Cobalt

Cobalt in the form of vitamin B12 is required by animals and humans. In plants it
does not appear to be required by non-legumes. It is essential for nitrogen fixation by
Rhizobium and thus is indirectly required by legumes.

In practical agriculture its importance lies in the ability of different soils to supply
sufficient of the element for efficient nitrogen fixation by clovers on the one hand and
for ruminant nutrition on the other. In Ireland, soils with inherently low levels of the
element are formed mainly from acid igneous rocks, e.g. granites and rhyolites, from
sedimentary rocks such as sandstones and conglomerates and from metamorphic
rocks as typified by quartzites, schists and gneisses. Peat soils are also inherently
low in cobalt. Levels of cobalt in limestone soils .are very variable depending on the
purity of the parent rock. Contents in shale soils range from low to quite high,
depending on whether the shales are arenaceous (sandy) or argillaceous (clayey).
Cobalt levels in Irish soils formed from a variety of parent materials are shown in
Table 1 (Fleming, 1978).
Fig. 1. Soils of low cobalt status

Table 1: Cobolt (mg/kg) content of soils formed from different parent materials
 Parent material No. of soils Range Mean

Basic Igneous 7 6.3-17.0 12.8

Mica schist 5 10.4-14.2 12.6

Shale 56 1.6-18.4 8.2

Limestone 278 1.8 - 17.5 6.0

Sandstone 75 0.5 -13.8 3.6

Gneiss 6 0.2 -4.4 2.4

Granite 79 0.3 - 17.5 2.1

Blown Sand 19 0.2 - 1.0 0.4

The soil samples were received from agricultural advisers. Sampling depth was 10 cm.
Cobalt was extracted from soils with concentrated HCl. Thus the figures are essentially
total values.

Distribution of low cobalt salts and the effect of

manganese on cobalt availibitly
Low-cobalt soils (less than 5 mg/kg) have been mapped by Walsh et al. 1952 (Fig.
1). This serves to pinpoint areas where the risk of cobalt deficiency in stock is high.
Such maps however do not reveal the true extent of risk areas. There are many soils
where total cobalt contents are quite high but where the availability to the pasture is
very poor. This is particularly apparent in limestone and shale soils and the factor
primarily responsible is the high content of soil manganese (Fleming, 1983). Here we
have an excellent example of the interaction in soils of one trace element with
another. Research in Australia highlighted the significance of various forms of
manganese dioxide in binding soil cobalt (McKenzie, 1967; Adams et al., 1969).

Manganese dioxide minerals often occur in soils in extremely finely divided forms
which results in their absorptive capacity being out of all proportion to their mass
content. The crystal structures of these compounds are such that they readily
accommodate cobalt ions into very stable structures. In short, the availability of
cobalt in high Mn soils is severely restricted even in soils with high total Co contents.

Podzolization strongly influences the content of cobalt in topsoils. During the

podzolization process cobalt is leached from surface horizons and deposited in the
iron-rich B horizon. Many hill land soils, already inherently low in cobalt, are further
depleted by podzolization. Frequently these soils are overlain by blanket peat and
here cobalt deficiency in mountain sheep can be a problem unless remedial
measures are adopted. The effect of podzolization on soil cobalt is shown in Table 2
(Finch and Ryan, 1966).

Soil analysis for cobalt

Soil analyses for Co are of little value unless accompanied by parallel analyses for
manganese. Only when both analyses are available can one predict the likely
herbage content or the benefits which might accrue from applied cobalt. Various
extractants have been employed in the estimation of plant-available cobalt. Some
such as dilute acetic acid are very useful on acid soils but have in our experience
proved of little value on limed soils
Table 2: Effect of podzolization on cobolt content of soil

Soil Series Parent material Horizon Co (mg/kg)

Knockaceol Old Red Sandstone A1 1

Co. Limerick   A2 1

    B2 (ir) 6

    B/C 10

Cobalt and Irish Soils

The significance of cobalt (Co) in nutrition arises because it is essential for animals
rather than for plants. It is especially important for ruminants as, without Co, rumen
bacteria are unable to synthesise the cobalt-containing vitamin B12. In plant
nutrition, cobalt does not appear to be necessary for non-legumes but, because it is
essential for nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium, it is indirectly required by legumes. The
requirement by animals for cobalt varies with type of animal and age. Co
requirement of common farm ruminants are in decreasing order as follows: weaned
lambs > adult sheep > young cattle > mature cattle. Cobalt deficiency is therefore
classically associated with sheep but in very deficient soils cattle can be affected.
Apart from improvement in thrive following cobalt supplementation, improvement in
fertility has also been recorded (Alderman, 1963).

Cobalt content of soils 

Soils with inherently low concentration of Co are formed mainly from acid igneous
rocks, i.e. granites and rhyolites, from sedimentary rocks such as sandstones and
conglomerates and from metamorphic rocks as typified by quartzites, schists and
gneisses. Soils formed from limestone vary in Co concentration depending on the
purity of the parent rock. Concentrations of Co in soils derived from shales depend
on whether the shales are sandy (arenaceous) or clayed (argillaceous). Peats
always have low concentrations of cobalt.

Podzolization
Podzolization strongly influences the content of cobalt in top soils. During the
podzolization process cobalt is leached from surface horizons and deposited in the
iron-rich B horizon. Many hill-land soils, already inherently low in cobalt, are further
depleted by podzolization. Frequently these soils are overlain by blanket peat and
here cobalt deficiency in mountain sheep can be a problem unless remedial
measures are adopted.

Soil drainage 
Mobilization of trace elements in soils is affected by a number of factors and in
temperate regions drainage can play an important role. This is especially so in the
case of cobalt and it is common to find greater quantities of extractable Co in the
gleyed horizons of poorly-drained soils than in corresponding depths of well drained
soils on the same parent material. Walsh et al. (1956) found that in poorly drained
soil, 10 percent of the total Co was extractable with dilute acetic acid, whereas in a
well-drained soil on the same parent material only 2.6 percent of the total Co was
removed. Such increases in extractable Co are reflected in increased plant uptake
from poorly drained soils. Mitchell et al. (1957) compared mixed and pure swards
from well and poorly drained Scottish soils and found five to eight times more Co in
herbage growing on the poorly drained soils. The explanation for increased
availability of cobalt from poorly drained soils lies in the breakdown or weathering of
Fe and Mn oxides with which cobalt is associated. The breakdown occurs readily in
the reducing environment associated with poor drainage conditions.

Factors affecting the cobalt status of herbage 

A typical example of the effect of one element on another element is the influence of
manganese (or more correctly the oxides of manganese) on the availability of soil
cobalt. Oxides of Mn carry high negative charges, except under extremely acid
conditions, and have large surface areas - out of all proportion to their weight,- and,
because of the size and charge of the cobalt ion, have very high sorption capacities
for the latter. Of the micro-nutrients Co is the most attracted to the surfaces of the
Mn oxides and is ultimately trapped in their lattice structures and is thus rendered
unavailable to the plant. Under poor drainage conditions the soil pores become filled
with water rather than air producing reducing conditions. The stability of the oxides of
Mn is thus weakened and the resultant mineral breakdown releases the trapped Co
which are then ready available for plant uptake. Liming with its resultant pH increase
has the opposite effect.