable) seeds
rouching j Empr,i-ce;
the waist i d;i:; r#[," Tiu:r: ] rnat he haslost
bene of theI ing
I i":f" "opp.i ;i;b i ,i; i*i.?|:!
tix*,if,'J'* o,,?lg"
I "i:lf',;lu'rn:":l;
I || tffii'['ff.i.?
yi:l-^?,,i:1
i ,q4: anareilnue,
l?:^1.h"*5-_::.']:.:
-^i^1il.";ui.,r"'fv
,:',1,'5 ;5;;g}#;#tl *i,'"
i;,'i:".I;..*i*,diYl
magrclan
tslbid., pp. 232-33.
tsAngavijjd (Prakrit Text society
No. l) [Banaras: prakrit Text society,
19571jIntroduction,p. 51, and texi, pp. tdO_gt.
16Pit rputrasamaeain-mahali rrtt iir;lky
oto-rotyo photographic reprint of
Tibetan-canon),*xIIl., ioI!+' a;A' tr'
q4 Buddhist Insight
asBhdvav
iv eka,TarkajvaIa (Ky oto-Tokyophotogra.phi
c reprint), xcv r, 9z.
46Ibid.
47K. c. Pandey, Abhinavagupta; an Historical
and philosophical study
.(Benares : Chowkhamba, 1935), p. 252.
48R. N. Dandekar, "Man in Hindu Thought,"
Annals of the Bhandarkar
Oriental Research Institute, XLIII, Parts I-IV (1962), p. 9.
aeMircea Eliade, Yoga : Immortality and Freedon (New york
: pantheon
,Bocks, 1958), p. 128.
410 BuddhistInsight
the
taksaya, warding off of calamities; Q) aiiuaryaprdpti, gaining
render the possessorinvincible; (3) krama*
occult powefs which
the
mukti, successivereleaseby way of knowledge, thus reaching
These fruits appear to go with the female
Sagurla Brahman.2s
*irtro norv called uidyd, and seem also to illustrate the Agni-
amounting to meditation
'(dhyona),susiddha type of mantrq
purdrya,s
especially referred to as updsand-s or meditative exer-
Therefore, the aidya-s of the
cises in the upaniqadic context.
(Jpani5aclsmay be taken as the forerunner of the later tantric
"female mqntra".
A Tibetan text in my possessionwith numerous examples of
be
the three kinds of mantras (male, female, and neuter), may
"the four
cited.zo This includes the mantrqs of the group called
gods of the sublime heart", stressed by Atisa, the influential
Buddhist paafit who came to Tibet in 1042 :
Viclyas,pp. 9-10.
25TheThirty-'s,,r6
zoThebook is entitled: GzunssriagsdanI debzhingiegspa'i mtshanI bka'
,gyur siiin po sogs kha 'don byed rgyu zab mo'i rigs phyogs gcig tu bkod pa
Now, the AnugftA also says (Sect. 21, ver$e l4): "Verily, the
goddess speech always dwells among the prdpa and Apdna"
(prdpdpondntare deui ttdg uai sma tis[hati). The Anugita said.
eariier (verse 7) : "The Apdna, having become lord (pati), conse-
quently summons tbe apdnata. That (apdnata) (the inhalation)
one declares the intelligence (mati) of the mind (manas). The
mind in consequence considers".ssAccordingly, this mind must
be the "stationary" (sthduora) kind, which being prajapati's own,
is superior to the goddess.
But what does the Agnipurdnq mean by saying, "The time of
sleep is the great evocation ?" we suppose that the rsls were en-
.gagedin the "great evocation" per Brhsddeuatq(i.3): "at the time
when the seers had their vision of the mantras" (75tttd4tmantra-
dy,r{i,ru).3s
The Jaina rvork Ri5{asamuccar-a (verse 113)says:..That
dream is a dream told by a god where a mantra (sacredformula)
is recited." In an article citing this Jaina passage,I pointed out
that the dreai:r level of vac is calleclmadhvamd. and,is the kind of
speech dissociatedfrom consciousness;and so the mantra by
repetition reaches the point where it is objectified as told by a
god, as in a dream.a' Hence, the mantra is heard in the normal
"waking state and is seen (as by
the r;zs) in a yoga state of dream.
The author of this chapter of the Agnipurdryaapparently wished
to rcassure the reader that he r,vasnot denying that an extra-
ordinary kind of sleepis a "great evocaton" (as would also be the
message of the Mdnc.lukl,a upani;ad) rvhen he stated that ,,a
marttra lvhich is sleeping,or has merely been awakened,does not
attain success."
ssCriticaled. :
tam apanallpatir bhnna tusmAtpreryaty apdnatamI
tam matirp manasaltprahur manastasmadavek;ate 7
sevarious tales of rpi-s seeingmantras ll
are relatedjntheAitare),aandKau;i-
taki Brahma4as.There is the celebratedstory of Kava$a Ailula (the .,Sudra
R$i"), who saw the hymn of fifteen versescailed the Aponaptriya. The Gods,
becauseable to see the "silent praise" (tu;nimiarysa)invisiute to the Asuras,
were able to defeat their enemy. rn the episodeof rndra,s fight with
v1tra,
when the Gods were frightened away, and rndra's friends, the Maruts,
'ostrike, ex-
horted him saying, o Bhagavat ! kill (v1tra) ! show thy prowess !,,-
according to Martin Haug's translation (The Aitareya Brahmananr,vol.
II,
Bombay, 1863,p. 192)"This saw a Rishi, and recordedit in the verse
vrtrasya
...." KrtlH, RigvedaBrahmanas,p.777, agreesbut is lessclear.
a'wavvaw, significanceof Dreams in Inelraand
Tibet, in ,.History of Reli_
gions", Yol. 7, No. 1 (Aug., 1967),pp. 4,11. This essayappears
above.
426
Buddhist Insight
(whether or not they do), this flrm belief ensuring the successof
the whole ritual. In any case,this shows that the insiders of a cult
frequently do not agree on the meaning or function of a mantra;
and so, the meaning or use of mantras cannot be established by
the criterion that all the followers of the cult agree upon it.48
Then notice also how some formulas which seem meaningless
are ascribed meanings in the cornmentaries ! Once I noticed in a
commentary on the Buddhist dhdrani of Vimalopqita theseuidyd-s/
ksaqtak;aqta / ksitti ksini f ksuUu ksunu /.nn At usual thesewere
transcribed into phonetic Tibetan letters. The explanations were
translated; and the three pairs were explained respectively :
"Guard, guard !" (sruns iig sruns ^flg),"Rescue, rescue !" (skyobs
Sig kyobs ,fig), "Nourish, nourish !"(tshos fig tshos .flg). Besides,
it appears tnat any mantra which is o'meaningless"in terms of
its constituents might also be consideredmeaningful in terms of
the intended fruits to be derived from the ritual utterance.so
Still another case is when a mantra appears meaningful, and
yet the commentary ascribes an unexpected meaning.sr Thus
a work called Bolimdlika- preserved in the Tibetan Tanjur canon,
consists of mantras transcribed into Tibetan, and a translation
into Tibetan is regularly added. Once I noticed therein the mantra
hana hana, which we would expect to mean "Destroy, destroy !".
But the translator added the Tibetarl snun snun, which means.
"Prick, prick !" and seemsto preserve a Vedic meaning of the
verb han-, "to hurl a dart upon".sz
a8Cf.Jna, ThePurva-MImarysa-Sutras, pp. 43-54,whichtakesup various
arguments by the opponentto the effectthat mantrasare meaninglessand
then replies defendingthe significanceof nnntras.
aeThisdhara4i has a very long title, and l.heauthor of its commentaryis
known in Tibetan as Lhan cig skyespa'i rol pa (*sahajalalita); it has No.
2688 in the Tohoku Catalog of the Kanjur-Tanjur; and the passage is in
Derge Tanjur, Rgyud, Vol. Thu, f. 2B5b-1,2.
50Jne. The Purva-Mimanxsa-S[itras,p. 53, informs us "Examples of the
interpretation of apparently meaninglessmanftas are given in the Tantra-
vartika (Translation, pp. 100-101)".
51Or, again, as Asanga'sBodhisattvabhumi (Wogihara ed., p. 273) puts it:
"Preciseiy this m:aning of them (i.e. the mantra words) is, to wit, fruitless-
ness" (ayam eva cai$am artho yad uta nirarthatd).
52I originally consultedthis work in the Derge Tanjur, where it is included
in the Rgyud (Tantra commentary)sectionbut in the Narthang as well as the
Peking Tanjur editions it is placed among the miscellaneousworks concerned
lvith grammar and lexicography.
430 Buddhist Insight
when the'
the charm, uidyd, addressedto the Sun dgity at dawn).
maiden
Deuaslearned of the theft of Soma, they sent the beautiful
are said to be
vdc or vdgdevi to rescue Soma. The Gandharvas
they
fond of women and beauty, so when vdgdevi approached,
yours be the soma
went to the gods (the deuas), and said, "Let
be ours." Since the Gandharvas lrad thus
and let Vdc or Vdgdevi
their ranks, from that time they excelled in
secured Sarasvati ior
mentions that sri or Laksmi, the god-
music. This author also
from Sarasvati
dess of good fortune, was gradually separated
though frequently paired with her'
pro-
J. N. Banerjea-line oeuelopment of Hindu lconography)z
Hinduism period' As
vides the main details for the classical
sometimes connected with
known by the Purd4as, sarasvati is
and sometimes
Brahma, both as his daughter and his consort,
(who thrives). The Jains
with vitqu as one of his consorts, Pupli
the Vidyddevis'
put her at the head of the Srutadevatis and
she is usually
i, uo independent goddess (i.e. not a consort),
as four-armed,
described in such texts as ttre Vi;ryudharmottara
with many
white colored, dressedin white garments and decked
of ttre following
ornaments, holding in her four hands any four
instrument,
objects : manuscript, r,vhite lotus, rosary, musical
,o ott. The musical instrument is possibly the
*ut r-n.rsel, and
the manuscript is'
oldest emblem associated with her, although
with Brahmd;
also old. A late Gupta form shows her in association
gift-bestowing gesture (uaramudrd),
she is four-armed, with
the musical instrument (uiTd), and the
the rosary (aksamala),
her four arms. one of her names is
water-ves sel (kamaudatu) in
is autumnal," also the autumn
Sarada, wtricil means "she who
moon;andthenamealsostandsforakindofVi4aorlute.
B.Bhattacharya(ThelndianBuddhistlconography)sSumma-
period, namely
rizes the forms of surutuati in the late Buddhist
and a form with three faces
four types of the two-handed goddess,
the foll0wing :
urro si* arms. From his work comes
(1)Mahasarasvati,resplendentliketheautumnmoon,rests'
gift-giving (uarada)
on the moon over the *hit. lotus, shows the
the white lotus with
g.rtor. in her right hand, carries in the left
(smeramukhi), is extre-
is stem. She has a smiling countenance
' 1956'
zPublishedby the Universityof Calcutta
sPublishedby Firma K. L' Mukhopadhyay' Calcutta'1958'
The GoddessSarasvati-from India to Tibet 433
full gamut of notes, gratifying all the Buddhas; while her two
feet are in the lotus intertwine. Next to her is the Lord, the vene-
rable Mafljughosa, with body red-yellow, one face. and four arms,
with the two basic arms embracing the goddess; and with the two
remaining ones, in the rightwields a sword thatblazeswith light
rays, and in the left holds a blue lotus on top of which is the
Prajfiaparamitd book. Both of them have bodies wondrous to
see,adored with all manner of jewels, and dwell amidst a furious
light display. on the petal to their East is Insight (prajfra), on
the southern one is Intelligence (ntati), on the western one is
Memory (smrti) and on the northern one is cleverness (medho).
Each of these have one face, two arms, hold a sword with the
right and, a white lotus with the left, are each adorned r,vith silk
and jewels, and stand with their two feet together. The central
deities and the retinue all have on their forehead an o\{, on their
neck an AH, in their heart a HUM.
In this case, there was no indication of the goddess'sage, al-
though the presumption is that she is here also sixteen years old.
Finally, the elaborate ritual of the white sarasvati in the lineage
from Bo-don pap-chen phyogs-1as-rnam-rgya1mentions a role
of the goddess'sutpa in the yoga of the watches (at f. nos. 473-
474). This has to do with the yoga procedure of evoking the
goddess at the sandhis, especially dawn and dusk, taking rest
rvith the goddess'sblessing,and being aroused by the sound of
her tiltcT.The text sa)'s : "The great music from the sounding of
the ui\ta, of the profound and far-reaching dharma. ar,vakens
him from all the inner and outer sieep; and he seesdirectly her
face".
In conclusion, the powerful goddess personality of sarasvatl
that had developed in the vedic period continued unabated
through the many centuries,even though the iconographic details
varied. Despite the adaptation of the goddess to later tantric
meditation procedures, the goddess's ability to promote insight
and inspiration did not suffer serious detraction even when she
advanced from twelve to sixteen vears.
24
{q rRrd'
{qE, ilTt T q1t eTut{ldiq'ridr
fu)+qqrrrqf,dr"qfi{s'€rc+:q'tgi
I|1II
TU:v1-6vlFffrrfxuir.qFt I
ilrtrqffiflrx-{HRfipnscq}' rrRrr
rq: mqsffiqqqlqr+R r
il{fr4dq:qnfqmilqnbrmrH 11111
rqq 6Trq1ffi1qk{q5ft-qrfruft I
sqls@rrvrr
aqffir
qcil*frz;rrff,rfl. fr:viqa6iquq- | I{ |I
;fq:@f
laiarwr;eriTqqerg{€6} 11q I1
anq ateflowa.il<q{q*"6rqf(h r
ftqrtrffitrq-rtfqr|qGftrr{frwfr rrsrrt
qqq gt rrfl*t qrqm{r[qrfa r
C
ilct l
g:6urwrfufrrrlqt r
ruq fa-<a'gcr
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;rq: qqfEil-afqqgeTferffirt(q'1 r
qVeryC -rnUtqr{dTrq{'ttnf{ || i o1I
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mTg=Tf,-f,mrrqq.iq{mm II I I I I
qq: ftrqu-squi€q3arwufrsrqt r
erf+rarrwErqr{lTTFqTfs'q{e'-
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q'q:sflT.rilGow'se'TcTTrFff.T{fte{t
r
en-dtatR?irqatrgq+f,EqrfqrfE
|| 1I rr
Tg: s'kt"TTvra*vn6o5t I
Tgats'Qffiltiy11
;Ft: fqf* {ri qnfr qn'FilHrmffi r
r*-6xur+q+t vqmrvsq-rfqrfr- I| 1{r r
q'q:sq|<ilr+aRguraxrtffi I
€TTTrfiqnrtqsris,rcft'fqt rr1qrr
rq gtrcrqrtf,+T <ffir<frfqt r
tqq;En*,crsyra+arfoh II1e||
8 I have accepted here the reading of the Sanskrit transcription in the
Kanjur against both de Blonay's edition, iikhijvalakulojjvale,and the Tibetan
which agreeswith the latter, me kbar hkhrug pa fin tu ftbar ma.
The Twenty-onePraisesof rird, a syncretism
of saivism and Buddhism 44s,
nr:S@qtr
dT{AeEdft-r,{riTffiaq-.gffi- tt 1 c Ire
;rq:gT{rurTeqerg{ffifufrr
3ilqdq"fEilTffieq:eqcq'1Tf$t{ | | Qrr
I
@vrgtr
ilCr@nRotl
arq@qf,qt1
TEEdrrqeI{rur;rRrfq-srq.tgt ftRI il
rqTeFrE Ff,td;rqFs.risf:{qm,I
4: qeffi"ftfiqT{ |eq.'t rrt+-aq.qf}qn: 1?Rlr
Trq ET qkrcceTTq.. Fqtq{trrqT{ |
tr*wqqrrsfietUfmmqTqrrRRrr
srnTnE{il} rriqui sqftfwrqmefrT. r
efrrFwqtaqrq-{v}st qtarE ilifl l?ytl
ffr ilFr rqr*r {sT.trRETeTwg.q.r
w<qrerezrznfd qrfqil fltT+{ qT tfR{t I
r-gaTtqqTtrTirEqrfrtffirq-r+i r
qeiqt qq triqmf fafMrrqfum
ttRqtl
ff,friqi^ il*t36 em6* e,fu r
q,+nrqri.acfrfd r f+i: Tfirdqt
. nR\erl
Tt:Rrs'"q'Sdtirfud rrT*ffiaqr qqr+-riqffiirEaj-a
qt{d Ht3i H.'qT€r art FflBr 1u1-t{il_
I
HorrlecE ro TAnA
Brahmaltas172, 386, 391, 4I3, 414n. 186-187,190, 196, 200, 202, 205-
Seetitles. 206,225-226,.236-241, 244-248,250,
Brahmanical tradition 252, 380-3E1. 255, 257, 297-299,336, 338, 346-
413-414,426n.See 'ostages of life." 350, 348n, 379-380,395-396,424;
Bralrmin Kila school 434, 436 the eight 329-330; material cause
ByhadaranyakaU,pani;ad33, 163,173, 239, 272; insirumentiii cause 239;
256, 263, 265, 376, 379" 382-397, :reason 229. See "condition."
415n Chandogya Upani,sad370, 376, 382-
Byhaddevatq425 384,386-387
Brhatphala,a heaven331 Ch'an schocl 131, 140-141
Bstan bccs mnon rtogs rgyan'grel pa Chao Lurt: The Treatisesof Seng-chao
.... 190n (:Book of Chao) 149
Budclha Chapters 1, 14; epithets of clraracieristics(or charact.:rs)(lak-
1l-14; symbols of 291; boCiesof ;aqta;P., lakkhana)166,234, 272n,
(Sce"body"); the seven,the thou- 318, 348-349,366: rhree 19, 120-
sand 289; the Thirty-Five Buddhas 122, 334 four 277-272,275; thirty-
of Confession 66; suprarnundane t w o 1 6 1, 2 9 6 - 2 9 7 , 4 4 6 t t
22, 26-28, 105-109,136, 142, 160 Cintdmayi-bhfini 97n, 122, 194, 205,
(See names); dynamic and static 327. 333.353
24-251' as Jina 372; Nilyanda-Bud- citta (thovght, minC, consciousncss)
dha 149; Samyaksaqrbuddha 451; Chapters3, 6, 1.6:157-170,177,179,
as Vilr-hajjavadin (Analyst) 215. t94, 1gg, 203-'204,211, 239-240,
See "Sikyamuni," "Tathagata," 2 4 5 n ,3 2 2 - 3 2 33, 3 8 , 3 3 9 ,3 5 8 , 3 5 0 -
"Caktavartiil," "Arhat," 'oSra- 361, 383, 423. 449n: Aspiration
ntoi.lf,lr" "l?lttni." See also "eyer" thought104-105, 107-108 ; Enrrance
' jcivel," t'persons." Thotrght 104-10-s; ekagratci-citta
Budrlitacarita 183 283. See "men{!s," "bodhicitta,"
Buddhaghosa35, 59, 72-76,126, 138, "iametlta."
167n, 177, 216n, 218,236, 28ln Cloud Messenger401
BuCdhaguhya 301,373 compassion(karuna) 22, 87, 99-IA2,
Buddhc1n usrnyt i-t tk u 233, 313 1 1 2 , 3 1 3 , 3 7 94, 3 3 ;g r e a t1 3 , 2 2 - 2 3 ;
budc!hi(intellect,cogniiion, discrimi- BoundlessState of 102
natingminC,discriminatior)20,26, condition (or conditional catse)(pra-
7 2 . 9 6 ,1 3 5 ,1 4 1 .1 4 6 .1 5 9 . 1 9 s . 2 C 9 . tyaya) 123-124,137, 140, 164-166,
4?1. 4i3n. 434: -nnt (sag-',y371:. 158-169,187-188,236-237,244n,
i n S a i v i s n4t 0 g ;i n S 5 . n r k h l !; S
: 3 - 1 8 9 246, 248, 250, 299, 335. 338-339,
Buddhist art Chaptet 14;.40'7,407n, 3 4 7 , 3 t 1 9 ,3 5 1 , 3 { t 5 , 3 9 i . 1 } 5 . S e e
446n; music 432-433,438-439 "ca,r-lse."
BuddhistCouncils37-38 confession 58-59, 66-69, 362, 392,
Buidhist genesis 60, 269-270,273- 406n; Thirty-five Buddhas of 66
278" 282-283.386 conficlences,the four 1C8
Bu-ston146,322n conversion103, 1C5; four means of
Byafi cltub lam gyi sgroil tna ("A Larnp (sarygrahavastu-) 16
on ihe Path to Enlightenrneilt") 100 "Conversion of Sarioutra ancl Maud-
galyayzna" 323n
craving (or desire) (tr;tta; P., taqtha)
Cakravartin 13, 2A8,296 96, ll-1, 124,149,ig6-197,203,207,
Candragomin22, 443 210, 263, 298, ?'04, 306, 335-335,
Candrakirti 138, 140, 149-1.50,159, 339, 365, 385; nescicncl-craving
165n, 177, 216-222,222n,23?,-235, 347. See o'desire"; Chapter 8.
237, 240n-,243-2+4,244n, 249-25O, Cullavogga38
312, 379:.tire tantric 161
Caraka 4A4
Caraka,samhifi 404 dakini 146; Narc-dakini 145; fuka
Cdrvdkas 124 373rr.Seeoodeity."
CatuhSataka20" 188, 312, 371 D cikini -vajr apaiii ara 186n
catutkoti (the four alternatives)Chap- Damam[ilia NidCna Sfitra 295n
ter 11 Daiablifintika-sntra121,|i7 -179,321n,
cause(or basic cause)(hetu) 123-125, 371
137, 140-142,171, 17-2,180-183, Daiabhilmivvalc hvana I 54
-460
Buddhist Insight
medicine 399, 400n, 402, 404, 450n Munimatdlarykara 133, 16l, 165n,
meditation (dhyana:P., jhana) Chap- 176n,421s 422n
ter 3; 200, 206, 226, 231, 242, 246,
250,291-283,294-297, 300-301, 303-
304,306,309-311, 314,331,3gl, 395, Nagarjuna43, 53, 173,124,130,136-
393-394,397, 406 406n,415n,4t7, 7 3 7 , 1 3 9 - 1 4 01, 5 5 r r ,1 6 5 , 1 6 7 , 1 7 4 -
420, 437-438;four Dhyinas 35, 57, 180,185n,186,198n,215-216,2I8,
210, 315-316,320-324,321n, 329, 221-222,252-255,295, 296n, 434n.
331,358,361;perfectionof 23,106, SeeChapter11.
108-109,113,302,445, 446n (See Nagdrjunako4da288
"perfections"); objects of (See Nagasena396
"kasitn"); among "i.hree instruct- Nai;adhacarita 448n
ions" 100, l0B, 126 (See "instruc- Nalanda University 43
tions"). n-ame-and-forrn (nama-r upa) 256, 263.
nerit (punya) 44, 395-396, 415-417 SeeChaptei 8.
fuIetta-sutta53 Naropa 142, 145n,147
Mimdrysaschool381,408 Netti-pakarana l19n
nrindfirlness76, 83, 91, 144,212,283, Nietzichs, f'. :OS
331,361 Nikayas 25, 42, 209, 246. See titles.
mind-only (cit t a-matra) 177 Nirmana-kaya See "bcdy",. of the
nrirror (adaria) Chapter 6; 253, 255, Buddha.
259, 409; of the law 142; karma- nirvdna (release)15, 19, 23, 86, i05-
144-145,183,256; knowledge-438; 1 0 5 ,1 0 9 ,l l g , 1 2 2 , 1 2 7 ,7 5 5 ,1 5 5 n ,
prajfia- 130,149-15l 175,176n,I78, 794,208, 2ll, 232,
Milindapafiha (Questionsof King Mil- 240,242, 249-249,252, 254. 274,
inda) 393,396, 402-403 306,312,320,323-324, 359-359,365,
Mkhas-grub-rje (:Khai Dub) 136, 370-371,385,449: with remlinCer
M3 203n, 212, 274, 335, 352, 365-366:
Mkhas grub rje's Fundamentalsof tlte without renuindcr 2C3n,274. 312.
BuddhistTantras21,25n,38n, 39n, 330-331, 335,352,355;wirhrut fixed
93n, 95n, 135n,282n, 396n, 406n, abcde 106,274,285,374 Surnmit-
410n, 434, 434n, 438n, 443n 257; parinirvdna17, 78,9l , 97, 252n,
monastery Qihara) 42-58, 308 257,264-265, 29I,301,3I I, 323,341
352 "
monasticismChapter 2; 374
moon 316, 401,405, 408, 424, 432, N i ; pannalt0g4vali | 47n
436-437,445, 445n, 448n,449n, 450 Noble Truths, four See "truth."
nrorality(ftla) 69,71; threekinds 110- non-self (andtman) 18, 19, 95, ll2,
111; six membersof 357-358;four 111, 120-125,l3g, 179, 1gg, 195-
roots of 361; as sevenabstinences 197, 203-204,206, 195n, 316-318,
34-36;perfectionof 23,61, 106-113, 322, 331, 334, 345, 437-439.See
302, 321,446n (See'operfections") "chau.cteristics," three; " iunyata"',
; "sslf"; Cha-oter10.
among "three instructions" 57, 59,
126,205,281-282(SeeChapter 18). Nyaya-Mafijari 428
See Chapter 2. Nydya school 239; -VaiSeqika408
mother 102-103,107, ll3, 145, 274,
3A6,324,383, 385, 393, 400, 403, offences59-65: the worst as four "de-
441, 446n. See "iakti," "Tdrl.." feats" (parajika) 60, 64-65, 3141'
mountain 219-220 fourteen transgressioas 441
1.1rtltu-vsii.ana (Cheating Death) 405 'Od srun gis
2us pa ("Questionsof
1t uIapatt isarytgraha441n KdSyapa")107
JI il Iasarvast ivadanik ayaik aiat akar man 'Ol I(ha family 289
59 ordination 46-54: compared with
\{Irlasarvdstivddasect 38-40, 42, 49- oostages of life" 48-49
51, 53, 59, 63, 65,220-221
Millasarvastivdda Vinayavibhariga 32,
42, 62-63,143n,22A PadmSvati400
Mundaka Upaniwd 383 Pali Chanting Scripture with Thai and
nuni (silent sage)370-375;Buddha as English Translation 53n
mahd-muni380-381.Seeo'Buddha." Paficakrama 424
Index 465
as fire or cow 415-417, 4l5n: oer- 348, 422, 436-437: sixteen kinds
sonified 393, 39G-397,410.' 414. 435. See "gates to liberation."
414n-415n.424-425,431-432.435: -
436. See "rrio;:lrG,"'obody,speech, S-fi $ilnyatasaptati l7B
r atigamasamq{ti ti,gilt r a 145n
and mind"; Ctraptcrs tg-:26,ZZ.' Silra;igamaSiltra I44
(i -
Sraddh l,a|(1r!hii na sttt rtt | 6l SDryagupta443, 447n-448n
Srayaly (\., satntt.ta;(as.;ctic)30, 34, Susi ddltilcara-nmhdtanira-sarihattopay-
55-57,67, 3ai. 374-315,375" 3e}i i ka-parala Tantra 419-420
o1"f'oLrrkilr:!s30. tsuCdliir *s'nw!ru- SuSruta404
. , p , r . u o i r . ; '
, 3 8 0 ; . f e r n r l e 4 0 7 .S u c Suiruta-sarythittl405
Srautakoia 426n Suttavibhanga34n, 45n,55n,60n, 62n.
irdvaks (disciple)30, 36, 76. 95-97. See'oVinaya."
1 0 0 ,i 0 B ,l t 0 , t ! 1 , l t 9 , l 3 s . t 5 7 : Suvar napr abhus{t-sutra 434
1 7 3 . 1 9 4 . 1 9 ( , - 1 t 7 t. 9 9 , 2 0 7 : 2 1 7 ' . svabhava(self-existence, intrinsic na-
? r - 2 1 9 , 2:hearers
5 1 , 3 0 8 , 3 1 3 , 3 t 6 _ 3 1 7 ' , turo, olrl-n:1ture,nature) 721, I34,
363, 415; 250. See.,per- 139, 142, 157-158,I74n, 226, 234,
so-lis," 237-244.244n, 248, 250, 316, 334,
Sraval;abhtimi l5n.l7rr, 30n"55n. 57. 3 7 3 , 4 3 8 ; a s m a n t r a4 3 5 , 4 3 6 n
7-Qry,72r1r76-7'd, BO-Eu. 8.9,I I8, l7l i.r, Svap;::ic;ntannni399
1 8 1n . 1 9 4 , 1 9 . i n , i 9 6 n , 2 0 5 . 2 C + . ' SvopntTdhyaya 399, 40t
260n,263n. 27Cn,271n,l9-;;r,29on. Svaytnava savadatt a 400
i 9 9 ' r ,j Q 1 , 3 1 9 4 3 ) 7 , 3 3 1 ,3 3 3 - 3 3 4 ; Sltapnavicdra399
3 5 3 n , 3 5 43. 6 5 n S't,tir thannmdna-par i ccheda | 18n
Sred nicd kyi brtsl,,t pn (..eucstions Svdtantrika-Madhyamikaschccl 245,
- of Nar'dyana")I 14 249
SrimC{rj-siiit'o(Ti:c Lion's Rcar of syr,rbol (sanmya)tr.17,117n, 205-209,
Qu-e eit,Slin-ti /i) 18-+-1 85, 2lln, 215i, 291, 293, 294-295,301, 406, 4I7,
- 253,263,322:t 431, 434, 437*, 447;t, 449tt;-sattva
S-ripar anii d:-t i k C 280 438. See "Bu.icihistart"; Chapter
Sri-ParamAdya 107 6-7.
\rngcrra Prakaia 4A0
Srutamayi-bkumi194,2A5, 210
stagr.sat life 277. tsrallaran;c380 T anfta.130, 135-136, l4l-14.2,145-t47,
(contp;rr;d wirh Iil'r:of a tsir:l<lu56- I 60-i61,184-185,191,262,275, 282,
58; conri:;l'edr.viihBulrlhist or.di- 29A,296-298,301,322it,373,'s73n,
nation 48-49). See"bhfirsti.', 387, 393, 399, 405, 409-410,433-
Sthaviraseci 38-39.288 435, 439-4'43,419n; Caryi 410n;
Sthiramati 85, 9:;, 130n, I5T, 176. Kriya 4tr0n; Yoga 407; Anuttara-
270ir,308, 3\6, 318, 321n, 322 yoga 411. See tities; Chzpter 22.
strcaril 340.i41, j-i9, 35! -J5:. 401. Tantrayurtika 429n
447n: - . i , a r c r 1 5 , 1 9 , 3 0 , 1 4 2 ,l B 5 . Tara Chrpter 24; 25-28,29.6,306, 406,
218-219;oi cr::rc;cusn:s.;99-104. 'Idrl,27-28,
420; White 147; vidya
1 0 9 , 1 7 1 , l l 4 , 1 5 7 , 2 3 3 , 3 1 3 ,3 3 8 of 320,427-423;as Gangd 446n;
(cf. mind as u arcr 130-| 3l) as FanCara 448n. See "mother,"
strivirrg 108, 352, 353; three kinds "iakti."
!12; porfection of 23, 706,108, 1 13,
302,321, 446, 446n (See "perfec- Tarkajvala 409n
tions") Tathigatagarbha 253
Tattvasarpgraha24Cn,375n
stupa 44, 64, 288-289"291-292: see Theravaia sect Chapter 3; 4I-42, 49,
caitl'a 291 63, 182, 186-187,785n, 215, 231,
Subhat i ta-sarytgraha 185n, 219 235, 236, 251-252,288, -731
Subhrrti23-24 Thusness(tailtata) 12, 155, 166, 176,.
Suhrllclrka (Fi'icndly Epistle) 254, 295 189,272
iunya (voiri) or i{tnyato (voiCness)22, Tibetan Book of the Dead 265
2 5 , 2 7 , 1 0 7 - 1 0 91, 2 A - 7 2 11, 3 1 - 1 3 3 , time (kalct)Chapter'13; 201, 239, 323,
736,139-14A, 113-14,4,148, 150,157, 347-343,362, 359, 373, 395, 406:
159, 165, 136, 190-191,206-207. 408,439
237-239,240 27C-274, 275, 302,309, Tirukkural400
312-313,316-320, " 321tt, 335, 346, "Toda Dream Songs" 404
Index
469