a Routledge International Handbook of Children’s Rights Studies Edited by Wouter Vandenhole, Ellen Desmet, Didier Reynaert and Sara Lembrechts RR Routed,| 3 The Convention on the Rights of the Child Reflections from a historical, social policy and educational perspective Eugeen Verhellen’ 1. Introduction Eventhough scholaiip about the human rights of children & seared in away of para- Ags, euch tacks, diplines and school of thought (Hanson, 2012; Op de Beeck a, 2013, 9.8), thefemework oe mow Gequenty to structure culcens eights dscusions and ‘shuts remain tha ofthe Coaveation on te Right ofthe Child (198, heweaer the CRC ‘othe Canton). By now, more than 25 yer fe adopion the Convention i reanded 1 historical muletone. On the one hand the culinaion of « ificule power arugle ‘over deci, siming a improving children’ potion in sesety by intoducing ase of mis sum performance standards sist which Sots canbe held accountable. On the other ban, ivi the begining of» new pedagogical prance of how to deal with cilden, not only for Sates, bu for every member of scien "The CRC wis adopred without a yore bythe United Nations General Anembly on 29, | November 1989 (A/IRES/4/25). (entered ino fore lettin one ye later, on 2 September 1980, The Convention complemented and anchored che moral obligations with regent [Rights ofthe Clin leglly binding interstonal haan right docement, Mesnvhile the CCRC has been complemented by thee optional protacl, Two of thee, one tlatng to the involvement of ehldren in anied conf ad another tothe sl of chide, child pros sion and child pornography wee adopted on 25 May 2000 (A/RES/54/263) and entered ito fore in 2002, The dtd optional protocol providing» communications procedire wt adopted on 19 December 2011 (A/RES/56/138) ani entered inco force on Apr 14th, 2014, Today, ‘he CRC bas heen ated r acceded toby 195 Sats pases, which makes ithe mos widely 1 EeritsPfesor Ghent Unies. The aoe gril to Sar Lemiecs For her blpl ad [ecou nance in wpng he et ene wih Se see his Handbook, Te chop xn be ‘Enda cnpaion ote authors ner mot, nd area = an up oferheben 1932). °Vernet raed iterations! human rigs teat in the woud. With only Soh Sudan andthe USA Jacking in heli, the CRC aes 2 quis-univerl defition of cildeen ahs ‘The CRC did no appear out ofthe lu, however. In order to explain where dhe growing Scere in eiren' righ eae fom, sis cheper sar by dzcusing ro mco-soildevel- ‘opments lading t0 the adoption of the CRC: (1) a changing ehld-image and (2) the change overtime and space. Indeed, historians, socilogins and anthropologists, while dilferng in thee views, poine to vasiow, siguieanly diferent approaches tothe way in which adults and eile interact (Verbellen, 1982; Monsgomery. 2009; Liebe, 2012), ‘These changes are consequences not mich of individual, prychologica changes inthe child bt rer of changes on the maer-level of acer (exes) Elise, 200), This ine toca evoltion gradually caer indidal? expectations of thers fo changs. A grads ‘ange in bebavioue generated by the dominant expectations wil alo fet the individ personality (prego In other words, changing expectations of certsin groupe of people, ‘uch 2 cadzen, play a ercia olen he ay we deal with thers and dhs ao saluence cd imager. Ie therefore import to understand tit our image of children easiest, thus man-made Bowing fom our expecasons and that elder are not it elaleen by tre (Aas, 1979 (1062. Te Bice, eogading chileen 2s 2 sqrt soda eager i 2 rer secent phenomenon in che iobal North In esence, one an roughly sy tit until aboot the end ofthe Midale Ages, ‘ere was litle or no awareness of chien as "soda group" Given she very high mortality tare for children under sx or seve, thr msi task wa 0 sry fo eTeve. Aer hea, ey ‘dzappeazed into the world of adultsThs was elected inthe aw: chen simply did noe ext a eparte sci entegors and shee shay sid they were regaded st tei foe prvate propety snd tested ike any oder "gouds" Dasher, 1986). 2 nigh it he oc onsction feild mages psu inns by hoi reach in ‘he gol Noth oxy ty Phy Ps (971942). Howe the dino aloe 2d ‘uoley of chldhond hv highs Adee wap afbeang oni ce ns ey of (ve ealues ofthe tl South. As Montgomery On p 8) tase es tc ood ta pele map of Bi epanted fs aldiod doe aot bald i ay pace for eae ‘ire mage of eb ry "nt vl Beyond pobery an ere maiageontgoer, 200, 155) oto the etry whee cdf ve ory ery oat tht ch inh We ‘ald no be coed epe fd fr ny ya (Momtoonry 208 9 88).Retections on the CRC Is wa norunil the Elightenment (ightesth century), with ts Bellin the spremsy of Reston, dit clden were dicovered 35 socal group. Gradually chlden became f0 be considered tte tae’ athe fur penis ofthe Enlightened Socieyy They became tamara’ prspery” Ths enduring sess on "che fate” and “progr” turned chien slowly inc “ty” haan eins. This ats of notes Knowing. now-er capa, note dts cxeated sept scl eatin of sei immotariy in caniparison eo the ide of he fily-enowing, capable aul Gradual, “pectic” laws and “specific” insituions were inientd to force the new crlightned moral tk on elldren and those responsible for ther (paren, teachers) Indeed, around the tua of che ninewensh ceotiry poctcalysimuleaneotaly in almost all ‘Western countries, s-elled “child protection lava” snd "compulory educion” were inuo- duced, sjtematcally separating adle/pnems end chlden into deren regimes of soc ‘contol and roiation "The f-reaching macro-ocl deiniion of children a nto wat lng taken for granted ‘This had momerous conequences. For eiample, these specie lus and insitutions simuitancously cide eilden fom the aul world and faded them in 2 wodd oftheir ‘wn, Children ended up ina kind of ino, where they had to wat, earn and prepare the ‘elves fore” Hf. This nacro-ocal proces ned chidsen nto eet designed #0 achieve the ideal society of the fice Ie swith eh cild-nage eat the Global North enters the ‘ened conary. I fc, his ibo has nor Sgpoeaed unt toy. To che coneary in many {specs of chile’ ives, their no stans hs been ceinfrced (ae lio Reyaaert and Roose, Chapter) o prolonged, even beyond th ep age of majors, Naina legiation refers his stats of the ila an oj, ao Found in eseratonal rules” However, atm then on (nd ill ody) the inmage of childhood aan exlsively fare oriented view on children har been incresieply criscued. Arche begining ofthe wens enury, for example dhe Poish-ewiehpaedtrican Janusz Kcr (1919) n Bering, 2008) bus highlighted hat beste ofthis ditate ofthe “Rte”, hen gradally Toe thee ight to the prosen, Subsequent in 1962, when H. Kenie launched the notin ofthe batered child eyndrome (Kempe «al, 1962; Campe- Soman, 1974), the sts of norye-being was Cllenged for 2 varety of reson by diferens people fom various vectors and lee of fy. This became cleat doring he fine nterrstionl congees on children’ embudsvork (Verhellen and Spiesehset, 1999) ‘The aan aim ofthis schoo of thong, which become [known atthe "Children Rights Movement wa to have children considered 2 fal-edged cen. They segue for chileen tobe eegatded a ndvidsls with thee ow homan righ, tnd a competent to exercite there sgh independently. As wil be elbowed in gare so of dhs agen hin new lange of ildhood bese one of the Foundstion af he CI 2.2. The human rights project Aste introduction to this Handbook pons out, chien igh te understood 2 he human. rights of hldren, ce. fndamenal clin fhe reliason of aca jusie snd har dgaty forehilten, The right to partcpute in democratic decision-making to sutonamy and to exe Cis ight independently ar important specs of how to rae thes elms. The antelope ‘ew behind the childrens right movement and the changing child image cht accompanies, 3 The 1924 Gene Deshtionprculy nd ee exten the 1988 Deleon on he [igh of i Chee the ld ota mae ba ce This cel demons te temolgy ee Feil mat eg.” “6E Werelen in hat che ate human bois. Therein, childen are ended to all human right. CCilen do not need tobe gine rigs hey hav them. We adv only have vo ris thet, they ate bearers of right and ensure that the necentry toot to ene them at naa co all Sulton. Haman eights hive therefore become a point of ference inthe debe on chiens situation in society. Pom this pot f view ecopising that cide are bearers of ight form. prt of mach wider ehenge sha bogen to ake eect internationally especialy after World War Some characteristics ofthis human vghts peoject are dseused below 3. Generations of human rights ‘Modern ideas on human rghs grasa evolved as ofthe end ofthe cghteeath century. The fie gorrion of civil and posal human rights came sbout mainly throvgh the American (1776) and French (1785) rvolutors~ most nowy in the Feach Declaration ofthe Rights ‘of Man and ofthe Citizen (1789), which contained rational ights such theeght to Fe dom of opinion, feedom of the pres the right of aiembly, he eight to, ee. They could ‘be decribed 3th int dove weapons agains sovereign rlers The Site o sbi fom Imevfrence in the (pit) feof seins “The snd geetion of human eights daplays 3 fir more offi attade to the Ste [Aetion fom exaggerated inrereence (est generation) is now complemensed by an urgent, appeal to sen foci esponstley onthe part of the State Recognising enon sa a ‘ull on igs, such asthe righ co «minimum income, to work, to ea ea, 9 eds tion, to lure, et: means dhe State lst at Thi cond generation, dealing in enence with soil js, wasemhrinedin legally binding txts fr the stein the Rusian Consition (2918) igh afer the Resin revoieson (1917). In the las few decades, here has een more and more elk of epi til geneton of human rights. Thee are che s-eled sldrty rhs, sch a the vight to pace a heal cnvtonmeat, eutual inegriy, self-government, sitsinable development ct The oficial, ‘eterational acing point wa he 1992 Rio UN Weld Conférence onthe Environment ad Development (UNCED), reuing inter a, in international texts containing rules on the ‘hid generation of human righ: the Dedaton of Rio and die ation programe Agen 21. Debate about the actual shape and contest of hese new eight sl going on? Taking ‘he example ofthe right toa heathy environment, an increasing glabl reeopiton is to be noted with ever more new constiaions incorporating eis xght raging fom Kenya, he Dominican Republic (2010), Jamaica, Morocco and Sovth Sudan (2011), co Teland and “Zambin (pending. In addon, in 2012, the UN Human Rights Council appointed an nde pendent expert o report onthe were sgh vo «helty eavisonrcne (Baya, 2012)" 4. Internationalisation and regionalisation: From declarations to legally binding instruments ‘At Ge, human right, were fund in the Iegiltion and consitations of most (Wesern) coun tres. Althongh the ideas had gnnedinceratona acceptance, hun igh essined 9 matter 4 A/CONE 151/26 (VOL, 12 Auge 1952 5 A/RES/G1/255, St March 2010, plementation of Aged 2, he Programme for the Facer mplonematon o Agen 21 andthe utc te Wel Sumi on Seale Developetections on the CRC for national concern. The League of Nations 1920) wat dhe is el atempt a incernatona- atone aor concern, avoiding the reurrnce of wax characterise ofa maily recive (sie) approach: avoiding buman righ abuses (or chen this is exemplified by the CGeners Desation sdopred bythe League of Notions in 1924). le would eke ntl afer the Second World Wir for the iter taonaltion ofthe human right project relly eo take oF, ‘with the sting up ofthe United Nations (1945) This abo invalved change af cous, since ‘6 of now a prairie) approach predersinated. In fact, the UN Charter the inernstiond community eonsinsion) not only mentions human sights explicyaaluo empha tht respec for oman igh the bes usrancce for peace and democracy This means no ony fgg haan rights buss, bur also making effors to improve people’ ving conditions. te promt oman dignity fn his way forthe St tine humun right were tackled pro-csvly and recived sn international legal bass inthe Univeral Decbriton of Hunan Right (UDHR), approved on 10 December 1048, (A/RES/2172 I). in 1966, in the conten ofthe Cold We, the Univeral Dedlation was fucher eborated in ewo sepsrte,leplly nding teates the Invemational Covensne 08 conoaie Socal and Cultural Rights (ereer ICESCR) and she Lserntionsl Covenant on CGvil and Pliceal Rights (herefer ICCPR) (A/RES/ 2200 A (XXI). Togeter thee ee instrument (the Unveil Declaration andthe two Covenant) ae called The Beata Bal 0 Rigs Subsequent, more and snoxedelstions sod tresses have been adopted which refer ‘on dhe one hand to se ous (cdren, wore, reigns the tls, workers, persons with, Albis.) and on the other to spec poliens of intenaional concern (genocide, war cies, orate, acl discrimination Besides instruments with lab scope, one can ska iden ronal humo right sn ment. They are adopted by nd on bel of regional structures Europe, Aiea, Ametiss and ‘nresingly im Asia a wel) were there i, heoresaly a leas, a greater degree of shred ‘culture. Ia fc, the ambiioa of achieving univer Iman eights assuming his co be otible offen leads 2 vague ad inpesse wowing Gin onder to achieve contensis) making it ficult otra these vole into pecely defined postive rls fr the purposes of legislation, ‘The beweknown sad sos sential sional human sights instrument isthe 1950 European Connention for the Protein of Homan Right and Fundamental Freedoms ECHR)? The ECHR isthe Se iternsioal ueaty with binding enforeement mechanism, Iwas adopted on 4 November 1950 in Rome apd enered aco force in 1953. AI 47 member Stes ofthe Covnell of Europe ave tied or aceded coin ese of an alleged violation ‘of any of the right contained in he Evroqean Conversion, proceedings can be insted before the ECHR monitriag body, che European Court of Huan Rights in Strabourg, roid shat all national lg avenues bors ben ebro. The judgement or singe of ‘Goureae binding on the Menber Seer, The ECHR dels mainly with fire generson cv sd plat ight contained inthe 1948 UDHR. Is second generion counterpart tthe European level the Earp Soe! Char (ESC, opted in 1961 and revised in 1996), oni economic and social right" "Akhough in principle the ivi cultura economic, pli and socal gh specified in the ECHR, the BSC and the UN Covenins aso epply 19 cilden, in 1989 ehe international community decided to adopt» sqenie Consension onthe Rigs ofthe Cid alongside the fring Treates and Comvenions,weaing len explicitly as category of righ holds. 7 CETS, N05 1950-1953) BCETSN 163 (996-199),& Vervelan ‘There wa, and ails, dscusion wheber or not spare convention is cing of cildren fiom the general human rights ties’ The ides behind the adoption of x separ (Convention stems fiom the fac tht explicit meaues were deemed neceaty fo ease tht, childen could enjoy dee human sgh onan equal bss wih ther hua beings (De Graf, 1989). Wording ike uma diy 0 be rept appears several ines dvely and indvely in the subsangive atels ofthe CRC and inthe concluding oberasion of the Commitee Hlowever, the debate om childen gal) competence ta exer sere ight independently ismor yer over and questions often sas tt the ureflnet and/or the necety of separate convention on children’ rights De Guaf, 1989, 14-24). A he tims, in 198, the prac spplicacion of the extng teas eo aldren bad only jot begun and wit ot ye, ay is Incesingly cody, pre ofa ganeralhoman ight-bsed sproich within the work othe vai ‘ous Committees and Gourts both at UN and region lev! (among others, Kikely, 200) '5. The UN Convention on the Rights of the Chil social policy, ‘As mentioned the CRC evolved fons Dedation (1924) made up of» smal preamble and five poims, to 4 Declaration (1959) witha preamble and 10 principles, co & Convention (1989) with an extensive preamble (13 paraguphs) and no les than 54 aril. Te ales ean be subvied into thee main prs: Art. Is he brane atic, debi the rights ofthe child and the oblgnions on states pares: Are 42-45: predates for monioing the inple- mentation ofthe Convention; and Ar. 46-84: formalprovions governing the entry ino force ofthe Corwention Implications for 5.1. Preamble {A preamble explains the bickgtound and the seins fo che Consenion Hence the pea ble doesnot contin binding pencil, but gies 3 fame of eference, in the ight of which the artless co be interpreted. Armang oder provisions the preamble refers tothe Hotion ‘hac cideen should group in an aospere of happiness ove ae understanding (8), and that de child should be brow up inthe ptt ofthe sda proclaimed inthe UN Charts, and in patch in ee spre of pace, gi tolerance, feedom, oly and soidacny 7). 5.2. Characteristies ofthe Convention cower the rghngovried by the CRC Hate we a ll hoe aie dang with the night of chen or othe eligatons to thes. Considering ea sre separately in this contribution would be to mich and ha been done eewiere" Therefor, hea some genenl chanctersics of the CRC ae dicted, nowbly i comprohensiveney, ncad Ing che hoi image ofehidhood ie presen, and it gall binding ate 9 Fora quick overview of this dscusin se Hanon (2004) lo CREAGRR/CO/ 20 October 208 1 Foran are by ace commentary c he CRG Alen el 205-201, “a Fellections on te CR 5.2.1. Comprehersivanss 52.1.1. Fst and second generation of human tights together in one single document Te CRC ithe Sin usm rgh rey dt conbins the ro geeetons of man cigh irae Single tox. by which i expcdy emphasis the indy ef ham righ by Esning ci pli, economical ind clr igh together the CR bake deugh {he esonal sabivision of human rghs as epesnted in the Bil of Righs The nabs stem a i hampes 2 Sly edged respec for uman dignity fr exapple whos hee Gegores ate relly separated and/or seen in 2 hiertchial sachs Ieeas sven lade dec stions. South Afi, for example has sgned but ot cadGed the TCESCR wc ‘eas chat ely speaking, children havebeen aibuted more right than adel inthe ‘Src, chile in South Afi, which signed but dd no ye se the ICESCR. aie "igh upon reaching majority ge The spirit ofthe CRC implies that thea shouldbe neither dsinetion, or pioreybewween {fee grou ofits, On the eontrryby bringing thm iogetherin one tage neon it isthe aim winder Ut they ate of gal importance and what it more hoy ae a dependent sod inenicably ele, This has consequences for svi! ply and pecs de implementation phase ofthe Convention. Connecting bath genemions of ighs nea ears rss to conduct an integrated policy et intenionaly moves beyond tae anion ata ‘et minis, Thi new kind of policy cate alot of ificulies forthe Sats pes sad eg ee expt sins its ter habit sored aeeny "aces rile” Manors ie diferent nase ofthese generations cane “echnical” poblens, for inane the poh the sees oe oF wey-peovisions (rt, 5.21.2. Thwee Ps and four basic principles The Commies on te Righs ofthe Child 003, $12; here feed wo dhe Commie) the teaty-biedmionrig body ofthe CRC Gee blow 5.22) idee jude _ftsh ne obs rad by Sates parties von implementation and inepeeation pene ies toughout all the proviions ofthe CRC (CRC/C/S, HI3-1k CRE/CTSR, fos eh Golde by eee priniles of non nsninaon (Ar 2) Bewon 2005 Abarsen, 200, the bet tees ofthe eld (Art. 3) (Faensan, 2007; Op de Booch al, 2014) menial og seesormen: (Ae. 6) (Nowa, 2008) and repeat forthe views ofthe cid far 19) (ag tar, 200), the CR gras chien wih “igh coemens” (Lundy and Maton ota gh seing proton og again viene) provston eof adequate sandan af laep od rticaion (eg to expen onet opinion fed); of in shore the “ihe Py” nee commonly wd spony group the lileent aril opehe (ts eral, 199) Rather than spurting igh ito diferent eatgorte which would be In brsch ofthe comprehensive and holistic spr of the CRC," this scheme is deed wil a sears 12 In 2006. the Convention om the Rigs of esos with atts (CRED) flowed snd hai 1 amu workincorpomig both Got and cad prnerant of ae ag 13. Tiel sph sab wendonedin de eporang pda of ae Contes on th Riga 0.Metlen insight into dhe cope of children ight as ulated in che Convention, Hence, the three Ps have to be interpreted a niyo and inl inthe same way a8 te Convention ise no protection without provaions and paiition, no provi without protection 2nd prcipation, no paticipton without provions and protection. ration: Caefl reading of the CRC. reveals thatthe former principles of the 1959 DDedhation on the Right ofthe Childe repeated and extended and now made legal bind ing, These principles ae bite defied in ender to monitor them more sringeny, Thee is are specific for chiléten addressing thee special needs and especialy their vlneabily i comparison w adults. Pro‘ction righ aim to shield chaldeen fom the consequences of hail deciions of others, Besides the righ i, rival and development (Are 6) we Sind ‘pec igh tobe protected ont cern active nalteuent and neglect (Art 19 and Art 39, te ali Lenzer, Chapter 16 in thie Handbook), child Ibour (Ar. 32 sce alto Hason, Volonskis nd Al-Roesi, Chapter 18 inthis Handbool), other forms of exploitation (Act. 3) torere and deprivation of iberty (Art 37) sextl exploaion (Ar. 38), al, tacking snd absetion (At 35) ovis: Provision righ are about creating and guranceing aces to cern goods and services im order to ensure children’ healthy deveepmens, not only physi, bat ao ‘motionaly and spiritually These ince che right to education (AW. 28 and 29, ee abo ‘Quennenteds, Chapter 12 in dis Handoo} the righ to heal are (Art. 24,30 ako Kiely, CChopee 13 inthis Handbook), the eight co sci security (Ae. 26) he right eo an adequate Sande of ving (At 27) andthe sgt to zs lire, rereston and eutarl actvies (Ar S31). As they apear ao in oer instrament, these rights ae act new (with the exception of {he ans of eduestion in Are 29) Hower the CR renforce the recogition oF these rights as specced rights (Verhllen, 208. Parcpton:Patcpation rights ae bout igs to act and vo patcipate in society. Within this duster, one can ientify the righ to expres an opinion, citer personally or though 9 "epescnative and have de weight serbuted to dhs opinion (Ar. 12, 9c ao Til, Chapter Lin this Handboo},feedom of expresion (Arc 13), feedom of thought, conscience nd rljion (Are i), Geedom of sociation (Ar 15), proteon of pritacy (Ar. 16), sca °0 information (Ac. 17). 1n Ar 992, sipaating the dghr of the child ar o be sepanted fom harher paren, dhe right to apek snd be herd i even eaken further, recognising the child 3 ‘pro the proceedings, having the opporeuity to fly pstiipte and wake hi/hee views oom. 5.21.3. The holitic childhood imagein the RC [As we hive sen, prior tothe drafing af the Convention the image of childhood was mainly based on patenaici perceptions, Thee was litle o¢ no atention for children’ individual pesonaliy Jt alone fr any specie hana eights sted to that Price Cohen, 191, p60) Instead childeen were meray viewed asincompleze human beings, whose only eemedy Was""0 row up" (O'Neil, 1988, quoted in Freeman, 2007, 10). Ar has heen dete above, he [CRC councted this view but did nor make it dsppear ently Ar its option in 1989, he Convention inladed the dominane crrens of what had by then grown ott to ecame the inteznsional chideea’ sights movenent,proclining the simdineous inporeee sf bah Aspmdexy and suosomy for chide (Verein, 2006; Reyaaer oa, 201, 2) Hence, halisicaly aldesng cide as pecsoas in due entry the CRC. demonstrates thar there hasbeen growing cosena about the fc tht chien sould uo only becouse cred 2 pasive objets of protection, Lue should alo be rjared 2 ative bearers of righ, 50fllecions on the CRC ‘Replacing he ld the chill most be given. ."by"the cil asthe igh to." isa new pra ing. referring dive co che child sb apecily Ar. 12 i ey inthis changing intage ‘Via paragraph | of this article, the CRC i vcogniing che fe: thi the eid already hasan opinion snd no longer 2"20t-et™-opinion Fundamenaly this (ga) standard isteetng the ‘ecognision of every child ma meoingmaterand a ch he/she hn the righ ea epee sive oftheir age (rovidad dat the child has ceri level of mani) or che topic a band (provided tha concerns a mater aig the i. Alo notice tat vs the wording. be or due weight. his ighe speak i teferng toa eas the duty itn vo this pinion {nd to take it inc account. Thi impli hat chlen are seen as competent, ule es proven, that they are ao in wich cate ade andthe Sie have the obligation ro guide chem toward this competence "Ther ig omever, il os of conver about the (legal) apa of len to exerie these rights independent. The most findanentl, eurag argument spins autonomous | Fights for children shee supposed incompazence to take well-ounded decsons. According to thi iow hdr ae physically ntellecnally and emotionally not sicily mature and Ihc the necessary expercnce to mike a sation judgement on what is andi notin tei best, inzee, In the debate on clon rights cent role is played by this ~ often emaionlly i loaded ~ figlomperceraqunent The vaio, soundness and relevance ofthe incompetence argument te, however, dspated, for examplesn the vsw of chideen 3 "resliene” in sittin ffeaeme harp Boyden and Mana, 200) However evn among advocate of nereaed competence for children, diferent school of tough can be datinguisbed, Fe ofall thre a reform ced that rears the arguments fn fvourof incompetence a vai (reuapton of upton, bt i of che opinion that out society seriously undevesinates children’s capaci c tke well-founded, ational decisions The supporters ofthis view fel tat chien equ this pact nach younger thane gener ally sumed, and tha ss capa is gradually acquieed. Hence, dhey ague in fvout of lowering the ge of majority and of she grad] aequstion of right by chien” ‘Second, che sovclled chlden bestion st, radical tend in the dicosion on children’s competence, dipte the wliity ofthe incompetence argument on moral rovnds hei baie Driciple (the highest moral sandad) i eqaiy ofall peopl, Any fora of dicrimination, Inclading therefore discrimination on the bat of age considered moray wrong To them, trang children all human rigs ~ and ue capacity to exerci these — ithe only soliton." 'A third trend, the pragmatic of emncpaery tend, eof ineeasng imporsnee. Supporters seta primi or emancipatory view to the Uberationait perpective by wondering wy it ‘would net be poe, n practice, to grant cidren all right. Tht woul include che right to ‘rere hee righ autonomouy gmounptin of wiptone) unl it can be proven that eid ren ate incompetent (urs tetum principle) 10 exerctecxrsn right, and there i gener 14 A 12 (1) Se Paes aero thechild whe pb of eigen views fhe right to expe tbe ven ei all ates sing the child the wews he cid being ‘en dae wei Io acorn wit the ag apd ary athe cid) For i orp he hd tlm cue be provided the opty co be hed yj al asaseve proceedings fsctng he cette net or taghs mpm ra appropri body manner cote ah the reed rls of mond ew 15, Set tg: Relation 72 G9) om the lowering of the age of fll gl apa, adopted by he Genie of Wisco the Canc of Exe (1972) 0919 Soper 1972 1 “The sppes ound nus se the Anglo soos Counted wns ey ect raat smut of pbicason appear! ce, ang okey rl, 971 Cen, 198, Fao, 1974 ‘Soda, P60; Gol, 173; Gr and Co 1977 F197) s