Day 1 - Session 4 - Building SolutionsVE

08/11/2018
General Solutions
© 2016 Modulus Structural Engineering Ltd 1
Outline
• Foundations
• Multi‐storey steel frames
• Multi‐storey concrete frames
• Steel Portal frames
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Foundations
Clays
• Cohesive
• Can contain sand sized particles
• Often described as impermeable
• Increasing water content often reduces strength
• Change in volume due to changes in water content
• Under pressure (or load) will consolidate over time
• Long‐term strength is determined by the drained
condition
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Sands and gravels
Strength is
influenced by:
• Grading
• Density of the soil
The density of the soil
should be obtained
insitu and this is often
carried out with the
Standard Penetration
Test (SPT) and and “N”
value obtained
Measuring strength
paramters
•For cohesive soils the undrained cohesion cu is
measured and used for the design of foundations
•For non‐cohesive soils the SPT ‘N’ value is obtained
and a empirical relationship used to establish the
angle of internal friction φ’
SPT N Value Relative Density Peak φ’
0 – 4 Very Loose <30°
4 – 10 Loose
10 – 30 Medium Dense 30 ‐ 36°
30 – 50 Dense 36 ‐ 41°
>50 Very Dense 41 ‐ 44°
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Design of shallow
foundations – general
• Settlement often controls the design
• Foundations in clay silt and chalk should be founded at
450 mm or below to avoid damage due to frost action
• Foundations is shrinkable clay should be founded at
least 900 mm to protect against shrinkage/heave
• Foundations is shrinkable clay should be even deeper
when trees are present
• The groundwater level is crucial a high ground water
will:
• Reduce soil bearing capacity
• Potential make the structure buoyant
Shallow foundations
• The general design equation is:
• q = cNc + 0.5γBNγ + γDNq
• The first term relates to the cohesion of the soil (0 for non‐
cohesive soils)
• The second term represents the contribution of the self‐weight
to the soil mobilising friction strength
• The third term represents the surcharge effects
• There are many alternative methods for the determination of
the factors Nc , Nγ and Nq
• Also, there are many ways to consider the shape of the
foundation
• These are not considered in this presentation
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Shallow foundations ‐
cohesive
It is generally considered that a presumed allowable bearing

pressure is 2cu
(In the IStructE CM examination, cu appears to quoted as C)
Shallow foundations
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Estimating safe allowable bearing
pressure in non‐cohesive materials
Shallow non‐cohesive –
correction for presence of water
As noted the presence of water will reduce the soil
strength and the following correction factor can be used:
1 DW 
cw  1  
2 D B 
where:
Dw = Depth of water table below ground level
D = Depth of foundation below ground level
B = Breadth of foundation
As a quick design method a factor of 0.5 can be assumed
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Presumed allowable
bearing pressure for chalk
Bearing on rock
Presumed allowable bearing value
Types of rocks and soils (kN/m2)
Strong igneous and gneissic rocks in
sound condition 10 000
Strong limestones and strong
sandstones 4 000
Schists and slates 3 000
Strong shales, strong mudstones and
strong siltstones 2 000
These values are based on the assumption that the foundations are taken
down to unweathered rock.
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Piles in cohesive material
where
α = adhesion factor. For bored piles use 0.3 for heavily fissured clay
and 0.45 for firm to stiff clay. For driven piles use Nordland’s
adhesion factors (see Figure )
c = average undrained shear strength over length of the pile
As = surface area of the pile (π d l, where d = diameter of pile and l
= length of pile)
γs = factor of safety on the shaft (use 3.0)
cu = undisturbed shear strength at the base of the pile
Nc = Meyerhof’s bearing capacity factor (use 9.0)
Ab = area of the pile base (π r2)
γb = factor of safety on the base (use 2.5)
Example of Nordlund’s
adhesion factors
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Extract of design aid
Group Action – bored piles
in clay
• Qa,group = n Qa Ef
• where
• n = number of piles in group
• Qa = capacity of a single pile
• Ef = group efficiency ratio
 D  m (n  1)  n (m  1)
E f  1   tan1 
 s  90mn
• where
• D = pile diameter
• s = pile spacing (usually taken as 3D)
• m = number of piles in one direction
• n = number of piles in orthogonal direction
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Values for Ef for piles spaced
at three times diameter
Piles in granular soil
where
Nq* = pile bearing capacity factor (see Table)
Ab = area of the pile base
q´o = effective overburden pressure
As = surface area of the pile shaft in the granular soil
q´o,mean = mean overburden pressure
ks = horizontal coefficient of earth pressure (see Table)
d = angle of friction between the soil and the pile face
(see Table)
γf = factor of safety (2.5 to 3.0)
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Typical values of pile bearing
capacity factor, Nq*
Typical values for δ and ks
in granular material
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Piles in chalk
Qa = As Qa,s + As Qa,b
where
As = surface area of the pile shaft in the soil
Qa,s = allowable capacity of pile shaft skin friction
(see Table)
Ab = area of the pile base
Qa,b = allowable capacity of the pile base (see
Table)
Values for chalk
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Foundation options
Ground bearing slabs
• For normally loaded slabs up to 10 kN/m2:
• Use concrete Class C25/30.
• Slab should be placed on a slip membrane (e.g. 0.2 mm
polythene sheet).
• Use a well‐compacted sub‐base not less than 150 mm
thick.
• Isolation joints to be provided at the junction with
external walls and around internal columns
• Depth, reinforcement and joint spacing requirements
can be determined from Table on next slide
• Note that the thicker the slab the closer the movement
joints should be.
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Max spacing of movement joints
for ground bearing slabs (m)
Shallow foundation
options
• Strip footings
• Trench fill
• Pads
• Rafts
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Strip foundations
• Used to line loads (or evenly distributed point loads)
• Purpose is to distribute the load over a wider area
• Can be mass or reinforced concrete
Trench fill
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Pad foundations
• Most suitable for low‐rise framed buildings
Combined base
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Cantilever ground beam
Raft
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Buoyancy raft
Piled foundations
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Stone piles
Types of concrete pile
• Driven precast pile
• Driven cast insitu pile
• Bored pile
• Augered pile
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Driven precast concrete
pile
Advantages Disadvantages
Can be driven in long lengths Can be damaged during driving
Quality of pile can be inspected before Pile can be displaced if it hits
it is placed in the ground obstruction
Construction not affected by Actual length of pile is known only
groundwater when proved on site
Most appropriate in soft and Noise and vibration but piling rigs are
unobstructed soils constantly being improved
No removed soil to dispose of Driving force may determine pile
properties
Displacement of soil may damage
surrounding structures
Relatively large rig required
Driven cast insitu
A tube is driven into ground and filled with in-situ concrete
Length can be readily varied to suit Driving force may determine pile
actual ground conditions properties
Can be driven in very long lengths Relatively large rig required
Driven with a closed end therefore Noise and vibration but piling rigs
groundwater is excluded from hole are constantly being improved
Can be damaged during driving
Displacement of soil may damage
surrounding structures
Concrete cannot be inspected after
casting
Large diameters cannot be used
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Bored piles
End enlargements are possible in clay Risk of ‘necking’ in ‘squeezing’
ground conditions
Can be installed within a limited Concrete is not placed under ideal
headroom
conditions and cannot be inspected
Can be installed in large diameters Casing may be required in soils
lacking cohesion
Can be driven in long lengths Removed soil requires disposal
Soil removed can be inspected May require underwater concreting
Small rigs can be used Piling rigs may be large
Relatively quiet
Low vibration
Augered piles
Soil removed can be inspected Maximum 1200 mm pile diameter
The ground is continuously supported Concrete cannot be inspected after
by the auger pouring
Relatively quiet Maximum pile length around 30 m
Suitable for most soil types (excluding Limited length of reinforcement cage
boulders)
Low vibration Removed soil requires disposal
Can be installed with a limited Efficiency is dependant on regular
headroom supply of concrete
The CHD technique reduces volume of Auger may be impeded by relatively
removed soil and increases soil stiff soils
strength adjacent to pile shaft.
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Timber piles
• Timber piles are driven in a similar manner to concrete
piles
• Often used for temporary works
• Can be used when kept permanently wet eg marine
• Usually strengthened with steel hoops at the head or
toe
Steel piles
• Driven using percussion methods (smilar advantages and
disadvantages to driven concrete piles)
• Variety of shapes
• Often used for temporary works
• Corrosion protection often used
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Piled raft
• Piled rafts are used:
• When column layout is
irregular
• When many space between
pile caps is small
• For heavy loads
Pilecaps
There are two generally accepted methods for
pilecap design:
• Using bending theory, in which case they may be
designed as a beam
• Using truss analogy
For larger pilecaps bending theory should be used
and the pile reactions can be calculated using the
details on the next slide
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Pile force in large pile caps
Truss analogy for 2 and 3
pile caps
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Truss analogy for 4 pile
caps
Pile cap layout
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Pile cap layout
Appropriate foundation
solutions
Soil conditions Suitable Comments
foundations
Rock, hard sound Shallow Avoid the base of the foundation being
chalk, sand or gravel foundations: below groundwater level .Minimum
to great depth strips, pads, depth to underside of foundation to
rafts avoid frost heave: 450 mm. Deep
foundation may be required where
there are uplift conditions
Uniform firm and Shallow Minimum depth to protect against
stiff clays to great foundations: shrinkage/heave – 900 mm.
depth, without strips, pads, Trench fill can be economic
significant trees in rafts
the vicinity
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solutions
Soil conditions Suitable foundations Comments
Uniform firm and stiff Options: Refer NHBC for strip
clays to great depth, 1. Piles foundation depths in
where vegetation could proximity of trees. Use
2. Deep trench fill
impact on the suspended floors with
shrinkage/ expansion 3. Rafts void formers
of the clay 4. Piers
Firm clay to shallow For lightweight structures, For shallow
depth over soft clay to strips, pads or rafts may be foundations ensure the
great depth appropriate For heavy load is distributed over
structures deep a large enough area for
foundations will be the soft clay to support
required it
solutions
Soil Suitable foundations Comments
conditions
Loose sand Options: Vibration and groundwater
to great 1. Raft changes can induce settlement
depth after construction
2. Ground improvement with
shallow foundations Driven piles will increase the
density of the sand
3. Piles
Soft clay Options: Strip foundations may need
1. Piles reinforcement. Service entries
into building should be flexible.
2. Wide strip foundation
Rafts may not be suitable for
3.Rafts highly shrinkable soils
4. Ground improvement with
shallow foundations
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solutions
Soil
conditions Suitable foundations Comments
Mining and Slip‐plane raft Piles not suitable
subsidence
areas
Sloping site Foundations to suit Consider overall stability as well as local
soil conditions but stability. Groundwater will increase
the effects of the instability of site
slope should be
considered
solutions
Soil
conditions Suitable foundations Comments
Peat Options: Suitable piles: bored in‐situ with
1. Piles casing, driven in‐situ, driven
precast. Allow for drag on piles
2. Ground improvement
caused by peat consolidation.
Soils may be acidic
Fill Options: Specially selected and well
1. Piles compacted fill will have greater
load bearing capacity. Service
2. Wide strip foundation
entries into building should be
3. Rafts flexible. Consider effects of
4. Ground improvement contaminants in the fill
with shallow foundations
5. Piers
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solutions
Soil conditions Suitable foundations Comments
Clay, increasing in Piles preferred, but a raft may Settlement is likely
strength as depth be suitable for a basement to govern the pile
increases (from soft to design
stiff clay)
Soft clay over rock at Use deep foundations Negative skin
depth friction may add to
the loads on piles
Dense sand or stiff clay Deep foundations generally
over layer of soft clay, required except for light
over stiff clay to great loads. Ground improvement
depth technique could be used with
shallow foundations.
solutions
Suitable
Soil conditions foundations Comments
Site with high All foundation In sand and gravel keep foundations
groundwater types may be above groundwater level Consider
level appropriate uplift forces. Stability of excavations
Dewatering may be should be considered. Bored piles
used, but consider require casing or support fluid
affects on Continuous flight auger piles suitable.
surrounding Ground conditions may be aggressive
structures
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Steel options –
multi‐storey
Principle to consider
• Consider fabrication and construction during design
• Standardise
• Interfaces often critical (steel rarely used without
some concrete)
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Merits of steel floor systems
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Steel frame solutions
Solution Span
Diaphragm action
Services distrib’n
Structural depth
Exposed soffit
Robustness
Self‐weight
Deflection
Partitions
Vibration
Economy
Speed
Holes
Max
Min
Composite & metal deck PR 6 12            
SE 6 15      
Integrated 5 7.5            
     
Cellular & metal deck PR 9 12            
SE 10 18       
Composite with hollowcore PR 10 18            
HC 6 12     
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Concrete solutions for
floors
Span to depth
Floor type Span range (m) ratio of beam
Composite & metal deck – primary 6‐12 18
Composite & metal deck – secondary 6‐15 24
Integrated 5‐7.5 20
Cellular & metal deck – primary 9‐12 20
Cellular & metal deck – secondary 10‐18 22
Composite with hollowcore ‐ beam 10‐18 25
See concrete
Composite with hollowcore ‐ unit 6‐12 notes
Remember to add the depth of any slab supported above the beam
It is also good practice to allow for permanent deflections on long-
span beam, these can be in the order of 50 mm
Suitable for loadings up to 5 kN/m2
Services integration
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Services integration
Fire resistance
• Fire resistance can be provided by:
• Intumescent paint
• Gypsum boarding
• Cementitious sprayed coating
• Fire engineering
• Partial encased section
• Water filled hollow sections
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Preliminary sizing
Span to depth ratios for different beam solutions
Floor = span/20
Non‐composite primary beams
Roof = span/25
Floor = span/25
Non‐composite secondary beams
Roof = span/30
Span/16 to span/18
(note depth is steel beam plus slab)
Composite beams
Long span solutions tend to be shallower,
up to span/20
Composite beams and
metal deck
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Composite beams and
metal deck
• Initial sizing for primary beams
Composite beams and
metal deck
• Initial sizing for secondary beams
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Composite beams and
metal deck
• Health and safety – Safe working platform?
• Buildability – Mixes trades
• Robustness – Check tied at detailed design stage
• Aesthetics – Should be covered‐up, columns and beams
need to be concealed and can be instrusive
• Acoustics – May be adequate
• Vibration – Should be checked, could be a concern
• Services ‐ Small holes can be formed, clash with steel
beams?
• Fire resistance ‐ Protection of steel beams required,
decking spans may be limited
• Structure – Lightweight, small column easier to conceal
Composite decks
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Metal decks – initial sizing
Metal decks – fire
resistance
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Intergrated beams and
slab
• Aesthetics – Should be covered‐up, columns and beams need
to be concealed and can be instrusive
• Acoustics – Usually adequate
• Vibration – May be a concern, but spans are often limited
• Services – Co‐ordination required to integrate structure and
services
• Fire resistance ‐ Protection of steel beams may be required,
• Structure – Minimises floor depth, structurally not
particularly efficient
slab
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slab
Cellular beams and metal
deck
• Aesthetics – Should be covered‐up, columns and beams need
to be concealed and can be instrusive
• Acoustics – Usually adequate
• Vibration – May be a concern, but spans are often limited
• Services – Co‐ordination required to integrate structure and
services
• Fire resistance ‐ Protection of steel beams may be required,
• Structure – Minimises floor depth, structurally not
particularly efficient
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Cellular beams and metal
deck
Web openings
• Options:
• Cellular beams with multiple circular openings.
• Castellated beams with multiple hexagonal openings.
• Fabricated or hot rolled steel beam with isolated
openings.
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Web openings ‐ limitations
Composite beams and
precast
• Health and safety – Maximises offsite construction
• Buildability – Fast construction
• Robustness – Requires specific consideration
• Aesthetics – Not generally exposed
• Acoustics – Adequate performance
• Vibration – Usually not a concern
• Services – Can pass through beam webs, holes through
slabs can be accomodated
• Fire resistance – Protection of beams required
• Structure – Very efficient, but overall structural zone can
be high
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Composite beams and
precast
Columns – options
• Open – section
• Closed – section
• Composite sections
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Open sections
• Orientate so that primary beams frame into flange
• But framing into web reduces moment?
• Simplest solution
• Connections easier
• Use same serial size at all floor levels (splices are
simpler)
• Use lengths 2 or 3 times storey height
• The following typical sizes can be used
Preliminary sizing ‐
columns
Typical column sizes for small and medium span composite floors
Number of floors supported by
Universal Column (UC) serial size
column section
1 152
2 ‐ 4 203
3 ‐ 8 254
5 ‐ 12 305
10 ‐ 40 356
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Scheme sizes for braced
frames
No of storeys Column Grid
6 x 6 6 x 9 6 x 12 6 x 15
4 203 UC 86 254 UC 132 254 UC 167 305 UC 198
6 254 UC132 254 UC 167 305 UC 198 305 UC 240
8 305 UC 240 305 UC 198 305 UC 240 356 UC 235
10 305 UC 198 305 UC 240 356 UC 340 356 UC 340
BOLD /ITALIC– use S355 steel
Imposed load – 4 kN/m2, Permanent load – 4 kN/m2
Partially encased H‐
sections
• Increases compressive resistance
• Increase fire resistance
• More complicated to install
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Concrete filled hollow
sections
• Often for architectural reasons
• Increases compressive resistance
• Increase fire resistance
No of storeys Column Grid
6 x 6 6 x 9 6 x 12 6 x 15
4 219 x 10 219 x 12.5 273 x 12.5 323 x 12.5
6 219 x 12.5 273 x 16 323 x 16 355 x 16
8 273 x 12.5 232 x 16 355 x 20 406 x 16
10 323 x 12.5 355 x 16 406 x 20 457 x 20
Diameter (mm) x thickness (mm)
Imposed load – 4 kN/m2, Permanent load – 4 kN/m2
Column splices
• Normally placed 1m above floor
• Unless machined ends are used, loads are transferred
through bolts
• Countersunk bolts may be necessary
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Steelwork quick design
methods
1. Flexural design
2. Deflection
3. Shear
4. Axial design
5. Composite beams
Shear is rarely a problem in buildings – exception is
transfer structures.
Flexural design
Steel beams can fail due
to lateral torsional
buckling
• Using the correct
effective length is
fundamental to the
design
• Refer to SCI P360
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End restraints
Both flanges
FULLY restrained
– factor 0.7
Both flanges
PARTIALLY
restrained –
factor 0.8
End restraints
• Flanges FREE – factor 1.0
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End restraints
Compression
flange only FULLY
restrained –
factor 0.75
Compression
flange only
PARTIALLY
restrained –
factor 0.85
Bottom supported beams
• Where there is a positive connection:
• Leff = 1.0L +2h & Leff = 1.2L +2h for top flange loading
• Where there is no positive connection:
• Leff = 1.2L +2h & Leff = 1.4L +2h for top flange loading
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Other situations
• Further guidance is given for:
• Cantilevers
• Notched beams
• Beams with intermediate restraint
• Portal frames
• Beams supporting decking/roof sheeting
• Beams supporting concrete slabs
• Others situations
“Blue book”
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“Blue book”
“Blue book”
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Factor c1
Deflections
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Deflection
Member Limit for imposed loads
Cantilevers Length/180
Beams carrying plaster or other
brittle finish Span/360
Other beams Span/200
𝟓𝑾𝑳𝟑
• 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝟑𝟖𝟒𝑬𝑰
𝟓𝑾𝑳𝟑
•𝑰𝒓𝒆𝒒
𝟑𝟖𝟒𝑬 𝒍𝒊𝒎
Shear
Shear is rarely a problem in buildings – exception is
transfer structures.
𝒇𝒚
𝑨𝒗
𝟑
𝑽pl,Rd
𝜸𝑴𝟎
where:
Av is the shear area of the section
fy is the design strength of the material
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Axial loading
• For column design a minimum design moment should always be
included
• This moment is the beam reaction 100 mm from the face of the
column
• It will generally be conservative to design the column using the
following interaction (assuming effective length is the same for
both axes):
𝑵𝑬𝒅 𝑴𝒚,𝑬𝒅 𝑴𝒛,𝑬𝒅
𝟏. 𝟎
𝑵𝒃,𝒛,𝑹𝒅 𝑴𝒃,𝑹𝒅 𝑴𝒄,𝒛,𝑹𝒅
• For biaxial bending determine all 6 unknowns, resistances can be
looked up from tables for compressive resistance and bending
resistance
• For uniaxial bending there are two approaches use combined
table
Effective length in multi‐
storey frames
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Axial resistance – biaxial
bending
Axial resistance – biaxial
bending
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Axial resistance – uniaxial
bending
Composite beams by hand
You could use a rule of thumb – composite actions
gives at least 35% more capacity from beam.
Also note:
1. Secondary beams are fully restrained
2. Primary beams are only restrained at positions of
secondary beams
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Multi‐storey – Concrete
Floor Options
Resources
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Concrete Solutions for floors
Table 2.1
Concrete Solutions for Floors
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Flat slabs
One‐way slabs
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Two‐way slabs
Hybrid concrete
construction
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What is hybrid concrete
construction?
Precast Precast or insitu Insitu
Economic for repetitive Inherent fire resistance Economic for bespoke
elements areas
Long clear spans Durability Continuity
Speed of erection Sustainability Inherent robustness
Buildability Acoustic performance Flexibility
High‐quality finishes Thermal mass Short lead‐in times
Reduced skilled labour on Low vibration Services coordination
site characteristics later in programme
Reduced propping on site Mouldability Locally sourced materials
Consistent colour Prestressing
Accuracy
Which floor option to
choose?
Speed of construction
flat slab, tunnel form, hybrid options
Long span
post‐tensioned, two‐way slab, hollowcore, double‐T units
Off‐site construction
precast or hybrid construction
Heavy loads
two‐way slab
Low deflection/vibration
deep sections eg ribbed slabs, hollowcore units
continuous elements
Minimum storey height
post‐tensioned
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floors
Span Min Span to depth ratio
range tk Single End Multi‐ Cantil
Floor type (m) (mm) span bay span ‐ever
Flat slab 6‐9 200 23‐28
Post‐tensioned flat slab 7‐12 200 26‐40
Flat slab with drops 6‐12 200 23‐30
Flat slab with flared column heads 6‐12 200 21‐31
Waffle slab 6‐12 250 14‐23
Biaxial voided slab 7‐12 150 20‐35
One‐way slab 4‐11 150 23‐27 27‐32 7‐10
Beams ‐ ‐ 15‐20 17‐26 6‐10
Slab supported by band beams 4‐11 150 27‐40 33‐40
Band beams 6‐12 250 13‐24 14‐24
Ribbed slab 6‐12 250 17‐24 17‐27
Lattice girder slab 4‐9 150 20‐30 23‐35
Hollowcore slab 4‐16 150 24‐45
Precast double tee units 8‐16 300 17‐26
Two‐way slab 4‐12 150 25‐34 29‐39 ‐
floors
Notes
1. The span‐to‐depth values given encompasses a range loads from 2.5 kN/m2 to 10
kN/m2 a lower value should be used for the higher loads.
2. The span‐to‐depth values given covers a range of spans, as the span increases a
lower value should be used. The combination of high load and long span may be
outside the range of span‐to‐depth values given and a more detailed check should
be carried out.
3. For flat slabs, punching shear must also be checked, particularly for small columns
the slab depth may need to be increased to be economic.
4. Hollowcore units are often supplied to fixed depths, which can vary depending on
supplier.
5. The use of composite toppings on hollowcore and double units could reduce depth
of the units required.
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Graph
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Table
Scheme design – deflection
Simple calculations.
•Concrete cracks and creeps – which significantly
increases long‐term deflection. The following can be
used for initial calculations:
• For slabs Icracked = ½ Igross
• For beams Icracked = bd 3/12 (where d = effective depth)
• Use long term elastic modulus to allow for creep
• ELT = EST /(1 + )
• ELT ≈ 1/3 EST for storage loads
• ELT ≈ 2/3 EST for short term loads
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Appropriate I‐values –
Slabs
Thickness Igross Icracked
mm mm4 mm4
150 281 141
175 447 223
200 667 333
225 949 475
250 1302 651
300 2250 1125
Appropriate I‐values –
Beams
Width Depth (mm)
(mm) 600 750 900 1200 1500 1800 2100
300 5.4 10.5 18.2 43 84 146 232
450 8.1 15.8 27.3 65 127 219 347
600 10.8 21.1 36.5 86 169 292 463
750 13.5 26.4 45.6 108 211 365 579
900 16.2 31.6 54.7 130 253 437 695
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Appropriate E‐values
Strength Eshort ELT‐store ELT‐var
MPa (N/mm2) GPa (kN/mm2) GPa (kN/mm2) GPa (kN/mm2)
20 30 10.0 20.0
25 31 10.5 21.0
30 33 10.9 21.9
35 34 11.4 22.7
40 35 11.7 23.5
45 36 12.1 24.2
50 37 12.4 24.9
Columns – initial sizing
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Notes to graph
• Suitable for concrete class C30/37 (Higher strength will
reduce the section sizes)
• Suitable for internal columns, for following factors can
be used to increase the vertical loads:
• Edge column – 1.5
• Corner column – 2.0
• Columns are not slender and are braced (i.e. not suitable
for moment frames)
Columns – scheme design
• Design considerations:
• Lowest storey column has highest axial load
• Top corner column has highest eccentric load
• Try to keep same structural size for a number of storeys
• High strength concrete will dramatically reduce column
size
• Availability?
• Column/slab interface?
• Maximise reinforcement in lowest columns to minimise
size
• Blade columns can be formed
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Portal Frames
Typical portal structure
1. Steel roof
cladding
2. Primary
structural
frame
3. Side rails
4. Purlins
5. Wall
Cladding
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Typical building
• Purlins are used to support the cladding system
• Commonly spaced at 1.5 to 2.0 m centres
• Purlins span 5 to 8 m – sets the spacing of the frames
Frames have span range of 15 to 60 m (20 to 30 m typical)
• Usually designed using plastic design principles
• Relies on purlins for lateral restraint
Bracing options
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Frame variations
Frame variations
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Frame variations
Mezzanine floor
• The portal frame stabilises the mezzanine floor
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Annex structure
• Avoids haunches in office space
• Shortens rafter spans
• If ‘lean‐to’ the portal frame stabilises the mezzanine floor
Propped portal frame
• Useful for large spans (>50 m)
• Reduces rafters size
• Reduces thrust at base
• Changes the design approach
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Portal terminology
Typical geometry
• A single‐span symmetrical portal frame (see Figure 3.5)
has typically:
• A span between 15 m and 60 m (20 to 30 m is the most
efficient)
• An eaves height between 5 and 10 m (5 to 6 m is the most
structurally efficient)
• A roof pitch between 5° and 10° (6° is commonly adopted)
• A frame spacing between 5 m and 8 m
• Haunches in the rafters at the eaves and if necessary at the
apex.
• Use of haunch is a balance of member costs and fabrication
costs
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Actions
• Typical permanent loads are:
• Self‐weight 0.2 to 0.4 kN/m2
• Steel roof sheeting 0.07 to 0.12 kN/m2
• Insulation 0.01 to 0.07 kN/m2
• Purlins 0.03 kN/m2
• Service loads allow 0.1 to 0.25 kN/m2
• Variable actions:
• For access: 0.6
• Snow To be determined (asymmetric loading)
• Wind Including uplift and dominant openings
Member design
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Restraint to rafter
• Purlins can be used for restraint
• The top compression flange is easily restrained
• Purlin may offer intermediate restraint between
torsional restraints
• Full torsional restraint is only provided by a rafter stay
with the bottom flange is in compression
Restraint to bottom flange
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Restraints
Restraints
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Uplift conditions
•Usually plastic hinges will not form, as the bending
moments are smaller
Column design
• Usually UB sections are used as
bending is the dominant action
• The section should be checked
for:
• Combined bending and axial load
• Shear
• Web bearing and buckling
• Plastic hinge formation
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Base fixity
• Three options
1. Pinned base
• Simple
• Conservative
• Gives more deflection
2. Fixed base
• Less conservative
• Base must be able to resist applied moment
3. Semi‐rigid base
• Most realistic
• More difficult to model
• Base must be able to resist applied moment
Pinned bases
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Moment bases
Horizontal forces
Large horizontal forces are developed at the base
these can be resisted by:
• Passive soil pressure
• Tying column into the floor slab
• Providing a tie across full width of building
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Lateral resistance
Bracing
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Bracing
Bracing
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Side bracing
Portalised bracing
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Further considerations
83

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08/11/2018

It is generally considered that a presumed allowable bearing

• Flanges FREE – factor 1.0

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