Article

Clothing and Textiles

Research Journal

The “Use of Lines in Your 2020, Vol. 38(4) 270-284

ª 2020 ITAA
Article reuse guidelines:
Clothing Will Work Magic”: sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/0887302X20905358
Advice to Women From 1914 journals.sagepub.com/home/ctr

to 1961 on Using Line to

Design an Ideal Body Type

Jessica L. Ridgway1

Abstract
Women have sought and received advice on how to dress for as long as they have been putting
clothing on their bodies. One area in which women have received advice on dressing for their body
type is the use of line in dress as an illusion to change the way body shape and size is perceived. This
study was undertaken to gain a better historical understanding of advice on dressing for different
body types between 1914 and 1961. Advice books and textbooks written for women from 1914 to
1961 that included prescriptive information on how to dress for various body types were explored.
This time period was selected as it coincides with critical years in the growth and maturity of the
home economic movement in the United States. A content analysis of 15 historical texts revealed
trends found within the themes of body ideal, line as illusion, and figure types.

Keywords
body shape, historic clothing, design elements

Line is the fundamental element of all visual art, the skeleton upon which the whole structure is
built. Line may be defined as the direction in which the eye is carried by the dominant
constructive and decorative parts of an object. Line also has the meaning of the boundary of
the structural parts. Usually, both of these meanings are implied when the term is used in
reference to costume. For instance, a gown has long lines when its important structural parts are
panels, gores, pleats, and so on, that lead the eye up and down the figure. The proportions of
the individual figure should be considered in selecting clothes. A gown having “good lines” is a
gown whose dominant structural or trimming lines create an effect of harmonious proportions
on the figure. Therefore, a gown that has good lines for a tall, thin figure may have very bad
lines for a short, stout one (Buttrick, 1924, p. 22).

1
Jim Moran College of Entrepreneurship, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA

Corresponding Author:
Jessica L. Ridgway, Jim Moran College of Entrepreneurship, Florida State University, 644 West Call Street, Tallahassee, FL
32306, USA.
Email: jridgway@fsu.edu
Ridgway 271

Described by Buttrick (1924), line is a complex, multifaceted design element applied in many
ways including in the garment silhouette, style details, and textile surface and structure. Line is the
“first and foremost element in the creation of a design for clothes” (Baer, 1979, p. 294). Arguably
one of the most important design elements in dress, line has the ability to change the perception of
the body through the visual manipulation of the body’s proportions. Color, another significant
design element, must be placed within a series of lines (shape) in order to affect the visual perception
of the body’s proportions. Therefore, the design element line is the central focus of this study, given
line’s foundational importance in relation to color and shape in the manipulation of body percep-
tions. However, when examining dress, line as a design element cannot be studied in isolation since
the “magic” occurs when lines interact with the body of the wearer; this sentiment is echoed by Craig
and Rush (1941), who explained the importance of line when describing the relationship between
body shape and the use of line in clothing:

Although you may not have the figure of a Venus your understanding and use of lines in your clothing
will work magic toward concealing hips that are too large, a bust that is too full, or legs that are too short.
(p. 46)

Craig and Rush’s words, written in a textbook for home economics teachers and students in the
1940s, served as the catalyst for the current study. This historical analysis of book-form advice
provides insight into the training of American women in relation to their body and appearance during
a pivotal time in American history: the growth and maturity of the home economics movement in the
United States from 1914 to 1961.
Today, we are aware that the relationship to one’s body is an important element of self and well-
being (Jung et al., 2001; Ridgway, 2018). Home economics focused on the well-being of the
individual and family, as centered in the traditional female role of homemaker and caregiver. Indeed,
as is well recognized, the field of home economics also contributed to the advancement of women in
science (nutrition), human development, financial management, and design fields. This focus on
well-being also led to providing women with a great deal of advice on how to manage their
appearance, and they were taught design skills to enable them to attain a socially desirable figure.
Previous researchers examined advice given to women on how to dress for the workplace, at
different times of the day, and for specific occasions (Klepp, 2011). Additionally, contemporary
research has been conducted on body types and proportion (Connell et al., 2006) and the use of
illusion to change the way body shape and size are perceived (Ridgway et al., 2017).
However, there is limited research on advice used to educate women on how to dress. More-
over, there is limited research about using design principles as a tool in women’s actions to
achieve the ideal, including the intentions of designers in using design elements relative to ideals.
The examination of advice trends as they evolved historically, as presented herein, can be used to
inform the American woman’s historical narrative relative to women’s education and to apparel
design education.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explain how appearance advice was related to body-type
ideals and apparel design decisions, specifically the use of the design element line, during 1914–
1961 in the United States. The following research questions were proposed: What advice was given
to assist women in achieving a more ideal body type? How was the design element of line discussed
in relation to dressing for body type?
Furthermore, the call for women to educate themselves on dressing their bodies, found in Craig
and Rush’s (1941) home economics textbook, led to these additional research questions: How was
advice delivered to women during the home economics movement? Were there any trends in the use
of line related to time period? Did the concept of the ideal body type change over time, and if so
how? How were body shapes and types described during these years?
272 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 38(4)

Primary Sources
Advice books and textbooks written for women from 1914 to 1961 that included prescriptive
information on how to dress for various body types were explored. This time period was significant
in women’s history in the United States as related to women’s formal education and rights as
citizens. In the early 1900s, the home economics movement began with the intent to formalize
methods for domestic work and to educate women. Eicher and Evenson (2015) noted that
advice literature and etiquette manuals aimed to educate the general population and no longer
targeted the wealthy upper class. Similarly, Arditi (1999) asserts that etiquette books during the
20th century addressed the middle class. This group of people (middle class America) aspired
to be the elite and therefore sought advice on how to improve manners, dress appropriately, and
many other self-improvement topics. Advice literature was an appropriate source of information
for this study, as retrospective reading can trace changes and uncover intersections that
occurred in history (Lees-Maffei, 2011).
In 1914, the onset year for the current investigation, the Smith–Lever Act passed, providing
funding for home economics education through the Department of Agriculture (Stage & Vincenti,
1997). A section of this act focused on education; therefore, texts during this time focused on how to
be a wise consumer. For this reason, many of the published texts during this time contained
information on dressing for body type. In 1917, the Smith–Hughes Act passed, providing funding
for home economics teachers in primary and secondary schools (Stage & Vincenti, 1997). The
funding from the Smith–Hughes Act was tied to vocational training at the collegiate level. Women’s
interest in the home economics field grew, and with it, women’s interest in how to take care of their
homes and themselves increased. Eventually, women began shifting away from studying home
economics in the 1960s because, at this point, an increased number of women possessed higher
education, which provided the means to question the status quo. The activation of women’s capa-
cities during the world wars allowed women to understand that they could perform the work of both
masculine- and feminine-categorized jobs. The 19th Amendment in 1920 (which provided women
the right to vote), as well as advances in psychology, fed into a slow cultural shift resulting in home
economics being seen as “old-fashioned” by the early 1960s. In 1961, President Kennedy created the
President’s Commission on the Status of Women, the purpose of which was to both examine and
fight discrimination against women in the workplace (Leuchtenberg, n.d.). This brought a great deal
of attention to women moving into the workplace, a presence that served as a catalyst of change in
the United States during this time period. Thus, the years from 1914 to 1961 define the time
parameters of this study. That is, I seek to understand the arc of appearance advice to women in
the 47 years defined here as critical in women’s history, due to U.S. governmental acts/laws related
to women and their education.
Corresponding to the progression of the home economics movement was the evolution of mass
media. The access to and types of media increased and diversified from 1914 to 1961. For example,
Time magazine launched in 1923, the first full-color movie was produced in 1932, black-and-white
TV was part of the average American household in the 1950s, and in 1960, the Olympic Games were
first televised (Baran, 2017). During this time, media infiltrated the lives of women, resulting in an
increase in women’s exposure to idealized female images via the advent of moving pictures in film
and then broadcast television. As exposure to female media images (i.e., women depicted in movies
and television) increased, so too did the number of opportunities women had to socially compare
themselves. Women who once were comparing themselves to friends, neighbors, characters in
books, and performers in magazine advertisements were now comparing themselves to women on
television and in movies. Hence, the study of how people compare themselves to others became of
great importance in social psychology research during this time, leading to the development of social
comparison theory (Festinger, 1954).
Ridgway 273

Table 1. Dressing Advice Source Texts Listed in Order of Publication.

Purpose/
Year Target
Title Author Published Audience

Principles of Correct Dress Winterburn, F. H. 1914 Etiquette

Woman as Decoration Burbank, E. 1917 Etiquette
The Secrets of Distinctive Dress: Harmonious, Becoming, Picken, M. B. 1918 Textbook
and Beautiful Dress, Its Value, and How to Achieve It
Principles of Clothing Selection Buttrick, H. G. 1924 Textbook
The Etiquette of Beauty Cocks, D. 1927 Etiquette
Clothes Economy for Well-Dressed Women Wells, M. S. 1927 Etiquette
Clothing and Style Dooley, W. 1930 Textbook
Good Taste in Dress McFarland, F. W. 1936 Textbook
Color and Line in Dress Hempstead, L. 1938 Etiquette
Clothes With Character Craig, H. T. and Rush, O. D. 1941 Textbook
Color and Design in Apparel Chambers, B. G. 1945 Textbook
Today’s Clothing Baxter, L 1949 Textbook
Clothes for You Ryan, M. G. and Philips, V. 1954 Etiquette
The Arts of Costume and Personal Appearance Morton, G.M. 1955 Textbook
Clothing Selection: Fashions, Figures, Fabrics Chambers, H. 1961 Etiquette
Note. This table lists all of the primary sources by title, author, date published, and book type classification.

According to Festinger, social comparisons lead women to make self-assessments of where they
fit into society (Clayton et al., 2017; Festinger, 1954). If a woman’s assessment is that she is not as
physically attractive or desirable as those she is comparing to (upward comparison), she might seek
to make changes to her appearance. One change might include the way she presents herself using
clothing. A woman’s need to conform to the ideal could be the reason why women would seek
advice on how to dress. During 1914–1961, women sought advice through prescriptive literature and
began to take courses within the field of home economics, studying, among other things, advice on
how to dress. Hence, many of these behaviors and goals were culturally and psychologically driven
by the time period.
Moreover, during this time period, line as a design element was featured in advice literature to
women. In fact, each of the books examined in this study had either an entire chapter or a section
focusing on the use of line in dress. Etiquette/advice books provided insight as to what was being
read by the population at large, whereas home economic textbooks illustrated what was being taught
to women in school (at all levels) between 1914 and 1961.
This historical analysis reviewed 15 books consisting of 3 books per decade (i.e., 1910–1919,
1920–1929, 1930–1939, 1940–1949, and 1950–1961). Seven of these books were classified as
etiquette books. Eight of the books were textbooks. Book classification was based on the purpose
statement located in the foreword of each text, which addressed the audience of the book
(i.e., women in general or teachers/students, specifically). All 15 books were available in full-text
online through the Hathi Trust Digital Library (https://www.hathitrust.org/). See Table 1 for a list of
the books used in this study.
The authors of these books were notable men and women of their time. Their professions (often
listed inside each book), in addition to writer/author, included several college professors, a dean, a
public school department head, and a principal of a textile high school. For example, Mary Brooks
Picken, the most famous of the authors of the texts chosen in this study, founded the Woman’s
Institute of Domestic Arts in Science and was considered an expert on fashion and design. Picken
published roughly 100 books (Meet Mary Brooks Picken, 2017).
274 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 38(4)

Content Analysis
A content analysis was conducted on the primary sources. Content analysis is the study of written
materials as well as nonverbal information such as images (Babbie, 2016) and the message itself
(Kassarjian, 1977). It is a formal methodology used in research exploring the history of costume
(Paoletti, 1982).
Body ideal, body shape, and line as a design element were predetermined as themes for this
research. Body ideal was defined as the body type (size or figure) that was considered socially
desirable and attractive during the period. Body shape was defined as any reference to the size,
structure, or figure of the body. Line was conceptualized to include all uses within apparel design
(i.e., silhouette, style/seam, decorative). Text and images were coded initially based on the pre-
determined themes that correspond to the research questions under investigation. Finally, an analysis
was conducted to identify emergent themes found within each overarching (predetermined) theme.

Body Ideal
Body ideal revealed the following themes in the literature: (a) body measurement, (b) proportion,
and (c) fashion figure versus human figure.

Body Measurement
Body measurements were typically described concerning their proportion to the whole body. How-
ever, some texts discussed body measurements in terms of weight and height. Buttrick (1924)
described the measurements of typical figures. For the tall, thin figure, “all horizontal measurements
are less than standard and the vertical measurements are more” (Buttrick, 1924, p. 61). The short,
thin figure has “horizontal and vertical measurements [that] are both less than those of the ideal
figure” (Buttrick, 1924, p. 61). For the tall, stout woman, “the horizontal measurements are wider
than the average, and the vertical measurements are greater” (Buttrick, 1924, p. 61). Moreover, the
short, stout body type has “horizontal measurements [that] are noticeably wider than standard and
the vertical measurements are shorter” (Buttrick, 1924, p. 61). There was no identification of which
body type was considered the most ideal. It is notable that Buttrick (1924) referred to a standard;
however, she refrained from defining a standard.
Cocks (1927) suggested to her readers that their ideal weight should be just a few pounds under
the average in order to be considered young and attractive. The general ideal of slimness was
found to be common regardless of the time period. Occasionally, the ideal figure was directly
discussed. B. G. Chambers (1945), for example, stated, “in America, the ideal feminine figure is
tall and slender” (p. 28). McFarland (1936) provided her readers with a chart (see Figure 1) that
contained ideal body weights for women based on their height and age. McFarland’s chart sug-
gests that gaining 15 pounds across a woman’s adult life was acceptable, implying that such a
limited weight gain did not negatively affect life span attractiveness. In another text, Baxter (1949)
did not provide ages but stated the average American girl was 50 400 , weighed 120 pounds, and had
a 28-in. waist. She claimed that the average American girl of 1949 was “taller, broader, and
heavier than the American girl of a century ago” (Baxter, 1949, p. 4). This was the only text that
provided a comparison to the past.

Proportion
Body proportion was discussed in all of the texts. Several authors discussed that the ideal was
adopted from the Greek law of proportions and went on to explain that proportions could be
calculated according to “heads” (Buttrick, 1924; Hempstead, 1938; Picken, 1918).
Ridgway 275

Figure 1. Table of weights by height for women. Source: McFarland (1936, p. 39).

Picken (1918) explained that a head measurement is from the bottom of the chin to the top of the
forehead—therefore, everyone will have unique measurements when it comes to their proportions,
but the goal of equal proportions is common to everyone. Picken suggested that the average woman
would be approximately seven and a half heads tall. A woman’s width could also be measured in
heads (using the width of a head as the unit of measure) in order to evaluate proportions, and the
width of the waist would be equal to two and two-thirds heads with a hip of three and three-fourth
heads (McFarland, 1936). Measuring the body with heads allows for the uniqueness of each indi-
vidual to be considered ideal as long as their measurements match the defined proportions.

Fashion Figure Versus Human Figure

Occasional deliberations on the differences between the fashion figure and the human figure
engaged several authors (Craig & Rush, 1941; Dooley, 1930; McFarland, 1936). McFarland
276 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 38(4)

discussed the height of the fashion figure and indicated that it would rarely be pictured at a normal
height (seven and a half heads tall) but may be pictured up to eleven heads tall. Craig and Rush
(1941) indicate that the fashion figure was pictured as 8–10 heads tall.

Body Shape
Through the investigation of the theme of body shape, two themes emerged. The first theme was the
use of height and weight to describe the body/figure. The second theme that emerged was advice
given specifically on dressing for body shape.

Body and Figure

Body and figure were always identified by using the descriptions that represent height (short,
medium, tall) and weight (thin, medium, stout). Dooley (1930) stated that the height and weight
of a woman are combined, thereby creating nine different body types (i.e., short-thin, short-medium,
short-stout, medium-thin, medium-medium). These nine combinations were often referred to within
the texts examined; however, the combination of medium height and medium weight was never
mentioned in any of the texts when it came to prescribing advice for women with various body types.
This figure type was considered average. Authors might not have addressed this body type, as the
authors sought to provide advice for those women with figures that can be difficult to dress, and they
might not have viewed this figure as difficult. All of the texts used generalization to discuss body
height and weight relative to body shape. Terms that are common today in describing different body
shapes (i.e., hourglass, pear) were not yet in use.

Advice on Dressing for Body Type

Picken (1918) presented that “every woman and every girl should select costumes in absolute accord
with her type; that is, in accord with her . . . height, and her plumpness or thinness” (p. 106). Advice
ranged from the types of skirts to avoid to which neckline might be most flattering. Winterburn
(1914) suggests that “thin women ought never to wear V necks, but those were for those which are
rounded in shape” (p. 87). All advice given was with the intention of correcting the perception of
proportions of the body and creating a more ideal or “normal” figure (Hempstead, 1938). B. G.
Chambers (1945) noted that:

Correct proportion in clothing will help to create the effect desired. A large woman selects a suit with the
jacket at a length that will conceal the bulk of her figure and with the front closing, pockets, and lapels so
placed as to make her look smaller. Large women who wear tightly fitted sweaters or high-necked
dresses reveal rather than conceal their figure defects. Trousers or skirts properly proportioned will
create the illusion of smaller size. (p. 26)

Advice focused on do’s and don’ts for each body type. For example, Hempstead (1938) suggested
“short women must avoid broadening effects, and the tall woman must seek to broaden her figure”
(p. 128). Craig and Rush (1941) focused their advice toward the short plump girl, the short slender
girl, the tall heavy girl, and the tall slender girl. A general statement of what was most desired for the
figure was given by Craig and Rush, followed by a list of options to be avoided and options that
should be employed. For example, the short plump girl was advised to avoid tight waists, tight skirts,
and tunics/peplums but encouraged to wear skirts that fit through the hip and then flared below the
hip (see Figure 2).
The advice also focused on certain areas/parts of the body, mostly shoulders, waist, and hips.
Surprisingly, the bust was rarely discussed. The authors provided suggestions on how to change the
Ridgway 277

Figure 2. Advice for the short plump girl. Source: Craig and Rush (1941, p. 62).
278 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 38(4)

appearance of the body by manipulating how these body parts were dressed. This suggestion was a
prevalent theme in the literature. A great amount of attention was paid to making visual adjustments
of the waist and the hips. Picken (1918) suggested that “if your hips are high and heavy, wear skirts
that tend to equalize the figure below” (p. 162). Manipulation of the waist and hips to create the
perception of a more ideally proportionate body was a common suggestion. Dooley (1930) described
this idea with the following remark: “A person with a large or poorly proportioned waistline should
wear the things that will not make her conspicuous at the waist, and also vertical lines and a loose
costume” (p. 54).

Use of Line
The theme of line revealed the importance of line, the vertical versus horizontal, and illusion and
line. The concept of line was defined as including the outline or silhouette of the body, seam/design
lines, and lines found within the textile of the garment. All of these definitions had been used within
the context of line as a tool to achieve an illusion.

Importance of line. The importance of line was addressed in relation to the other themes of body shape
and body ideal. The authors throughout the time period (1914–1961) indicated that line was
extremely important, but a woman must understand her figure in order to be able to make proper
use of line in dress. Picken (1918) explained, “Line, as it is used in connection with the lines of the
human figure and in connection with dress, requires, first, a knowledge of the proportions of the
human figure; then a careful and truthful self-analysis” (p. 160). Additionally, Cocks (1927)
described:

For every figure there is not only one composition of lines, but many, and the more complete your
investigation of your own figure with relationship to the lines of dress becomes, the more you will realize
the consistent thrill of building your plan of good dressing upon a theory of becoming lines. (p. 26)

Lines had been important to consider because they could help or hinder the appearance of the
figure (Baxter, 1949; Burbank, 1917; Buttrick, 1924; H. Chambers, 1961; Cocks, 1927; Craig &
Rush, 1941; Hempstead, 1938; Picken, 1918; Wells, 1927). Wells (1927) explained how important
line was by writing, “if the line of any costume is perfectly done, there is but a small chance that the
finished product will be anything but a success” (p. 22). The importance of the proper use of line in
achieving ideally proportioned illusions was seen as fundamental in the success or failure of a
woman’s look. Picken (1918) argued that selecting a corset must be done by examining the line
it creates and that careful selection should be done in order to achieve a woman’s best lines.
Similarly, line was often used as a way to bridge the gap between a woman’s actual self and her
ideal self. Achieving a woman’s best or good lines was directly related to achieving idealized
proportions. “Good lines” had been described by Buttrick (1924) as lines that “create an effect of
harmonious proportions on the figure” (p. 22). Frequently, authors explained that lines that might be
good for one figure might be very bad for another. The notion that women are unique directly relates
to the common directive that a woman must have the knowledge of her own body in order to make
the correct selection of line for her figure.
The waistline was frequently discussed when the text referred to line as the silhouette of the body
(Buttrick, 1924; B. G. Chambers, 1945; H. Chambers, 1961; Cocks, 1927; Hempstead, 1938;
Winterburn, 1914). If a woman had a slender figure, she would be advised to accentuate her waist;
however, if she was too thin, she may choose to distract attention away from her waist with design
elements such as ruffles or pleats (Picken, 1918; Winterburn, 1914). The woman with a heavy
waistline should do all that she can in order to create a waistline; however, she is warned against
Ridgway 279

Figure 3. Degrees of emphasis of the waist. Source: Craig and Rush (1941, p. 53).

drawing attention to her abundance of flesh (Winterburn, 1914). The proper amount of emphasis on
the waist is illustrated in Figure 3 by Craig and Rush (1941). Here, it is evident that drawing too
much attention to even a slender waist was considered to be in poor taste during the 1940s.
Cocks (1927) suggested that lines that cling to the figure are most slenderizing since they show
off the natural curve of a woman. Advice on how to achieve this included the use of curved lines in
dress (Baxter, 1949; B. G. Chambers, 1945; Craig & Rush, 1941; McFarland, 1936). Since a
woman’s body is made up of graceful curves, the clothing that she selects should also be made
up of curves as this provides the best fit (B. G. Chambers, 1945). According to Baxter (1949), a
curved line was to be joyous and graceful. The illustration depicted by Craig and Rush (1941; see
Figure 3) explains that curved lines are suggested to be youthful, whereas straight lines signify
dignity and diagonal lines denote sophistication. Although line was discussed in several different
ways, the most common discussion was the use of vertical lines to manipulate the appearance of
height/length and horizontal lines to influence the perception of width.

Vertical versus horizontal. Vertical lines versus horizontal lines and the effect these lines have on the
perception of a woman’s figure were debated. Horizontal lines had been frequently prescribed for
women who were considered tall, and vertical lines were commonly suggested for short women as
they would make them appear taller. Picken (1918) instructs short women that lines that run across
the body are not for them and that a stout woman should remember that up-and-down lines will
give the appearance of slenderness (Picken, 1918). Cocks (1927) tells her readers that unbroken
vertical lines will add height and make the figure appear slenderer and that horizontal/broken lines
should be the choice of a tall thin woman. Hempstead (1938) explains that horizontal lines had been
280 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 38(4)

Figure 4. Horizontal and vertical line illusions. Source: McFarland (1936, p. 48).

well known for decreasing the appearance of height; however, if the horizontal lines are incorrectly
placed on the figure, it may actually increase the appearance of height. If a tall woman selects a
horizontal line, she runs the risk of appearing taller. Likewise, for the short woman, if she is not
careful in her selection of horizontal line, she could end up appearing even shorter.
Several authors concurred with Hempstead’s argument that horizontal lines used incorrectly
increase height. McFarland (1936) provides a visual representation of different effects achieved
by horizontal and vertical lines (see Figure 4). This figure was described as “horizontal stripes add
length” (McFarland, 1936, p. 48). Other texts had similar illustrations depicting horizontal and
vertical line differences (Craig & Rush, 1941; Dooley, 1930). These texts also did not show the
illusion created by horizontal and vertical lines applied to the body. The reason for this might be that
the illusion was more easily identified in a simple drawing.
Ryan and Philips (1954) also discussed height and provided an illustration of the effect when applied
to garments on the body (Figure 5). The illustration shows that when examined side-by-side, the evenly
spaced horizontal lines move the eye up and down the body, thereby creating a greater sense of height.

Illusion and line. Readers of advice texts had been told that if they used line well and used different
types of lines (i.e., horizontal, vertical, diagonal), they may achieve the illusion of ideal proportions
(Baxter, 1949; Burbank, 1917; H. Chambers, 1961; Cocks, 1927; Craig & Rush, 1941; Hempstead,
1938). Several different illusions had been discussed throughout the texts; however, the common
goal of all illusions created with line was the same to camouflage one’s perceived flaws by applying
lines that distract the viewer’s attention away from those flaws. One of the most common illusions
presented was one that centered on the discussion of increased height due to the line of a woman’s
hat. The illusion was demonstrated by both a line drawing (a single line with different styles of
endcaps) and the application of the drawing pictured by a woman wearing different hats. This
illusion was repeated in several texts and illustrates how line can influence the perception of a
woman’s overall appearance. Apparent in this illustration of the hats is that a simple accessory was
looked at as having a major effect on the appearance of a woman’s silhouette. The line with the open
“v” as endcaps gives the greatest sense of height in all three illustrations since the open legs of the
“v” shape allow the viewer’s eye to continue upward away from the body.
This notion of the line ending with the open “v” was also discussed and pictured in other texts
(Dooley, 1930; McFarland, 1936). Lines said to move inward were suggested to decrease height,
whereas those that move outward increase the illusion of length (McFarland, 1936). Dooley (1930)
states that the “line with the arrow head opening upward leaves an after-image of elongating or
Ridgway 281

Figure 5. Horizontal and vertical lines applied. Source: Ryan & Philips (1954, p. 78).

lengthening the line, while the other line with the arrow head opening downward leaves an image
shortening the line” (p. 24).
As evidenced by the texts and images, lines can be used to create the illusion of height and width.
With the ability to change the way the body was viewed, lines had been commonly prescribed to
create an illusion, whether of increased height or decreased width. All the texts examined had advice
on how to use line to change how a woman’s body was perceived.

Time Period and Silhouette

An analysis of similarities and differences for the decades examined was also conducted to give
further context to the advice being taught and prescribed. Although the decades provided informa-
tion that was consistent, there were some notable differences in fashion trends. From 1914 through
1920, the most obvious difference of this decade from the subsequent ones was that there were still
discussions of women wearing corsets (Burbank, 1917; Winterburn, 1914). There were no discus-
sions of corsets from this point onward. As Fields (1999) noted:

Women’s claims to wage work, to academic and physical education, to public protest over access to
suffrage and birth control, and to pleasurable leisure activities such as dancing to tango parties all
brought daily corset wear into question. (p. 354)

However, other foundation garments later emerged, such as the girdle, that helped women
achieve an ideal body. Fields (1999) posited the liberation of women had started and, therefore,
women were able to free themselves of the corsets that had been common for many years prior. As
stressed by several authors of the texts examined, in the 1920s, focus was placed on choosing what
was best for one’s own body. The ideal silhouette was much less about the creation of a slender
waist and more focused on a physically active, healthy body.
282 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 38(4)

In the 1930s, the emphasis moved to an accentuated waist and the appearance of a broader
shoulder gradually increased in popularity. Appearing feminine was considered more appropriate
compared to the images and discussion of the 1920s. Hempstead (1938) provides many images that
contain a similar silhouette. Hempstead’s late 1930s woman with a belt accentuating the waist, a
skirt hem below the knee, and square shoulders reflects the dominant style elements of the time. As
many women did not naturally have a small narrow waist, design devices (e.g., shoulder pads)
helped to achieve the illusion of a small waist. A silhouette with wide shoulders changed the way the
proportions of the body were perceived. The visual lines between the wide shoulders and the waist
created the sense of a small waist considered desirable during this time.
The silhouettes found in the images presented from the 1940s were similar to the images pictured
in the 1930s. The waist was usually pictured belted, or seam lines were used to accentuate the waist,
while the shoulders remained square. However, the hem circumferences of skirts in the 1940s were
depicted as larger than in the 1930s. This change in the line of silhouette moves the ideal shape of a
woman’s body more toward an hourglass.
In the 1950s, there was a dramatic change in the feminine ideal, resulting in the silhouette
becoming an exaggerated shape. As Morton (1955, p. 85) depicts, one popular silhouette of this
time period contains a wide balloon sleeve (to add volume to the shoulder), a defined waist, and a
peplum to accentuate the hips. This exaggerated silhouette demonstrated that a woman’s ideal body
was something that could be constructed by clothing.

Conclusion
Popular advice books from 1914 to 1961 prescribed to women how to use line in order to change the
perception of their body shape and achieve the appearance of a more ideal figure. Much of the advice
prescribed focused on a woman learning how best to present her own body using clothing. Indeed,
the ideal was never defined in explicit detail in any of the texts analyzed, although the ideal or
standard was often used as a reference point for women to determine how they might use clothing to
appear ideal. Perhaps the authors believed that the ideal was the best version of one’s self. Thus, the
advice prescribed focused on learning the most effective lines for one’s own body.
Remarkably, body shape was only discussed using height and weight, and there had been no
generalized “shapes” identified. It appears that from 1914 to 1961, body types had not yet been
categorized in terms of shape but had been talked about generally in terms of height and weight (tall
vs. short and slim vs. stout). Future researchers should investigate at what point advice texts start
referring to the body as the common shapes known today. Perhaps an investigation of advertising/
media and medical texts related to weight would help to shed light on the use of such terms.
Additionally, future researchers should examine the language used to describe body types more
specifically and determine how that language has changed over time.
During the 47 years that were the scope of this study, women were experiencing a liberation in
their ability to seek and obtain education and acquire jobs outside of the home. Feminism was
certainly on the rise, but it had not reached its peak. Yet to come was the large wave of feminism,
bra-burning hippies, and the summer of love, which drastically changed the freedom of expression
and pushed back on the prior confirmative and aesthetic values of dress. Future researchers should
investigate the subsequent decades.
One limitation of this study is that books were the only object of the investigation. Although
outside the scope of this study, the inclusion of magazines and newspapers would provide a more
holistic viewpoint. Including a larger number of sources may provide insights beyond the three
books from each decade analyzed here.
In this study, it was revealed that historic advice and teaching literature for women in regard to
dress from 1914 to 1961 placed great value and importance on the use of line as an element of
Ridgway 283

design. Current design scholars could benefit from this research, as it can be used to inform their
current work. Design scholars who focus on creating garments to aid the wearer in achieving a more
ideal body type can use the knowledge gained in this study to apply line more effectively. It is to be
hoped that with the advice from the past and knowledge of today, designers can help women attain
the ideal, even if by designed perceptual illusion.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or pub-
lication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD
Jessica L. Ridgway https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7632-6160

References
Arditi, J. (1999). Etiquette books, discourse and the deployment of an order of things. Theory, Culture &
Society, 16, 25–48.
Babbie, E. R. (2016). The basics of social research. Thomson Wadsworth.
Baer, M. (1979). Visual recall of dress design determined by perceptual style. Home Economics Research
Journal, 7, 292–303.
Baran, S. J. (2017). Introduction to mass communication: Media literacy and culture. McGraw-Hill.
Baxter, L. (1949). Today’s clothing. J. B. Lippincott.
Burbank, E. (1917). Woman as decoration. Dodd, Mead.
Buttrick, H. G. (1924). Principles of clothing selection. Macmillan.
Chambers, B. G. (1945). Color and design in apparel. Prentice-Hall.
Chambers, H. (1961). Clothing selection: Fashions, figures, fabrics. Lippincott.
Clayton, R. B., Ridgway, J. L., & Hendrickse, J. (2017). Is plus size equal? The positive impact of average and
plus-sized media fashion models on women’s cognitive resource allocation, social comparisons, and body
satisfaction. Communication Monographs, 84, 406–422.
Cocks, D. (1927). The etiquette of beauty. George H. Doran.
Connell, L. J., Ulrich, P. V., Brannon, E. L., Alexander, M., & Presley, A. B. (2006). Body shape assessment
scale: Instrument development for analyzing female figures. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 24,
80–95.
Craig, H. T., & Rush, O. D. (1941). Clothes with character. D.C. Heath.
Dooley, W. (1930). Clothing and style. D.C. Health.
Eicher, J. B., & Evenson, S. L. (2015). The visible self: Global perspectives on dress, culture and society.
Bloomsbury Publishing USA.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117–140.
Fields, J. (1999). ‘Fighting the corsetless evil’: Shaping corsets and culture, 1900-1930. Journal of Social
History, 33, 355–384.
Hempstead, L. (1938). Color and line in dress. Prentice-Hall.
Jung, J., Lennon, S. J., & Rudd, N. A. (2001). Self-schema or self-discrepancy? Which best explains body
image? Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 19, 171–184.
Kassarjian, H. H. (1977). Content analysis in consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 4, 8–18.
Klepp, I. G. (2011). Slimming lines. Fashion Theory, 15, 451–480.
284 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 38(4)

Lees-Maffei, G. (2011). Dressing the part(y): 1950s domestic advice books and the studied performance of
informal domesticity in the UK and the US. In F. Fisher, T. Keeble, P. Lara-Betacourt, & B. Martin (Eds.),
Performance, fashion and the modern interior (pp. 183–196). Berg.
Leuchtenberg, W. (n.d.). President’s commission on the status of women. Duke University, University Publi-
cations of America. http://www.lexisnexis.com/documents/academic/upa_cis/PresidentComm%20on%20
StatusofWomen.pdf
McFarland, F. W. (1936). Good taste in dress. The Manual Arts Press.
Meet Mary Brooks Picken. (2017, Winter). ASG notions. https://www.asg.org/files/hall/2016_Pickens.pdf
Morton, G. M. (1955). The arts of costume and personal appearance (2nd ed.). Wiley.
Paoletti, J. (1982). Content analysis: Its application to the study of the history of costume. Clothing and Textiles
Research Journal, 1, 14–17.
Picken, M. B. (1918). The secrets of distinctive dress: Harmonious, becoming, and beautiful dress, its value and
how to achieve it. International Textbook Press.
Ridgway, J. L. (2018). Before and after avatar exposure: The impact of body scanning technology on body
satisfaction, mood, and appearance management. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 36, 91–103.
Ridgway, J. L., Parsons, J., & Sohn, M. (2017). Creating a more ideal self through the use of clothing: An
exploratory study of women’s perceptions of optical illusion garments. Clothing and Textiles Research
Journal, 35, 111–127.
Ryan, M. G., & Philips, V. (1954). Clothes for you. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Stage, S., & Vincenti, V. B. (1997). Rethinking home economics: Women and the history of a profession.
Cornell University Press.
Wells, M. S. (1927). Clothes economy for well dressed women. Dodd, Mead.
Winterburn, F. H. (1914). Principles of correct dress. Harper & Brothers.

Author Biography
Jessica L. Ridgway, PhD, is an associate professor at Florida State University, in the Retail Entrepreneurship
Program in the Jim Moran College of Entrepreneurship. The areas of her research interests include designing
with technology, body shape and size perception, self-discrepancies, and the use of optical illusions in dress.