Chapter no 1:

Introduction to biology
Two kingdom system
It was given by pioneer biologists (most authorized form of two kingdom
system given by Carolos Lineous in (1708-1778)).
Two kingdom systems are based on cell-wall and chloroplast.
1. Kingdom Plantae
Those organisms which contain cell-wall with or without chloroplast.
Example; bacteria, cyanobacteria fungi and plants
2. Kingdom Animalia
Those organisms which lack cell-wall and chloroplast.
Example; protozoa (unicellular) and metazoa (multicellular).

Defects
1. Bacteria and cyanobacteria both are prokaryotic while plants are
eukaryotic so both cannot be placed in same kingdom.
2. Fungi are different than plants in composition of cell-wall and
mode of nutrition so both cannot be placed in same kingdom.
3. Euglenoid like organisms cannot be placed kingdom Animalia
because they contain chloroplast so they are autotroph.

Five kingdom system

It was given by American biologist Robert Hook Whittaker in 1969.
 Five kingdoms are classified on two basis.
1. Level of organization
a. Prokaryotic cell (unicellular)
b. Eukaryotic cell (unicellular and multicellular plant fungi
and animal)
2. Mode of nutrition
a. Autotroph (photosynthetic):- Those who are chlorophylls.
b. Hetrotroph (non- photosynthetic):- Those who are non-
chlorophylls. Hetrotroph are of two types.
 i. Absorptive Hetrotroph
ii. Ingestive Hetrotroph
1) Kingdom Monera
It includes prokaryotic organisms which feed by various
methods (autotroph and hetrotroph).
Example; bacteria and cyanobacteria (virus)
2) Kingdom Protista
It includes eukaryotic unicellular fungi, plant and animal
which feed by various methods.
Example; yeast, slime mold, protozoa, unicellular algae as a
plant.
3) Kingdom Fungi
They are eukaryotic multicellular contain chitineous cell
and their body is composed of threads (hyphae) called
mycelium.
Example; oomycota (water mold), Zygomycota (bread
mold), Ascomycota (common mold)
4) Kingdom Plantae
Eukaryotic multicellular which contain cell-wall
(cellulose) and chloroplast (photosynthetic)
Example; Thalophyte (multicellular algae), Bryophyte (non-
vascular plant), Tracheophyte (vascular plant)
5) Kingdom Animalia
Eukaryotic multicellular which lack cell-wall and
chloroplast.
They are Ingestive hetrotroph.
Example; metazoa (multicellular animal)
Snake’s or Defects of Whittaker’s five kingdom
system;
 The major snake of Whittaker’s scheme is that he
considered protozoa as a animal and algae as a plants.
So he place protozoa and unicellular algae in kingdom
protista and multicellular algae in kingdom plantae.
Where they show many similar characters but they are
 different in variety of characters. So they like animal
and plant but they are not animal and plant.
 Algae and plant are different in mode of reproduction.
Algae don’t protect their embryo while plants protect
their embryo so called embryophyte.
 Protozoa are unicellular while animals are
multicellular contain two types of cells.
1. Somatic Cell (cells which form organs)
2. Germ Cell (cell which form gametes for sexual
reproduction)

So all animals reproduce sexually while in some

protozoan reproduce sexually while other doesn’t
reproduce sexually. So they are like animal but not a
animal.

 Slime mold and water mold contain centriole and

cellulose in their cell wall while fungi lack contains
cellulose and centriole. So they are like fungi but not
fungi.
 Yeast is similar to fungi (Ascomycota) in cell
nutrition and reproduction. So they are true fungi and
it is thought that they evolve from multicellular.
 Viruses can’t be placed in any kingdom because they
are at border line of living and non living.
 So they considered protista as a rag bag of five
kingdom system which include those organisms which
can’t fit in five kingdoms. So it includes animal fungi
and plant.

Modified Five Kingdom System

1. Kingdom Prokaryotae (Monera)
It includes prokaryotic organisms which feed by various
methods (autotroph and hetrotroph).
Example; bacteria and cyanobacteria
 2. Kingdom Protoctista (Protista)
It include unicellular and some multicellular fungi plant
and animal. So it includes those organisms which can’t fit
in any of five kingdoms. So this is known as rag bag.
Example; algae, slime mold and water mold, protozoa.
3. Kingdom Fungi
It includes eukaryotic organisms except yeast. They
contain cell wall of chitin and they are absorptive
hetrotroph.
Example; Zygomycota and Ascomycota.
4. Kingdom Plantae
It includes eukaryotic multicellular organisms and
chlorophylls. They are autotroph and embryophyte.
Example; bryophyte and Tracheophyte.
5. Kingdom Animalia
It includes all multicellular and eukaryotic organisms
which lack cell wall and chlorophylls. They all contain
sexual method of reproduction.

Level of Organization:
i. Atomic Particles: (e-, p+ and no)
ii. Atom or Element
iii. Molecule or Compound
a. Inorganic: Those compounds in which carbon is not directly link
with hydrogen. They are produced by living and spontaneous.
b. Organic: Those compounds in which carbon is directly link with
hydrogen. Those compounds which are produced by living.
i. Monomer (Micromolecule): simple and can’t perform vital
activity.
Example; amino acid, glucose, fatty acids, nucleotide.
ii. Polymer (Macromolecule): Complex and formed by
combination of monomer it perform vital activity.
Example; protein, cellulose, lipid and nucleic acid
iv. Organelles
 Species: Group of similar organisms which can
interbreed and produce similar fertile offspring.
They are composed of polymer. Endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, lysosome, plastid, vacuole are composed of lipoprotein.
Ribosome and chromosome are composed of nucleic protein while
centriole and cytoskeleton are composed of protein.
v. Cell
It is combination of organelles and quality of life appears at level of
cell.
vi. Tissue
Group of similar cells perform particular function.
Example; epithelium, muscle, connective, nervous tissues
vii. Organ
Different tissues combine to form organs.
Example; brain, spinal cord, alimentary canal, glands etc.
viii. Organ System
When work in perfect co-ordination is called organ system.
Example: nervous system, digestive system, respiratory system
ix. Complex Organism
Organism contains organ system.
Example: human, loin, elephant etc

x. Population
Single species in a area.
xi. Community
When different or several species or population in a area.
xii. Ecosystem
Interaction \ Interdependence between living and nonliving
environment.
xiii. Biosphere
Collection of all ecosystems or Giant ecosystem on the earth.

Biological Methods:
It is method which is used to resolve biological problem
 1. Observation
By using our five senses to get knowledge about something.
Scientists use microscope
“Plasmodium is present in the malarial patient.”
2. Data Collection
3. Hypothesis
Intelligent guess or prediction or statement without evidence.
“Plasmodium is cause of malaria.”
4. Reasoning
a. Inductive Reasoning
Reasoning use to synthesize hypothesis specific to general.
b. Deductive Reasoning
It is logical explanation of hypothesis If-Then reasoning
(general to specific).
5. Experimentation
For verify hypothesis scientist do experiment.
100 control group and 100 malarial patient.
6. Result\Conclusion
All malarial patient contain plasmodium while normal lack
plasmodium.
7. Theory
Statement based on evidences.
8. Law
Theory can be rejected but law can’t be rejected.

Applications of Biology:
1. Vaccination by Immunization
It was introduced by Edward Jenner in 1795 (vacca-cow). It contain weak
pathogen or product of pathogen or W.B.C’s. Vaccine are of two types.
a. Long term
b. Short term
2. Antibiotics
Chemical use in low concentration either to kill or reduce growth of
pathogen.
 It was discover by Alexander Flemming in 1940 from fungus called
Pencillium notatum (Pencillium).
Flory and Chain isolation and large scale protection of antibiotics so
these three scientists receive noble prize in 1945.
3. Radiotherapy
Radioactive rays use to kill the cells.
4. Chemotherapy
Chemical administrate use to kill the cell of body.
5. Hydroponics
It was a technique by which terrestrial plants can grow in water culture
called hydroponics and soilless plants.
Advantages
 It is use to research upon mineral nutrients.
 It avoids soil diseases and weads (extra plants/ wild plants).
 It reduces requirements of soil.
 Plants can grow in deserts (infertile soil).
6. Cloning
The process of identical copies of genetic material (DNA) or complete
organisms.
Natural Cloning
Identical twins, triplets, asexual reproduction (regeneration and
vegetative propagation), cancer and tumor (cancerous cells lack ability of
growth).
By using cloning we can generate new cells and even organs in the
future.
By using cloning we can generate medicines like insulin, growth
hormones and anti-thrombin (clotting factor).