Relation between Brahman and Jiva / Atman[edit]

The schools of Vedanta differ in their conception of the relation they see between Ātman / Jivātman and Brahman / Ishvara:[45]
According to Advaita Vedanta, Ātman is identical with Brahman and there is no difference.[46]
According to Vishishtadvaita, Jīvātman is different from Ishvara, though eternally connected with Him as His mode.[47] The
oneness of the Supreme Reality is understood in the sense of an organic unity (vishistaikya). Brahman / Ishvara alone, as
organically related to all Jīvātman and the material universe is the one Ultimate Reality.[48]
According to Dvaita, the Jīvātman is totally and always different from Brahman / Ishvara.[49]
According to Shuddhadvaita (pure monism), the Jīvātman and Brahman are identical; both, along with the changing empirically-
observed universe being Krishna.[50]
Pramana[edit]
Pramāṇa (Sanskrit: प्रमाण) literally means "proof", "that which is the means of valid knowledge".[51] It refers to epistemology in
Indian philosophies, and encompasses the study of reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true
knowledge.[52] The focus of Pramana is the manner in which correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows or does not
know, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.[53] Ancient and medieval Indian
texts identify six[c] pramanas as correct means of accurate knowledge and truths:[54]
Pratyakṣa (perception)
Anumāṇa (inference)
Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy)
Arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances)
Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof)
Śabda (scriptural testimony/ verbal testimony of past or present reliable experts).
The different schools of Vedanta have historically disagreed as to which of the six are epistemologically valid. For example, while
Advaita Vedanta accepts all six pramanas,[55] Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita accept only three pramanas (perception, inference and
testimony).[56]
Advaita considers Pratyakṣa (perception) as the most reliable source of knowledge, and Śabda, the scriptural evidence, is
considered secondary except for matters related to Brahman, where it is the only evidence.[57][d] In Vishistadvaita and
Dvaita, Śabda, the scriptural testimony, is considered the most authentic means of knowledge instead.[58]
]