Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Understanding Wines - Explaining Style and Quality (PDFDrive)
Understanding Wines - Explaining Style and Quality (PDFDrive)
wines:Explaining
styleand quality
An accompaniment to
WSET®Level 3 Award
in Wines
Understanding
wines:Explaining
styleand quality
An accompaniment to
All rightsreserved.No part of this publicationmay be reproducedor transmitted in any form or by any means,electronicor mechanical,including
photocopying,recordingor any informationstorageor retrievalsystem,without the prior permissionin writing from the publishers.
PHOTOGRAPHICCREDITS
1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 12, 52, 53 (Rob Lawson); 15, 17 (Dennis Sterne); 16 (Matt Sills); 22 (Image 1) CIVC; 23 (Image 1) (Elizabeth Clark, Airlie Winery); 24, 47 (Image 1),
48 (Image 1), 184, 190 (Images 1, 3), 193 (Nicolia Littlewood); 38 (Images 2, 3, 4), 39 (Images 8, 11) (Warman Media); 38 (Image 13) (MontTauch); 38 (Image 14),
39 (Image 7) (BIVB,Bernuy J.L.); 38 (Image 15) (Palliser Estate Wines of Martin borough); 39 (Image 5), 103 (5opexa); 51 (Image 1) (Australian Vintage Limited);
51 (Image 2) (Linda Simpson); 59 (top, middle) (Charles Sydney); 59 (bottom) (Constellation Brands); 61 (Jordan Winery); 69 (Image 1) (Lawson Dry Hills
Wines Ltd.); 71, 108 (David Allen MW);78, 81 (top), 122 (Michelle Cherutti-Kowal MW);81 (bottom) (Richard Bampfield Mw/Chateau Preuillac); 82 (CIVB);
88 (BIVB/ Armellephotographe.com); 95 (Lindsay Oram); 99 (bottom), 102, 104 (Inter Rhone Picture Library (10Christophe Grilhe)); 105 (CIVPF.MILLO);
112 (GermanWine lnstitute/www.germanwines.de);114 (0 AWMBWernerGarnerith);119 (NikosDesyllas,Winesfrom Santorini);126 (ConsorzioChianti
Classico); 130 (©Donnafugata, Piero Lazzari); 131 (© ICEX,Fernando Briones); 135 (© ICEX, Felix Lorrio); 136 (© ICEX,Bodegas Senorio de Arinzano);
137 (© ICEX, Rafael Vargas); 141 (Sogrape); 143 (Sonoma County Vintners); 148 (top) (Carolyn Wells-Kramer); 148 (bottom)l10Joel Butler Mw); 151 (lnniskillin
Wines); 153, 154 (Wines of Chile); 162 (bottom) (WOSA), 172 (Giesen Wines Ltd.); 181 (Azienda Agricola Paolo Zucchetto); 182 (David Milne, Josef Chromy
Wines); 190 (Image 2) (ICEP Portugal); 192 (Images 1, 3) (Symington Family Estate); 192 (Image 2) (Taylor's QAVB).
WSET:21 (top), 38 (Images 1, 16), 39 (Image 12), 97, 99 (top), 187 (WSET); 21 (middle), 22 (Image 2), 23 (Image 2), 31, 36, 39 (Images 6, 10), 41 (Image 2),
45 (Image 4), 47 (Image 2), 51 (Image 3), 85, 86, 90, 93, 94, 117, 123, 125, 173, 175 (Image 3), 180 (Antony Moss MW);21 (bottom), 26, 27, 30, 33, 37, 45
(Images 1, 2, 3, 5), 47 (Image 3), 48 (Image 2), 68, 69 (Image 2), 139, 144, 146, 147, 157 (Images 1, 3), 158, 162 (top), 165, 167, 171, 175 (Image 2) (Michael
Buriak); 39 (Image 9) (Nicholas King); 41 (Image 1) (Angela Fordham); 157 (Image 2) (Janet Bangs); 175 (Image 1) (Harriet Furze).
LABELS
75 (top) (Albert Bichot); 75 (bottom) (Constellation Brands).
MAPS
Maps designed by Cosmographics Ltd
Contents
25 Greece 118
Section 1: Wine and the Consumer
26 Introduction to Italy 120
1 The Systematic Approach to Tasting Wine •
27 Northern Italy 121
2 Wine with Food 11
28 Central Italy 126
3 Storage and Service of Wine 15
29 Southern Italy 129
30Spain 131
Section 2: Factors Affecting the Style, Quality and
Price of Wine
31 Portugal 139
Section 3: Still Wines of the World Section 4: Sparkling Wines of the World
22Germany 108
. ,
V
Foreword
As someone responsible for two of the meatier wine reference books, The Oxford Companion to
Wine and The World Atlas of Wine, I am only too aware of how rapidly the world of wine is now
changing. Updating the Oxford book, for example, generally involves some change to at least
half the entries, and the addition of an extraordinary number of new ones.
This is why the WSETconstantly works to keep their materials up to date. The world's
premier source of wine education has to be up to date and seen to be up to date with the
myriad developments in wine production and consumption the world over.
The teaching and courses now offered by the WSETare unrecognisably different from those
I benefited from as I began my wine writing career in the 1970s. I seem to remember that then,
for example, we spent a great deal of time studying the minutiae of Sherry production,
something that is - quite unjustifiably in my view - not exactly in the most sought-after aspect
of wine education nowadays. And even when I did my Master of Wine exams in 1984,
Australian wine was still regarded as at best a novelty, at worst a joke. (Who's laughing now?)
I was thrilled when in 1978 I learned that I had won the top prize for WSETDiploma
students, then called the Rouyer Guillet cup, the forerunner of today's Vintners' Cup. Until then
I was not at all sure what standard my wine knowledge was, but I felt confident that, thanks to
the thoroughness of the WSETsyllabus, I really had covered the ground in its entirety, not just
those little byways that interested me most.
I know that the courses have been constantly adapted, particularly in recent years, to reflect
the sort of wines most often made and drunk now. When people tell me they want to get into
the wine trade, or simply advance their wine knowledge for their personal enjoyment, I always
draw their attention to the WSETcourses, whether in the UK or further afield.
I'm sure that you will find this book as useful as I found my WSETcourses.
Jancis Robinson MW
www.jancisrobinson.com
vii
Introduction
Since the Wine & Spirit Education Trust was founded in 1969, the world of wine has grown and
developed out of all recognition. Nevertheless, despite all the change, the most interesting
question remains the same; what are the factors that determine the style and quality of the
wine in my glass?This book, which supports the WSETLevel 3 Award in Wines, seeks to answer
this question. Altogether, this programme of study is designed to enable you to develop the
skills to be able to answer this question confidently no matter what the wine you encounter.
In order to be able to develop these skills it is vital that you get to grips with grape growing
and winemaking. This book has a vital role to play. The sections that cover these subjects
explain the key concepts and processes that are involved from bud burst to bottling. This is
supported by a significant number of new illustrations and pictures. Furthermore, throughout
this section we place these techniques in context in order to show you how they are actually
used. In particular, the chapters on winemaking offer a unique insight for a book of this size
into the choices that are made in the winery.
The other chapters on individual wine producing regions and countries have been updated
for this new edition. Each one focuses on the key factors that will remain constant so that you
will have a core of knowledge which, when used in conjunction with the chapters on
production, will mean that you will be able to explain to your friends, customers or colleagues
why the wines they love taste the way they do.
I hope that you enjoy studying for the Level 3 Award in Wines and I wish you every success
in the examination.
l
Ian Harris
Chief Executive, Wine & Spirit Education Trust
THESYSTEMATIC
APPROACHTOTASTINGWINE"
TheSystematic
Approach
to Tasting
Wine® The WSET Level 3.Syst~matic
Approach to Tasting Wine (SAT)
is a tool that allows you to write a complete description of a wine and then use this information to make
1
an evaluation of its quality and readiness for drinking. It is a very structured and methodical approach to
tasting and is therefore not an approach that is suitable for every occasion. Nevertheless, practising with
the SAT will provide a disciplined and structured template that will remind you to consider all of the
important elements of a wine.
garnet; then the examiner will not give you the mark these will be considered in turn throughout the body of
because you have not been specific enough. this chapter.
For hyphenated lines you must also limit yourself to the
words that are used for each scale as they appear in the PREPARINGFORTASTING
SAT.For example, when you describe'lntensity'you must In order to taste wine effectively, you need to prepare a
only use either'pale; 'medium' or'deep'. There are many suitable tasting environment, and you need to prepare
other adjectives that can be used to describe wine, but yourself.
for assessment purposes the use of words needs to be The ideal tasting environment has good natural
consistent between examiners and candidates, and this is lighting, for judging the appearance of wines, and is
best achieved by limiting you to the words in the SAT. odour free, to avoid interfering with wine aromas. It also
has sufficient space for you to lay out your wine glasses,
'e.g:Lines and make your notes. Spittoons should be available near
Note that where 'Aroma characteristics' appears in the where you are tasting.
'Nose' section and 'Flavour characteristics' appears in the To prepare yourself, you should have a clean palate,
'Palate' section, terms in the right-hand column are free of toothpaste or the lingering flavours of strong-
preceded by 'e.g:.For these category headings you are tasting food. You should also be well hydrated, because
not restricted to the terms in the right-hand column of dehydration may cause your nasal aroma receptors to
the SAT.You are, however, strongly encouraged to use become dry, and lose their sensitivity to aromas . Note
the terms in the Wine-Lexicon. that it is easy to become dehydrated when tasting a
large number of wines, as you will be losing saliva every
Using the Scales time you spit out a wine.
The version of the SAT used for the Level 2 Award in You will need somewhere to record your notes. This
Wines and Spirits relies on three-point scales to describe could be something as simple as a notebook and pen, or
the structural components of a wine. For example, the a laptop or mobile phone with suitable software installed.
scale for 'Acidity' is 'low - medium - high'. At Level 3 You will also need suitable glassware, which should be
many of these three-point scales have been refined so odourless, colourless and free of any residues, such as
that a more accurate description can be made . detergent or dishwasher salts, or dirt left from unclean
For most of the scales this involves subdividing the glass polishing cloths. The ISO glass (illustrated with an
range that is covered by 'medium' into three equal parts: ideal tasting sample on page 1) is suitable for evaluating
'medium(-) - medium - medium(+)'to make a five-point wines. The important features are the rounded bowl (to
scale. It is very important to realise that this is not a scale aid swirling the wine to release aromas) and the inward-
of five equal parts. For example, 'medium(+)' can be sloping walls (to capture those aromas). There are many
thought of as 'medium, but towards the upper end of other glasses that are suitable for tasting, but they all
the medium band'. 'Medium' is divided this way because share these two features, and are small enough to use
the majority of observations for the majority of wines lie with a tasting sample of wine, rather than requiring a
within this range, and subdividing it makes it possible larger sample. When pouring your samples, you should
for you to describe a wine more precisely. try to ensure you consistently pour the same volume
It can be tempting to over-use 'medium' (including into each glass. We suggest a 5 cl sample. This should be
'medium(+)' and 'medium(-)'). The danger here is that sufficient to assessthe appearance, nose and palate of
tasting notes end up consisting almost entirely of the wine, but small enough that you are able to swirl the
mediums, and fail to capture the true character of certain sample in the base of the bowl without spilling.
wines. In order to avoid this it can be useful to make an
initial assessment using the basic three-point scale, APPEARANCE
classifying a component as 'low: 'medium' or'high'. The Clarity
restricted range of terms encourages you to be bolder For this line there is only a two-point scale: 'clear - hazy'.
in using the ends of the scale. Then, you can return to The vast majority of wines can be described as 'clear'.
the components you have described as 'medium' and Haziness is caused by particles suspended in the wine.
decide whether to further refine this assessment with If a wine has an unusually high amount of suspended
a(+) or a(-). particles then it can be described as 'hazy'.This may
Wines that are used in examinations can have some indicate a fault but the precise nature of the fault can
components that have high or low levels. Remember, if normally only be determined by assessing the wine on
you think the acidity is a remarkable feature, but your the nose and palate. Note that although some wines are
awareness of wines with even higher acidity is making deliberately hazy, these wines will not be used in the
you hesitate to describe it as 'high' rather than 'medium Level 3 tasting examination.
(+): then you should remember that 'high' is also a range.
Be confident to use the ends of the scales; they should Intensity
not be reserved solely for wines that are at the extremes. Intensity is how much colour the wine has. The level of
Note that some scales are not divided this way and intensity can be assessed by holding the glass at a 45°
THESYSTEMATIC
APPROACHTOTASTINGWINE"
Secondary Aromas
These aromas are created by post-fermentation
winemaking. The most obvious of these are aromas
extracted from oak, such as vanilla and toast. Secondary
aromas also include creamy, buttery characteristics from
malolactic fermentation (MLF) or the yeasty and biscuity
aromas that can develop as a result of lees contact or
autolysis.
Tertiary Aromas
These aromas have their origin in ageing processes.The
ageing process could be oxidative (caused by the action Some wines, such as age indicated Tawny Ports and all
of oxygen), for example, due to a long period in oak. This Sherries, undergo an extended period of ageing prior to
can add tertiary aromas such as coffee, toffee or caramel. release (see Chapters 43 Sherryand 44 Port).Therefore,
Alternatively, the ageing process could be protected when they are put on sale, tertiary aromas predominate
from the action of oxygen, for example, due to a long and these wines are 'fully developed'.
period in bottle . This can add tertiary aromas such as Importantly, not all wines benefit from ageing. For
petrol, honey or mushroom. such wines, the youthful aromas do not change in a
In both instances, the ageing process changes the positive way and attractive tertiary aromas never
primary aromas. In particular, fruit aromas become less develop. They move very rapidly, in some cases in a
fresh and can take on a dried or cooked character. At this matter of months, from 'youthful'to 'tired/past its best'.
point, care must be taken because dried fruit and cooked This is true of almost all roses, most inexpensive whites
fruit aromas can be present in youthful wines that have and many inexpensive reds.
been made from dried grapes or from grapes grown in
a hot climate. PALATE
There are many different components to be considered
Development on the palate and it is often necessary to take more than
Generally if the wine is dominated by primary or one sip of wine in order to assessit fully. In some cases,
secondary aromas, it can be described as 'youthful'. the effect of one component can interfere with the
However, it is common for the secondary aromas, such impression made by another: alcohol and fruit, for
as oak, to stand apart from the primary aromas of fruit example, add to the perception of sweetness, whereas
at this stage, as they are not yet fully integrated. If most acidity can mask sweetness. As a trained taster, you are
of the aromas in a wine are still primary and secondary, aiming to assessthe actual levels of these components,
but some tertiary aromas can be detected, then it is not the apparent level, by reference to objective criteria.
'developing'. If the predominant aromas are tertiary
aromas the wine can be described as 'fully developed; Sweetness
even if there are still some primary and secondary Sweetness is the taste of sugars present in the wine. A 'dry'
aromas present. At this stage, the secondary aromas wine has no sugar or has levels that are so low that they
will usually be fully integrated and may be hard to cannot be detected by the tongue. If the wine has a tiny
distinguish from the tertiary aromas. The period of time amount of detectable sugar, the wine is described as 'off-
it takes a wine to reach this point varies a great deal. For dry'. Many 'dry' Alsace Gewurztraminers, Brut Champagnes,
some it can happen quite quickly but for others, such as and inexpensive reds and whites are in fact'off-dry'.
Vintage Port, it can take decades. Only a handful of wines 'Medium-dry' and 'medium-sweet' cover wines with
will remain 'fully developed'for an extended period. a distinct presence of sugar, but which are generally not
Ultimately, all wines will deteriorate when the attractive sweet enough to partner most desserts. 'Medium-sweet'
aromas fade and unpleasant aromas start to develop. wines have higher levels of detectable sugar than
At this point a wine becomes 'tired/past its best'. 'medium-dry' wines.
Because development is a measure of the balance 'Sweet' covers wines where the presence of sugar has
between primary/secondary aromas and tertiary aromas, become the prominent feature of the wine. This rather
it is possible that a wine is no longer 'youthful' when it is broad category covers most classic sweet wines such as
released for sale. For example, red Rioja Reservaswill have Sauternes and Port. There are a few very sweet wines
undergone a period of ageing before release and will that are described as 'luscious'.Here the level of sugar
usually have some tertiary aromas (see Chapter 30 Spain). is such that the wines are notably more viscous and
Therefore, when they go on sale they are 'developing'. the wine leaves the mouth and lips with a sticky sweet
6 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
WSET
Level3 SystematicApproachto TastingWine®
Notesto students: APPEARANCE
Forlineswheretheentries
Clarity clear-hazy(faulty?)
areseparatedbya hyphen-
Youmustselectoneandonly Intensity pale- medium
- deep
oneoftheseoptions. Colour white lemon
-green
- lemon- gold- amber- brown
rosepink- salmon
- orange
Forlinesstartingwith'e.g: red purple- ruby- garnet- tawny- brown
wheretheentriesare
Otherobservations e.g.legs
/tears,deposit,
petillance,
bubbles
separated
withcommas -
These
areentriesthatyoushould
considerwhenwriting
your NOSE
tastingnote.Youmaynotneed Condition clean- unclean
(faulty?)
tocomment
oneachentryfor
Intensity light- medium(-)-medium
-medium(+)-pronounced
everywine.
Aroma
characteristics e.g.primary,
secondary,
tertiary
Development youthful
- developing
- fullydeveloped
- tired/past
itsbest
PALATE
Sweetness dry- off-dry- medium
-dry- medium
-sweet- sweet- luscious
Acidity low- medium(-)-medium
-medium(+)- high
Tannin low- medium(-)-medium
-medium(+)- high
Alcohol low- medium - high
fortifiedwines:low- medium
- high
Body light-medium(-)-medium
-medium(+)-full
Mousse delicate
- creamy
- aggressive
Flavour
intensity light- medium(
-) - medium
- medium(+)
- pronounced
Flavour
characteristics e.g.primary,
secondary,
tertiary
Finish short-medium(
-)- medium
- medium(+)-long
CONCLUSIONS
ASSESSMENT
OFQUALITY
Quality
level faulty- poor- acceptable
- good- verygood- outstanding
Levelofreadiness candrinknow, drinknow:not
fordrinking/ tooyoung buthaspotential suitable
forageing tooold
potential
forageing forageing orfurtherageing
sensation after swallowing or spitting. Examples include waters, and the longer it waters, the higher the level of
Rutherglen Muscats and PX Sherries. acidity in the wine. Note that if you are dehydrated when
tasting, your mouth will water less.Wines described as
Acidity having 'low acidity'will feel broad, round and soft. 'High
The main acids in wine are tartaric and malic (from the acidity ' tends to be found in wines made from grapes
grape juice) or lactic (converted from malic acid in all ripened in cool conditions and can cause these wines to
reds and many whites). In some cases,acid is added in be especially mouth-watering.
the winery (see section Adjustments in Chapter 7 for When considering the acidity in a wine there are two
more details). Unlike volatile acidity, these acids are points to remember. First, high levels of sweetness and
odourless and can only be detected on the palate. acidity can mask each other . In a sweet wine, the high
For most people, acidity is detected most strongly at acidity is not the single predominant feature; rather, it
the sides of the tongue, where it causes a sharp, tingling serves to balance with the high sugar levels. Therefore,
sensation, and makes your mouth water as it tries to the acidity in a sweet wine will appear less obvious
restore its natural acid balance. The more your mouth compared with the acidity in a dry high-acid wine such
THESYSTEMATIC
APPROACHTOTASTINGWINE" 7
WSET
Level3 Wine-Lexicon:
supporting
theWSET
Level
3Systematic
Approach
toTasting
Wine
Noteto students:
TheWSET
DESCRIBING
AROMA ANDFLAVOUR
level3 Wine
-lexicon
isdesigned
Think
interms
ofprimary,
secondary
andtertiary
Primary
AromasandFlavours =-================== to bea prompt
anda guide
whichyoudonotneedto
Thearomas
andflavours
ofthegrapeandalcoholic
fermentation memorise.
Youcanpassthe
Keyquestions ClustersDescriptors tastingexamination
with
distinction
ifyouusethe
Floral acacia,
honeysuckle,
chamomile,
elderflower,
geranium,
blossom,
rose,violet
descriptors
intheWine-lexicon
fruit apple,gooseberry,
Green pear,peardrop,quince,
grape butyoudonotneedto limit
fruit grapefruit,
Citrus lemon,lime(juiceorzest?),orangepeel,lemonpeel yourself
tothesetermsandthe
Stonefruit peach,apricot,
nectarine examiners
willacceptother
Aretheflavours
descriptors
solongastheyare
orintense?
delicate fruit banana,
Tropical lychee,
mango,melon,passion
fruit,pineapple
accurate.
orcomplex?
simple Redfruit redcurrant,
cranberry,
raspberry,
strawberry,
redcherry,
redplum
orwell-defined?
generic fruit blackcurrant,
Black blackberry,
bramble,
blueberry,
blackcherry,
blackplum
freshorcooked? fruit fig,prune,raisin,sultana,kirsch,
Dried/cooked jamminess,
baked/stewed
fruits,
preserved
fruits
under-ripe
orripeor
greenbellpepper(capsicum),
Herbaceous grass,tomatoleaf,asparagus,
blackcurrant
leaf
over-ripe?
Herbal eucalyptus,
mint,medicinal,
lavender,
fennel,dill
spiceblack/white
Pungent pepper,liquorice
Other flint,wetstones,wetwool
Secondary
Aromas andFlavours
Thearomas
andflavours
ofpost-fermentation
wlnemaklng
Keyquestions ClustersDescriptors
Yeast(lees,autolysis)biscuit,
bread,toast,pastry,brioche,
breaddough,cheese
Aretheflavours
from MLF butter,cheese,
cream
yeast oroak?
, MLF Oak vanilla,
cloves,
nutmeg,coconut,
butterscotch,
toast,cedar,charred
wood,smoke,
chocolate,
coffee,
resinous
Tertiary
AromasandFlavours
Thearomasandflavours
ofmaturation
Keyquestions ClustersDescriptors
oxidationalmond,
Deliberate marzipan,
hazelnut,
walnut,chocolate,
coffee,
toffee,caramel
Fruitdevelopmentdriedapricot,
marmalade,
driedapple,driedbanana,etc.
Dotheflavours
show (white)
deliberate
oxidation, Fruitdevelopmentfig,prune,tar,driedblackberry,
driedcranberry,
etc.
(red) cookedblackberry,cookedredplum,etc.
fruitdevelopment
or
Bottleage(white) petrol,kerosene,
cinnamon,
ginger,nutmeg,
toast,nutty,mushroom,
hay,
bottleage? honey
Bottleage(red) leather,
forestfloor,earth,mushroom,
game,tobacco,
vegetal,
wetleaves,
savoury,
meaty,farmyard
sensation can be felt most clearly on the gums above The alcohol levels for fortified wines are also split into
your front teeth, so ensure you coat this area with a little three:
of the wine you are tasting. Tannins can sometimes also low: 15- 16.4%abv
have a bitter taste that is detected most clearly at the medium: 16.5- 18.4% abv
back of your mouth. high: 18.5% abv and above.
The level of tannins should be assessedfor all red
wines, but does not need to be commented on for white Body
wines. It should be noted that not all tannins have the Body, or mouthfeel, is the textural impression created
same effect: unripe tannins tend to be more aggressively by a wine. It is not a single component, but is an overall
astringent, whereas ripe tannins contribute more to impression created by all the structural components
textural richness. It takes experience to be able to working together. For most wines, alcohol is the main
conclude that a basic quality Pinot Noir made from factor contributing to body. Sugar adds to the body,
barely-ripe grapes has a medium level of tannins, despite whereas high acidity makes a wine feel lighter in body.
them being astringent and harsh, whereas a high-quality Generally, high levels of tannin make a wine feel fuller
Shiraz from a hot region may have high levels of velvety- bodied, but low levels of astringent tannin can make it
smooth ripe tannins despite showing little astringency. seem harsher, thinner and therefore lighter in body.
If the tannins are astringent, ask yourself if the body of For certain wines, judging the body is relatively
the wine feels thin. If it does, this is a good indication of straightforward. A wine that is high in alcohol, with ripe
low tannin levels. On the other hand if the astringency tannins and intense flavours is very clearly full-bodied,
is low, ask yourself if the wine is very full-bodied and whereas a wine that is low in alcohol, high in acidity and
mouth-filling. If it is, this can be a good indication of a delicately flavoured is very clearly light-bodied. For wines
high level of tannins. that are sweet, but high in acidity and low in alcohol (for
example), it can be harder to agree on the level of body,
Alcohol and the decision will be based on which of these factors
Alcohol contributes to the texture and body of a wine. contributes the most to the texture of the wine.
Alcohol is more viscous than water, and higher levels
make a wine seem heavier in the mouth. At low levels, Mousse
the wine can seem a bit watery, unless there is another Mousse is relevant only in the discussion of sparkling
component such as sugar to give the wine body. wines. For most sparkling wines, expect the mousse to
At high levels, alcohol triggers pain receptors, giving be 'creamy: in other words, enough to provide a lively
a hot, burning sensation, especially after spitting or sparkle on the palate without seeming too frothy or
swallowing. This burning sensation can be confused with aggressive. Some young sparkling wines are extremely
the tingling sensation caused by acidity. Therefore, if you lively, and seem to explode on the palate, then lose all
are trying to distinguish the two, consider whether the their bubbles in one quick blast. These would be described
wine is also mouth-watering (and therefore high in as 'aggressive'.Other sparkling wines (generally those
acidity) or feels thick and viscous (and high in alcohol). that have undergone extensive ageing, or those that are
Remember that it may be high in both. bottled at a lower than typical pressure of dissolved
carbon dioxide) have bubbles that are very soft and fine.
Alcohol levels in wine are generally rising, but as a guide: These are described as'delicate'.
low: below 11% abv
medium: 11- 13.9% abv Flavour Intensity and Characteristics
high: 14% abv and above. Generally, flavours on the palate should be the same as
aromas detected on the nose. However, the warming of
the wine in your mouth can make some characteristics
more apparent than they were on the nose. Earthy, spicy,
and toasty characteristics tend to be more prominent on
the palate. Fruity and floral characteristics are sometimes
less prominent on the palate than they appear on the
nose.
Finish
The finish is the collection of sensations after you have
swallowed or spat the wine out . How long the sensations
linger is an important indicator of quality, but when
assessingthe length of the finish you should only count
the persistence of the desirable sensations. A wine with
a very long lingering bitterness could be described as
having a bitter aftertaste, but if the fruit impressions
THE SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO TASTING WINE • 9
CONCLUSIONS
In the Level 3 examination you will be expected to
evaluate a wine's quality and its readiness for drinking.
In doing so you will not be expected to provide reasons
for your choice but it is important that you understand
the relevant factors to consider.
Quality Level
Many criteria are commonly used when assessing the a negative, and not all premium wines are complex:
quality of a wine. Although there are instances when sometimes purity and clarity of expression are what
wine professionals disagree about the quality of a wine, make a wine great, and the presence of oak or tertiary
in most cases there is broad agreement about both the characters (for example) might detract from the quality.
quality level of a wine and the reasons for its quality lcewines often fall into this category.
level. This is possible because there are a number of In terms of putting a wine into quality categories,
criteria that are widely used when it comes to assessing think about how well it scores on these four criteria. An
quality. 'outstanding'wine will show positively against all four
criteria. A wine that is 'very good' will show positively
Balance - In wines, balance can be thought of as a set of against three of the criteria, but fall short on one. For
scales,with fruit and sugar on one side, and acidity and example, it may be well balanced, with a range of
tannins on the other. An increase in fruit or sugar can be different aromas and flavours of medium intensity but
brought into balance by an increase in acidity or tannin . have a short finish . If it is just'good; then the wine will
With too little fruit or sugar, a wine can seem angular, show positively against two of the criteria but fall short on
austere or thin. With too little acidity or tannin, it can the other two. An 'acceptable'wine will show positively
seem unstructured and clumsy. against one criterion, but fall short on three. For example,
When assessing balance, you should also consider although the wine may be balanced it would be dilute
how well integrated each of the separate components with simple flavours and a short finish. A 'poor'wine will
are. For example, even if the fruit is balanced by acidity, have problems when judged on all four criteria.
the acidity could seem harsh or aggressive. Alcohol
should be well integrated, whatever its level, and so Readiness for Drinking
should aromatic components, such as those derived from The first thing to consider when assessing readiness for
oak. When assessing a wine, ask yourself three questions: drinking is whether the wine is made in a style that can
'how is the overall balance achieved?; 'looking at the benefit from ageing at all.
overall balance, how well balanced is this wine?' and If it mainly shows primary aromas and flavours, with a
'how well integrated are each of the wine's components?'. light acid or tannin structure, then it almost certainly will
not benefit from further ageing. Most of these wines will
Intensity- A wine that has weak, dilute flavours is therefore fall into the 'drink now: not suitable for ageing
seldom high in quality, but, beyond a certain level, more or further ageing' category. If it seems like the wine should
intensity does not necessarily mean higher quality. When have been fruity, with a light tannin or acid structure, but
discussing quality some people also refer to a wine's has lost its freshness,then it is simply'too old'.
intensity as its 'concentration'. If the wine has a firm structure of acid or tannin, and
has a sufficient level of flavour concentration, then it
Length - This refers to how long the finish is. In other may benefit from ageing. You need to consider what
words, how long the pleasant sensations linger after the will happen to the wine with time, and this requires
wine has been swallowed or spat out. Generally, wines experience of seeing how wines develop in the bottle.
that are intense also have a long finish. Generally, the aromas and flavours develop away from
primary fruit characteristics and towards more tertiary
Complexity - Complex flavours and aromas are characteristics and the tannins soften. The alcohol level
desirable features in a wine. The complexity can come does not change, and acidity and sugar levels change
from the primary aromas and flavours alone, or it may very little (although sweet wines very slowly taste drier
come from the combination of these with secondary and as they age). With this in mind, you can make a tentative
tertiary characteristics. However, simplicity is not always prediction of how the wine will develop over time, and
10 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
how much the developments will improve the wine, the tannins to soften and the wine to become better
compared with how it tastes now. balanced. If the wine has undergone an ageing process
If you think that the wine is drinking pleasurably but is close to the end of its drinkable life (any further
now but will improve positively in the next few years changes are unlikely to be positive), or if it is in decline
then you can place it in the 'can drink now, but has (the changes that have occurred are beginning to
potential for ageing' category. If you believe that the subtract from the quality of the wine) then you should
wine will be so much better in a few years time that it classify it as 'drink now: not suitable for ageing or
would be a waste to drink it now, then you may classify it further ageing'. If you think that the wine has declined
as 'too young'. For example, some red wines can be very so far that the negative changes have come to dominate
tannic when they are released and need a few years for the wine, then it is simply'too old'.
WINE WITH FOOD 11
Food that is consumed with wine has an effect on the way a wine tastes,
WinewithFoodand wine can also affect the taste of food. The purpose of food and wine 2
pairing is to take advantage of these effects, so that the food and wine consumed together ideally
provide more pleasure than either would if consumed separately. Knowledge of the ways in which food
and wine interact with each other will also help avoid negative or unpleasant taste combinations.
Other Considerations
Flavour intensity - It is usually desirable for the flavour
intensities of the food and wine to be matched so that
one does not overpower the other. However, in some
circumstances, an intensely flavoured food (such as a curry)
can be successfully partnered with a lightly flavoured wine
(such as a simple, non-aromatic, unoaked white).
balanced by the addition of acid or salt providing this commonly applied ideas in food and wine pairing. So,
is in keeping with the basic character of the dish. for example, a smoky, spicy, gamey or creamy dish is
• Bitterness - Dishes high in bitterness will emphasise matched by a smoky, spicy, gamey or creamy flavoured
bitterness in wine. Consider white wines or low-tannin wine. The result may be successful, but successor
reds. failure does not depend on the matching of flavours.
• Chilli heat - Dishes high in chilli heat should be Instead, it is dependent on the interaction of structural
paired with white wines or low-tannin reds, neither of components in the food (sugar, oil/fat, salt, etc.) and the
which should be high in alcohol. A wine's fruitiness wine (sugar, alcohol, acid, tannin, etc.). If the structural
and sweetness can also be reduced by chilli heat so pairing works, then flavour matching or contrasting can
consider wines with higher levels of these further enhance the pairing, but if the structural pairing
components to make this effect less severe. fails, the match is likely to be unsuccessful.
interesting, with the food enhancing the wine and vice At best they will achieve something that is a perfect
versa. We have seen that these pairings work because of pairing for them, and hopefully the majority of their
the taste interaction between structural components guests. But because people vary in their sensitivities and
(salt, sweetness, acid, etc.) in the food and the wine. The their preferences, there is no guarantee that all guests will
problem is that these successes imply that for every dish agree the pairing is successful.There is no such thing as
there is an ideal wine or wine style that will deliver the an objectively perfect pairing . The best that can be said is
perfect match. With this idea in mind, chefs and that'most people will find that dish X goes well with wines
sommeliers may work together to select ingredients in style v; but the chef or sommelier should accept that
and preparation methods that will suit a particular wine. their guests may not agree about which pairings work.
STORAGEAND SERVICEOF WINE 15
STORAGEOF WINE
If a wine is incorrectly stored it can affect the flavour and,
in severe cases,the wine will become faulty.
The following general points should be observed
when storing wine:
For long-term storage, the temperature for all wines
should be cool and constant, preferably between 10°c
and 15°(, as extremes of cold and heat can cause
damage. One of the worst places for long-term
storage is in a kitchen, due to the wide fluctuations in
temperature. Extended periods of refrigeration can
cause corks to harden and lose their elasticity, with the
result that the seal fails and air can attack the wine
causing it to become stale. Sparkling wines lose their
fizz.
Store wine that is sealed with a cork on its side to
ensure the cork remains in contact with the wine. If
the cork dries out it can let in air, and the air will oxidise
the wine . Wines that are sealed with a screw cap can
be stored standing up w ithout any risk.
Keep wines away from strong light. Natural sunshine
or artificial light will heat the wine and it will become
stale and old before its time . Artificial light can cause
unpleasant flavours to develop in some wines.
Keep wine away from vibrations, in order for it to lie
undisturbed.
SERVICEOF WINE
Service Temperatures be either too hot or too cold. If reds are too cold, they
A list of recommended service temperatures for all styles will taste thin and harsh.The gentlest way to warm them
of wine can be found in the accompanying table below. is to allow the bottle to warm up slowly or by holding
It is worth considering the following points. Room the bowl of the glass in your hands. Do not warm reds on
temperature is often the recommended temperature for a radiator, as the sudden exposure to extreme heat can
full -bodied red wine . However, with the widespread use irretrievably damage the wine. Redwines that gradually
of air-conditioning and central heating, rooms can often reach temperatures in excessof l 8°C will appear to lose
their freshness and the flavours will become muddled. glasses are inappropriate, as the bubbles are very
Once they are cooled down they regain their balance. quickly lost.
Ice buckets or wine coolers are often used to keep Fortified wines are typically served in small glasses
white, rose and sparkling wines cold. An ice bucket because of their high alcohol content. However, the
should be filled three-quarters full with equal quantities glass should be large enough to allow swirling and
of ice and water so that the bottle is fully surrounded nosing .
by iced water. The water is then able to transfer the
heat from the bottle to melt the ice. Air acts as an Clean glassware is of the utmost importance, as even the
insulator and a bottle in ice alone will chill very slowly slightest taint can ruin the flavour of the wine. This can
until some of the ice has melted. It should be noted also apply to 'clean' glasses from a dishwasher; it is worth
that over-chilling can mask the flavours in white, rose checking the glasses to make sure no detergent or salt
and sparkling wines. residue remains in the glass as this can give strange
flavours to wines. In the case of sparkling wine, it will
Glassware make it lose its sparkle more quickly. The best way to
An enormous range of glass shapes and sizes is used for prepare glasses is to polish them before each use.This
the service of wine, each designed to emphasise a will make sure the glasses are clean and free of finger
particular wine's characteristics. The use of the correct marks and dust. The best cloth to use is a linen one, as
glass will enhance the drinking experience: this will not leave small pieces of fluff in the glass.
Red wines are best served in larger-sized glasses.This
will allow air to come into contact with a large wine Opening a Bottle of Still Wine
surface and develop the aromas and flavours. Remove the top of the capsule, by cutting around it
White and rose wines require medium-sized glasses below the lip of the bottle. This can be done with a
so that the fresh, fruit characteristics are gathered and capsule remover or knife.
directed towards the top of the glass. Wipe the neck of the bottle with a clean cloth.
Sparkling wines are best served in flute glasses.This Draw the cork as gently and cleanly as possible using
shape enhances the effect of the bubbles (and thus your selected corkscrew .
the wine's aroma), allowing them to travel through a Give the neck of the bottle a final clean inside and out.
larger volume of the wine before bursting at the top of Pour a sample into a glass to check the wine's
the glass. For this reason the old-style, saucer-shaped condition.
Aline-upof glassesfor
differentstylesofwine.
Fromleftto right:sparkling
wine,Port,whitewineand
redwine.
STORAGE AND SERVICE OF WINE 17
Decanting Wine
Wines with a heavy deposit need to be decanted. This
deposit is quite natural and is formed during the ageing
process of many good red wines. Some young wines
benefit from the aeration that occurs by being decanted,
although this can be done as easily by swirling the wine
in a glass. Note that'airing ' a wine by opening a bottle
some time before service does no good at all. Too little of
the wine is in contact with the air for it to have any effect.
First remove the bottle horizontally from its rack and
place in a decanting basket if available. Alternatively,
hold the bottle carefully, making sure the deposit is
not agitated.
Very gently remove the top of the capsule and clean
the shoulder and neck of the bottle. Very gently
remove the cork.
Remove the bottle from the basket, being careful not
to disturb the deposit. Holding the bottle in front of a
light, pour the wine carefully into the decanter until
the deposit can be seen near the neck. At this point
stop pouring .
ORDERING WINE
It is useful to know how many measures you can get
from a standard 75 cl bottle. This will help you work out
how many bottles you would need for an order.
4 x 175 ml glasses
3 x 250 ml glasses
methods that can be used to extend a wine's life for a Blanket systems - These systems work on the
greater period oftime: principle of blanketing the wine with a gas heavier
than oxygen to form a protective layer between the
Vacuum systems - These are systems where the wine and air.
oxygen is removed from the bottle and the bottle is
sealed. These are unsuitable for sparkling wines Inexpensive devices that work using either of these
(which will lose their bubbles). principles are widely available .
THE VINE 19
TheVineThere are thousands of different grape varieties grown in vineyards throughout the
world, but they all share much in common. In this chapter we will explore these
similarities and the meaning of some of the words used to describe vines and their constituent parts.
4
VINE SPECIES Note that the terms 'vine variety' and 'grape variety'
There are many different species of vine that have can be used interchangeably, and the word 'cultivar' is
evolved throughout the world but grape growers are sometimes used instead of'variety'.
only concerned with a handful of these species. In
modern viticulture the most important species are: Clones
Although all the individual vines of a grape variety are
Vitis vinifera - This is the main Eurasian species. It genetically identical, it is still possible to observe
produces nearly all the grapes used in winemaking and variations between them. This happens as a result of
has been used to make wine for several thousand years. mutations that sometimes occur when the vines grow.
These mutations can sometimes be positive and can
American vines - There are three important species of result in plants with better quality fruit or better
vine native to North America. They are rarely used to disease resistance. Often, vines with positive mutations
produce grapes for winemaking because the wines they are selected for further propagation by cutting or
produce are widely considered to have unattractive layering, so that the positive characteristics of these
flavours. However, unlike V.vinifera, they are resistant vines can be carried forward in new plantings. This is
to Phylloxera(a vine pest that attacks the vine's roots) known as clonal selection, and it has led to the
and so they are widely used to produce rootstocks onto development of different clones. In grape growing,
which V.vinifera vines are grafted. See section Phylloxera each individual vine or group of vines that shows a
and Rootstockson page 22. particular set of unique characteristics is known as a
clone. The difference between clones is often small and
GRAPE VARIETIES all of the individual plants that make up a clone would
There are thousands of grape varieties belonging to the still be considered to be from the same grape variety .
V.vinifera species. For the wine consumer, the principal When grape growers order new plants from a nursery
differences between grape varieties are variations in they will often specify which clone they would like as
colour and flavour, both properties coming from the well as the grape variety.
grape itself. Differences between varieties are not just Some mutations have such a significant effect that the
limited to the taste and quality of the fruit, however. resulting plants are treated as if they are new varieties,
When selecting a grape variety the grape grower will even though strictly speaking they are clones of an
also be concerned with other factors such as budding original plant. For example, the grape varieties Pinot
and ripening times, and resistance to certain diseases. Blanc and Pinot Gris are both mutations of the grape
In order to understand what a grape variety is, it is variety Pinot Nair.
necessary to understand how a variety is grown or
propagated. Importantly, this cannot be done using CREATING NEW VINE VARIETIES
seeds. Instead, in order to preserve the unique qualities Researchers are constantly looking for grape varieties
of a variety, a grower must use one of two techniques: that are better able to thrive in certain climates and soil
cutting or layering. A cutting is a section of a vine shoot conditions, as well as varieties with improved disease
that is planted and then grows as a new plant . This resistance, and those able to deliver a higher quality or
method is widely used in commercial nurseries that sell quantity of grapes. Therefore, rather than waiting for a
vines to growers. Layering takes place in the vineyard. random mutation to occur, genuinely new grape
A cane is bent down and a section of it is buried in the varieties can be created in controlled conditions using
ground. The cane tip points upwards out of the ground. cross-fertilisation. This is where pollen from the male
The buried section takes root and, once these roots are part of a flower of one vine is transferred to the female
established, the cane linking the new growth to the part of the flower of another vine and fertilisation occurs.
original plant is cut. Due to the risk of phylloxera most The pollinated flower develops into a grape with seeds.
grape growers now use cuttings instead of layering (see If a seed is planted and grows, it will be a new variety
section Phyl/oxeraand Rootstockson page 22). In both because its genetic material will be different from that
these instances the new plant is identical to the original. of its parents. A new variety will be produced even if
Therefore, a grape variety is a group of individual plants the parent vines are from the same grape variety . The
that can all trace their lineage back through a series of new variety may have some characteristics that are
cuttings and/or layerings to a single plant. recognisable from the parent vines, but this is not always
20 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
THEANATOMY OFTHEVINE
All vines have a similar structure. These can be divided into four sections: the green parts of the vine,
one-year-old wood, permanent wood and the roots.
Buds - These
forminthejoinbetween theleafandtheshootandcanbedescribed as
embryonicshoots. Once
formed,
theymatureinsidetheircasing
duringthegrowing
seasonsothat,bytheendoftheyear,eachbudcontainsinminiature
allthestructures
thatwillbecometheshoot,leaves,
flowers
andtendrilsthefollowing
year.
Flowersandberries - Flowers
arethevine'sreproductive
organs
.
Avine's
flowershavebothmaleandfemaleparts,andaregrouped
inbunchescalledinflorescences
(seepictures
onpage39).Each
flower
thatissuccessfully
pollinated
willbecome a berryandsothe
inflorescence
willbecome thebunchofgrapesthatwillbeharvested
attheendofthegrowing season.
Thevinehasevolved sothatthe
sweetgrapesareattractive
toanimalsthateatthegrapesand
disperse
thevine'sseeds.
Leaves- These
aretheplant'sengine
.Theyareprincipally
responsible
for
photosynthesis,
whichistheprocessbywhichplantsusesunlighttoconvert
waterandcarbondioxide
intoglucose
andoxygen. Glucose
isa sugarthatis
usedtosupport
vinegrowthandmakeripegrapestastesweet.
THEVINE 21
Aspur-pruned
vinein
Spain
.
One
-year-old
wood
:
spur
Permanent
wood:
arm
trunk
Acane-pruned
vinein
Alsace,France.
One-year-old Wood
Shoots turn woody during the winter after they have grown. The
following spring, they become one-year-old wood, and the buds One-year-old
wood:
that formed on them the previous year burst and grow into shoots. cane
Managing the one-year-old wood is vital for the grape grower
because vines will normally only produce fruit on shoots that grow
from buds that developed the previous year. Every winter the vine is
pruned and the one-year-old wood will either be called a cane or a
spur depending on how many buds it is left with. A cane is long,
with eight to 20 buds, whereas a spur is short and has only two to Permanent
wood:
three buds. This is discussed further in the section VinePruning in trunk
Chapter 6.
Permanent Wood
This is wood that is more than one year old. In the vineyard the Aspur-pruned
vinein
amount of permanent wood is restricted by pruning. The permanent Australia.
wood is made up of the trunk and, where present, the arms of the
vine . Not every vine has the same configuration of permanent wood.
One-year-old
wood:
This is discussed further in the section VineTraining in Chapter 6.
spur
Permanent
wood:
The Roots
arm(cordon)
Their function is to absorb water and nutrients from the soil, anchor
trunk
the vine and store carbohydrates to allow the vine to survive the
winter . In modern vineyards most II.vinifera are grafted onto root
systems from other species because they cannot resist Phylloxera.
See section Phylloxeraand Rootstockson page 22.
22 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
..
world as rootstocks. conditions. Consequently, rootstocks are often used in
BENCH
GRAFTING
1. Anewgraft.Thesectionatthetopis
V.vlnifera,andthebudthatwillform
thenewplantisclearly visible.
2. Anewlyplantedbench-graftedvine.
TheredwaxIs usedto protectthe
joinbetweenthe twosectionsof
cane.
THE VINE 23
HEAD
GRAFTING
1.Ahead-grafted
vineinthespring
afterthe grafting.
Thetwocanesare
heldsecurewithtape,which,in this
instance,hasbeencovered
with
pruning
paintto protectthewound.
2. Awell-established
headgraft.
parts of the world where Phylloxera is not a problem, There is another form of grafting called head grafting,
despite the extra cost involved in buying grafted vines. which is used if a grape grower with an established
vineyard decides to switch to a different grape variety
Grafting between seasons.The existing vine is cut back to its
Grafting is the technique used to join a rootstock to a trunk and a bud or cutting of the new variety is grafted
V.vinifera variety . The most popular modern technique is onto the trunk. If the graft is successful the vine will
bench grafting; an automated process that is carried produce the fruit of the new variety at the next vintage.
out by specialist plant nurseries. Short sections of cane It takes a newly planted vine a minimum of three years
from both the V.vinifera variety and the rootstock variety to be able to produce a commercial crop, but this
are joined together by machine and stored in a warm technique can allow the grower to adjust quickly to
environment in order to encourage the two parts to changes in market demand. It is also considerably
fuse together. Once this happens the vine can be cheaper than replanting the whole vineyard and the
planted. new variety starts life with an established root system.
24 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
TheGrowing
Environment
5 In order to s~rvive, the ~ine must b_eable to t~ke all_it
needs from its surroundings. The vine needs five things:
heat, sunlight, water, nutrients and carbon dioxide. They can all have an impact on how well a vine grows
and the quality and quantity of grapes it can produce. In this chapter we will look at all of these factors in
turn and how they come together to create the vine's growing environment.
WHAT A VINE NEEDS survive. Once the growing season has started the vine
In the principal wine-producing regions of the world uses sunlight to combine carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) and
the vine has an annual growth cycle. In the winter it is water to produce glucose and oxygen, a process known
dormant and there are no green parts on the plant. as photosynthesis. The vine combines the glucose with
Bud burst marks the start of the growing season in the nutrients it extracts from the soil to support its
spring, as the new shoots begin to grow. During late growth and, most importantly, to ripen its grapes. The
spring and early summer the vine flowers and small oxygen is lost through the leaves.
grapes form, a process known as fruit set. As the summer CO2 is always in plentiful supply; however, the
progresses the grapes grow but are still hard in texture, temperature and sunlight in a vineyard, as well as the
green in colour, with high levels of acidity and no sugar. amount of water and nutrients that are available, are
In late summer or early autumn the grapes start to ripen. factors that are constantly changing. These variations
They become swollen with water, sugar levels rise, acid influence all aspects of the vine's annual growth cycle,
levels drop and flavours develop. The first sign of this and directly affect the quantity and quality of fruit a vine
ripening process is a change of colour in the grape from is able to produce.
green to blue/black, pink or golden depending on the
variety. This change of colour is often known by the HEAT
French term veraison.After the grapes are harvested in What a Vine Needs
autumn the growing season comes to an end. The vine If the temperature is below 10°c it is too cold for the vine
drops its leaves and as autumn turns to winter the vine to grow. This is why vines are dormant in winter and
becomes dormant again. budburst happens in spring . The vine also needs a
In order to complete its annual cycle a vine needs five sufficient amount of heat for successful flowering, fruit
things. Heat is of fundamental importance : if it is too set, and ripening. The amount of heat in the growing
cold the vine will either not grow or it will struggle to season is the defining factor that determines which
grape varieties can be grown where. Not all varieties
Avineyardin Priorat,
Spain. need the same amount of warmth during the growing
Intheforeground,thestony
season. This is why Riesling can thrive in cool locations
soiliscapableof reradiating
where Grenache would not be able to ripen its grapes.
heat.Inthe background,
a
vineyard
is plantedona Factors Affecting Heat
steepterraced
slope. Latitude - In order to meet the vine's temperature needs
and its preference for a dormant period, most vineyards
lie between the latitudes of 30° and 50° north and south
of the Equator . Closer to the Equator it is too hot and
closer to the Poles it is too cold. However, factors other
than latitude can make an area outside these limits
suitable for viticulture.
might otherwise be too hot for grape growing whereas in cool climates where the extra warmth can make the
the Gulf Stream warms the north-west of Europe that difference between a vine being able to ripen a crop or
might otherwise be too cold. not. Steeper slopes benefit even more from this effect.
This can be seen very clearly in the vineyards producing
Fog - Fog can help cool an area that may otherwise the best wines in Mose!, Germany, that not only have the
struggle to produce high -quality grapes. This is a most favourable aspect but are also very steep.
particularly important feature in many top vineyard
areas in California, as well as Casablanca Valley in Chile. Continentality and Diurnal Range
Although the overall amount of heat in the growing
Soil - Soils that are either dark in colour or that have season is the primary concern of a grape grower, it is also
a high stone and rock content absorb and reradiate important to know how much variation there is between
more of the sun's heat than lighter coloured soils. This the temperature in the height of summer and the depths
reradiated warmth can be critical for ripening fruit in of winter, as well as the variations between daytime and
cool climates. On the other hand, soils with high water night-time temperatures . Both of these factors can have
content require more energy to warm up, and conduct an impact on how well a vine performs in a region.
heat from the vine more quickly than dry soils. This can
delay budburst. Continentality - The temperature difference between
the coldest and the hottest months is referred to as
Aspect - The direction in which a slope faces is known continentality. Regions with high continentality have
as its aspect. The vineyards with an aspect facing the large differences in seasonal temperatures. Regions with
Equator receive the most heat. In the Northern low continentality see less variation in temperatures
Hemisphere south facing slopes get the most warmth throughout the year.
whereas in the Southern Hemisphere it is the north Large bodies of water, such as seas or lakes, heat up
facing slopes. This phenomenon is especially important and cool down more slowly than landmasses. Therefore
Heat Carbon
Dioxide
(CO
2) Sunlight
sun • atmosphere sun
• reflected
fromsoil • reflected
fromwater
Oxygen
Photosynthesis
leafcombines
C02 + water
toproduce
glucose+oxygen
Nutrients
soilparticles
Water
humus
rainfall
fertiliser
irrigation
waterstoredinsoil
26 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
in winter they have a warming effect on the surrounding If the winter is mild, or there is no winter at all (as is
air and in summer they have a cooling effect. Areas close the case in subtropical climates), the vine will not have a
to large bodies of water therefore generally have low dormant period and may produce more than one crop
continentality whereas wine regions that are far inland each year. Its life will be shortened, and the quality of
usually see more temperature extremes and have high the grapes will suffer. Mild winters also mean larger
continentality. populations of insect pests survive to attack the vine the
A region's continentality will determine the length of following summer.
the growing season and this has an impact on the total
amount of heat available to a vine. This in turn will Spring frosts - These occur when cold air below 0°C
influence what grape varieties can be successfully grown collects at ground level, freezing any water vapour that
there. has settled on the ground or the vine. If this happens to
newly burst buds or young shoots it kills them. The
Diurnal range - Diurnal range is the difference between damage done and the impact on yields can be
daytime and night-time temperatures. Cool nights help enormous, and in frost-prone regions growers go to
slow the loss of aromas and acidity in the grapes during great lengths to minimise this risk. There are four main
ripening. Warm nights accelerate ripening. For example, forms of protection:
in a region with a warm or hot climate, a vineyard with • Heaters may be placed throughout the vineyard and
a large diurnal range can produce wines that are fresher lit if frost is forecast. The heat they generate creates
and more aromatic compared with a vineyard that has movement in the air preventing the cold air from
a smaller diurnal range. settling and causing the frost.
A vineyard's proximity to seas and lakes can reduce its • Wind machines are widely deployed in vineyards at
diurnal range. Even relatively small bodies of water, such risk from frosts. The most commonly used looks like a
as rivers, can hold enough warmth to keep adjacent large fan that draws warm air from above to keep the
vineyards warm overnight and provide cooling breezes temperature at ground level above freezing. Some
during the day. wind machines incorporate heaters.
The level of cloud cover (generally greater nearer seas • Sprinklers may be used to spray water onto the vines.
and lakes) also influences diurnal range. This is because As the water freezes, it releases some heat into the
temperatures drop more quickly on clear nights, when plant tissue protecting the buds and shoots.
there is no insulating blanket of cloud (increasing diurnal • Thoughtful vineyard design can also minimise the
range), and rise more slowly on cloudy days, when risk of frosts. Because cold air sinks to the lowest point
sunlight cannot heat the ground directly (reducing it can find, it is best to plant vineyards on slopes and
diurnal range). avoid depressions in which cold air can collect.
Vineyards planted on the middle of the slope are
Temperature Hazards noticeably less at risk from frost damage than those
Winter - If temperatures fall below -20°C the vine can in lower lying areas.Vines can also be trained high to
Heaters
inNapaCounty, be seriously damaged or even killed by winter freeze. avoid the worst of the cold air.
California.
Theheatcreates The part of the vine most at risk is the graft. In areas at
airmovement,
whichhelps risk from winter freeze, earth can be used to cover up The growing season - Cold temperatures in the spring
to prevent
frosts. and protect the graft, a process called 'earthing up'. may delay bud burst. This shortens the growing season
and could mean that there is not enough time for the
grapes to ripen fully in the autumn before it becomes
too cold. Flowering and fruit set can also be disrupted by
cold temperatures, resulting in a smaller than average
crop of grapes.
During the summer, very hot temperatures can be
harmful, and in prolonged periods of extreme heat all
vine activity will slow and eventually stop, even when
there is sufficient water . This prevents the grapes from
ripening properly. In extreme cases the vine will die.
SUNLIGHT
What a Vine Needs
Without light, photosynthesis cannot happen and plants
die. Broadly speaking, the more light there is the more
a vine will photosynthesise and the greater the amount
of glucose produced for growth and ripening grapes.
Flowering and fruit set also benefit greatly from plenty
of sunlight.
THEGROWINGENVIRONMENT 27
Aspect - A slope's aspect affects the amount of sunlight reducing the impact of shading because the canopy
it receives and steeper slopes benefit more from this does not grow too large.
effect. Vineyards that face the Equator receive the most
sunlight. The greater the distance from the Equator the Rainfall and Irrigation
weaker the sun's energy, so for vineyards that are closest Rainfall is the most important source of water but, if it is
to the Poles maximising the sunlight with a favourable insufficient, then it can be supplemented with irrigation
aspect is especially important. if local laws permit. There are three main irrigation
techniques.
Sunlight Hazards
There are a number of times in the year when low Drip irrigation - This is the most advanced and
light levels can cause problems for the grape grower. expensive. Each vine has its own dripperthat can be
Sunlight is needed for successful flowering and fruit computer controlled to ensure that each vine gets the
set, and cloudy conditions during this period can optimum amount of water.
result in a smaller crop of grapes. Also, the slowing in
photosynthesis caused by heavy cloud cover can stop Sprinklers - These are still widely used and cheaper
grapes ripening fully. than drip irrigation but they waste a lot of water and,
Although direct sunlight helps grapes to ripen, like rain, they create damp conditions in the vineyard
intensely sunny conditions can cause sunburn , leading increasing the risk of disease. If correctly designed,
to bitter flavours developing in the grape skins. The sprinklers can also be used for frost protection.
grape grower can arrange and manage the leaves of the
vine, known as the vine canopy, to ensure that sunlight Flood irrigation - This is very cheap to use but is only
is maximised in very cloudy areas or that enough shade possible in vineyards that are flat or very gently sloping
is provided in extremely sunny regions. This is covered and where there is access to large quantities of water.
in the section Trellisingand CanopyManagement in
Chapter 6. Water Hazards
Drought - If there is a water shortage the vine can
WATER temporarily stop transpiration in order to preserve its
What a Vine Needs resources. During prolonged shortages or drought, vines
The vine needs water for photosynthesis and to swell its suffer from water stress; photosynthesis stops, leaves wilt
grapes during ripening. The vine accesses water through and grapes fail to ripen. Ultimately this can weaken and
its roots and, in a process known as transpiration, water kill a vine.
is drawn up to the leaves. The amount of water a vine
needs is determined by the temperature. As it gets Too much water - If the vine has access to too much
warmer, water evaporates from the vine's leaves at a water during the growing season the vine will continue
faster rate, meaning that the vine needs to take up more to grow shoots and leaves during the ripening season,
water from the soil to compensate. leaving less sugar for ripening grapes. Furthermore, the
Once a sufficient canopy of leaves has grown, limiting extra shoots and leaves increase the amount of shading
the supply of water can be beneficial for grape ripening . in the canopy, which restricts grape ripening. In extreme
In these conditions the vine has enough water to keep cases,a waterlogged soil can cause the roots to become
photosynthesising but the shortage of water means that saturated and die. Waterlogging can be avoided by
the vine concentrates on grape ripening rather than planting vines on a slope or, on flat sites, installing drainage
further shoot growth . This has the added advantage of pipes to aid the flow of water away from the roots.
28 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
Altitude
Temperature drops as
altitude rises.This can be
advantageous in areas
close to the Equator as
they might otherwise be
too hot.
./
Frost ~-
Vineyard location can - ~ - ~
be used to minimise
the risk of frost. Cold air
descends whereas warm
air rises. In LocationO
the cold air is trapped •
by the surrounding hills,
increasing the risk of
frost. In Locationf}the
cold air flows away and
does not settle in the
vineyard, reducing the
risk of frost.
THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT 29
South Pole
Aspect
Slopes facing the sun get the most
heat and light . In the Northern
Hemisphere, as shown here, these
slopes are south facing . In the
Southern Hemisphere they are north
facing . In this illustration you can
see that the sun's energy is most
concentrated at the middle of the
slope (compared with the top and
bottom), meaning that this location
~,,~~ ,ri
--~ .
... !I
''-•,
,,
.··~~ Cooling Effects from the Ocean
Cold ocean currents can have a cooling
NettinginArgentina
designedto protectthevines
fromdevastating
damage
causedbyhail.Theextentof
thepotentialdamage
justifiesthecostof installing
thenetting.
Rainfall is important both in its timing and the A region's weather, on the other hand, is the annual
amount that falls. Flowering and fruit set can both be variation that happens relative to the climatic average.
disrupted by heavy rainfall and this can significantly Some regions experience greater variation in this pattern
reduce the number of grapes that are formed. Damp than others. For example, the amount and timing of rainfall
conditions that follow rainfall also encourage the spread in Bordeaux, France,can vary quite considerably: in 2007
of fungal diseases. Heavy rain shortly before harvest the region was cool, cloudy and wet during most of August,
time can cause the berries to swell excessively. This whereas in 2003 high temperatures and near drought
dilutes the flavours in the wine they produce and in conditions were experienced. The weather in other regions,
extreme cases the berries swell so much that they split, such as Central Valley in California, is far more predictable,
which attracts fungal disease. This is discussed in more with hot dry weather from one year to the next.
detail in the section Managing VineyardPestsand
Diseasesin Chapter 6. Climate Classification
For the purposes of consistency, in this book a region's
Hail - Hail can damage grapes and even the vine itself. temperature will be defined using the average
In the worst cases it can destroy an entire crop. Some temperature during the growing season, which is April
areas, such as Mendoza in Argentina, are particularly to October in the Northern Hemisphere and October to
prone to hail. In certain vineyards netting is used to April in the Southern Hemisphere . For simplicity, the
protect the vines, which is quite costly. Hail storms tend following temperature terms will be used:
to be very localised and so ultimately the best protection
may be to reduce the risk of losing the whole crop by Cool climates: Regions with an average growing season
owning several vineyard sites in different locations. temperature of 165°C or below.
CLIMATE
ANDWEATHER Moderate climates: Regions with an average growing
The temperature, sunlight and water availability can be season temperature of l 6.S°Cto 185°C.
combined to give an overall picture of the climate and
weather in a region. Warm climates: Regions with an average growing
A region's climate is defined as the annual pattern of season temperature of 18.5°C to 21°(.
temperature, sunlight and rainfall averaged out over
several years.The climate does not change from one year Hot climates: Regions with an average growing season
to the next, though it can alter over a period of decades. temperature in excess of 21°C.
THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT 31
These give a good approximate guide to which grapes larger stones or rocks and humus (organic matter such as
can be successfully ripened in any given region but, decomposing leaves).The composition of the soil and
as noted above, climate classifications also need to size of the particles within it are very important.
incorporate how the temperature varies throughout
the year (continentality) or during a typical day (diurnal Stones, sand and clay - These come from the
range), and also the level and timing of rainfall and underlying rock or later deposits laid on top of the rock.
sunlight. For consistency the following three climate Regardless of the source, it is the size of the soil particles
categories will be used taking into account the that is crucial. Stones are the largest soil particles and
temperature categories of cool, moderate and warm as are not always present in vineyard soils. As noted above,
well as a region's continentality, sunlight and rainfall. stones on the surface of a soil can help heat up a
vineyard. The rest of the soil is made up of tiny particles,
Continental climate - These climates have the greatest the most important of which are sand (the largest) and
difference in temperature between the hottest and clay (the smallest).
coldest months (high continentality) and are usually
characterised by short summers with a large, rapid Humus - This is made up of decomposing plant and
temperature drop in autumn. Cool continental climates animal materials that are rich in plant nutrients and have
such as Chablis and Champagne (both in France) are at excellent water retaining properties.
risk from spring frost, and low temperatures throughout
the growing season can affect flowering, fruit set and Soil and Water
ripening. They are, therefore, better suited to varieties Grape quality is affected by the amount of water that is
that bud late and ripen early. Continental climates are available in the soil. Ideally, the vine needs a good supply
also noted for having dry summers and so if the of water early in the season to support strong shoot and
temperature is high then irrigation can be necessary. leaf growth, followed by mild water stress after veraison;
this has been shown to promote grape ripening.
Maritime climate - Maritime climates are characterised Water is stored in the soil by binding to clay particles
by cool to moderate temperatures and a low annual or humus. If a soil contains too much clay it can easily
difference between the hottest and coldest months become waterlogged, which in extreme cases can kill
(low continentality). Rainfall tends to be evenly spread the vine's roots. Conversely, sand particles and stones
throughout the year which helps to moderate the do not hold water well and facilitate water drainage.
temperature. This means that temperatures are warm Therefore, if there is too much sand and stone in a soil,
enough for grapes to continue ripening far into the insufficient water may be retained and irrigation may be
autumn. Consequently, maritime Bordeaux can needed, even in areas of high rainfall.
successfully ripen the thick-skinned grape variety
AvineintheMaconnais,
Cabernet Sauvignon, which might otherwise struggle
to ripen at this latitude. However, rainfall in the spring France,
suffering
from
SOIL
Soil supplies the vine with water and nutrients and
therefore plays a critical role in grape growing.
Soil Composition
Soil sits above the underlying bedrock, and may be
anything from a few centimetres to several metres deep.
It is made up of tiny particles of various sizes, as well as
32 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Many of the best soils are made up of a mixture of will grow too vigorously and produce a dense leafy
sand and clay particles, known as loam. These soils have canopy that shades the fruit too much. Nevertheless,
good drainage but retain enough water for vine growth. over time the nutrients in the soil become depleted and
However, it is important to note that there is no one soil the grape grower will need to replace them with natural
type that is always ideal, and a soil's suitability will or chemical fertilisers.
depend on other climatic factors such as temperature A common symptom linked to a lack of nutrients is
and rainfall. chlorosis. The leaves turn yellow and the vine's ability
to photosynthesise is restricted . Grapes struggle to
Soil and Nutrients ripen properly and their quality and quantity is reduced .
The most important nutrients for a vine are nitrogen, The problem can be solved by using an appropriate
phosphorus and potassium. These elements are naturally fertiliser.
occurring in the soil and are taken up by the vine roots. The overall impact of soil and vine nutrition on the
Vines do not need high levels of these nutrients in order quality of the grapes and the finished wine is very
to be able to thrive . In fact, if levels are too high the vine complex and beyond the scope of this book.
VINEYARDMANAGEMENT 33
Vineyard
Management
The gra~e grower has_avery simple goal: to ~roduce a healthy
crop of ripe grapes suitable for the style of wine the
winemaker wants to make. In order to be able to do this it is necessary to apply an understanding of
6
how the environment affects the vine's growth. In this chapter we will look at how decisions over site
selection, trellising, training, pruning systems, planting densities and pests and diseases have an impact
on the quality and quantity of grapes that can be harvested each year.
PLANTING/REPLANTING
A new vineyard site must be cleared of any existing
vegetation as necessary. The fertility of the soil may be
tested and fertilisers applied to correct any nutrient
deficiencies. Young vines, usually bought pre-grafted
from a nursery, are planted either by hand or machine.
The young vines are often protected against animals by
individual plastic sleeves. Irrigation is also sometimes
allowed, even in regions where it is otherwise prohibited,
to help young vines establish themselves. The first yield
usually comes in the third year after planting.
Although they can be very long-lived, most vines
are replaced between the ages of 30 and 50 years old .
Some wine estates will use the term 'old vines' or its local
equivalent, to denote a wine made from well-established
plants. These vines are thought to produce fruit of
exceptional quality, often with a greater concentration of
flavours. However, the quantity or yield of grapes a vine
34 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
categories: head training or cordon training. Importantly, Trellising and Canopy Management
either system can be low-trained, to benefit from heat The vine's canopy is made up of all of the green parts
retained by the soil, or high-trained, to avoid frosts. of the vine. Managing this annual growth is a very
important part of grape growing and grape growers
Head training - These vines have relatively little must choose between a number of techniques. The
permanent wood. Some only have a trunk. Others have most important choice concerns whether or not to use
a few short arms of permanent wood growing from the a trellis. Trellises are permanent structures of stakes and
top of the trunk. They can either be spur-pruned or wires that are used to support any replacement canes
replacement cane-pruned. and the vine's annual growth.
Cordon training - These vines typically have a trunk Untrellised vineyards - In some regions, the vines may
with one or more permanent horizontal arms or not have a trellis system and the shoots will hang down
'cordons'. The vines are usually spur-pruned. often as far as the ground. These are called bush vines
Cordon training takes longer to establish because of and they are typically head-trained and spur-pruned.
the greater amount of permanent wood. However, the This system is best suited to warm or hot, dry, sunny
sturdy permanent cordon with shoots positioned along regions, such as the Southern Rhone in France and the
its length makes mechanisation in the vineyard, such as BarossaValley in Australia, where the extra shade helps
machine harvesting, easier to achieve. to protect the grapes. In cool or wet regions, the shade
Vines normally have one or two cordons, but cordon can impede grape ripening and the lack of airflow can
training can also be used to create big vine structures promote disease. This is avoided in Beaujolais, France,
where shoots may grow from four or more cordons. where the shoots of head-trained, spur-pruned vines are
tied together at the tips, which helps expose bunches
Vine Pruning to air and sunlight. This training system is sometimes
Pruning is the removal of unwanted leaves, canes and referred to as gobelet. Untrellised vines are not suitable
permanent wood. It shapes the vine and limits its size. for mechanical harvesting.
Pruning will take place every winter and summer. Winter
pruning is an important part of the vineyard calendar Trellised vineyards - Each row of vines requires a line
and its main purpose is to determine the number and of posts joined by horizontal wires. The vine's canes and
location of the buds that will form shoots in the coming shoots are then tied to the trellis. Together, this is known
growing season. It is important to make sure that the as canopy management.
buds are not close together. This helps with canopy There are three important reasons for doing this. First,
management (see following section Trellising and Canopy the arrangement of the young shoots can be used to
Management). There are two styles of winter pruning: control the amount of sunlight that gets into the canopy.
spur and replacement cane. In regions with limited sunlight, keeping the shoots
apart to create an open canopy maximises the grapes'
Spur pruning - Spurs are short sections of one-year -old exposure to sunlight helping the grapes to ripen
wood that have been cut down to only two to three successfully. However, in regions with intense sunlight,
buds. The spurs are either distributed along a cordon of keeping the grapes shaded by leaves may reduce grape
permanent wood (cordon training) or around the top sunburn, a problem that can lead to off-flavours. Second,
of the trunk (head training). an open canopy can improve air circulation through the
leaves and grapes. This is particularly important in wet
Replacement cane pruning - Canes are longer climates because damp stagnant air can promote fungal
sections of one-year-old wood and can have anything diseases. Finally, trellising can aid mechanisation in the
between eight and 20 buds. Typically only one or two vineyard . Positioning the grapes in one area of the vine
canes are retained and each cane is tied horizontally and the leaves in another means that mechanical
to the trellis for support. This type of pruning is most harvesting is simplified and the spraying of insecticides
often seen on head-trained vines. Replacement cane or fungicides is more effective.
pruning is more complex than spur pruning and The most widely used system is Vertical Shoot
requires a large skilled labour force to choose suitable Positioning (VSP).It can be used with replacement
canes and train them . It is sometimes referred to as cane- or spur-pruned vines. The vine's shoots are trained
Guyot training; one cane is retained in Single Guyot; vertically and are tied in place onto the trellis forming a
two in Double Guyot. single narrow canopy. By keeping the shoots apart this
system keeps the canopy as open, well aerated and
Summer pruning involves trimming the canopy to shade free as possible.
restrict vegetative growth and direct sugar production In hot sunny regions VSPcan be adapted so that the
to the grape, rather than to the growth of shoots and tops of the shoots are not tied in but flop over creating
leaves. It can also involve leaf stripping so that bunches some shade in the canopy to protect the fruit. A producer
of grapes have optimum exposure to sunshine. would choose to use this system rather than an
VINEYARDMANAGEMENT 35
HEAD-TRAINED,
SPUR-PRUNED
Canopy
afterVeraison
AfterWinterPruning
One-year
-oldwood:
HEAD-TRAINED,
REPLACEMENT
CANE
-PRUNED
AfterWinterPruning
Canopy
afterVeraison
Trellis
wire
CORDON-TRAINED,
SPUR-PRUNED
Canopyafter
Veraison
;. AfterWinterPruning
Thisyear'sshoots(VSP)
spur-
36 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
untrellised bush vine because mechanical harvesting Very limited water availability- Some regions have
can be used. very low levels of rainfall or very limited accessto
irrigation. In these circumstances low planting density
Density can be beneficial, as it allows each vine's roots to take
Planting density is the number of vines that are planted up water from a large volume of soil without having to
in a given area.This is typically expressed as the number compete against the roots of neighbouring vines.
of vines planted per hectare. A hectare is an area
enclosed by a square with 100-metre sides. Planting Low levels of nutrients and sufficient rainfall -
densities can vary from as low as 1000 vines per hectare Provided it can accessenough water, a vine will thrive in
to as high as 10 000 vines per hectare. (Some countries barely fertile soil. Left unchecked it will grow vigorously
use acres. One acre is approximately 0.4 hectares.) and produce a lot of green vegetative growth in
There are many factors that influence a grape grower's preference to fruit. In order to counteract this, vines
decision regarding planting density. They cannot all be may be planted at a high density. This provides enough
considered here but one very important set of criteria competition for resources among the roots to restrict
that can, is the availability of nutrients and water . the vine's vegetative growth. Ensuring that the vine has
EXAMPLES
OFVINEYARD
MANAGEMENT
In order to understand some of the reasons behind the choices that are made in the vineyard, consider the
following two examples. Note that in many European wine regions vineyard management is legally controlled
and a grower is compelled to use certain options. This factor is not considered here.
EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE2
Scenario Scenario
Thiswineregionisinlandina hot,verysunnyregion.Rainfall
isvery Thiswineregionisclosetothecoast.It hasa moderate climatewith
lowandthereisnoorverylimitedirrigationwateravailable.
However, highlevelsof rainfallthroughout
theyear.Thesoilfertilityislow.
thesoilhasgoodwater-holdingcapacity.
Low-density
bushvinesinSpain. High-density,
head-trained,
replacement
cane-pruned
vinesin Bordeaux.
VINEYARDMANAGEMENT 37
the correct number of buds after winter pruning is also MANAGING VINEYARD PESTS AND DISEASES
important. The vine stores energy in the form of Vines are susceptible to many pests and diseases, the
carbohydrates over winter. If there are too few buds presence of which may result in a drop in yield and/or
then each bud will have access to too much energy and reduce the quality of the fruit. Grapes may be lost or
will grow vigorously. On the other hand, if there are too damaged by disease or hungry animals. Damage to
many buds, each one will not have access to enough leaves reduces photosynthesis and limits the vine's
energy and the vine will struggle to ripen its crop load. ability to ripen its grapes. Some pests and diseases can
When managed correctly this combination of density be controlled; others may kill the vine.
and pruning makes it easier to maintain an open canopy
with all the advantages this confers on fruit quality and Pests
disease control. High planting density with strict control Phylloxera - This has been discussed in the section
of the number of buds on each vine is common in many Phylloxeraand Rootstocksin Chapter 4.
European vineyards.
Nematodes - These are microscopic worms that attack
High levels of nutrients and sufficient rainfall - Very the roots of vines interfering with water and nutrient
fertile soils are not suitable for viticulture. However, uptake. In certain instances they transmit vine viruses.
some vineyard areas, particularly in the New World, are In terms of treatment, prevention is better than cure.
on soils that offer the vines more nutrients than many of Sanitising the soil before replanting and using resistant
the classic European regions. Here high-density planting rootstocks have been found to be successful.
is often not enough to limit the growth of the vines and
another solution has been developed that involves low- Birds and mammals - They can both consume large
density planting using vines with multiple cordons or volumes of grapes. Furthermore, half-eaten or crushed
canes.This system is often able to produce good quality grapes can lead to an increased risk of fungal disease.
grapes at high yields. Netting is often the best option against birds, whereas
protective fencing may be needed to deter mammals
Yields such as rabbits, deer or wild boar.
Yield is a measure of the amount of grapes produced.
It may be measured in terms of weight, such as tonnes Insects - They feed on both grapes and leaves.The grape
of grapes per hectare, or volume, such as hectolitres of grower may choose to treat the problem with regular
wine per hectare. It is important for a producer to be spraying of insecticides or a more environmentally
able to manage and predict yields. Producers may friendly technique, such as integrated pest management
need to observe legal requirements, such as those that (see section SustainableAgricultureon page 40).
exist in the EU.They may have to meet contractual
obligations or the winemaker may simply need to know Fungal Diseases NettedvinesinNewZealand.
how much tank space they need to make their wine. Downy and powdery mildew - These fungi thrive in Thenetsprotectripegrapes
Predicting yields is not straightforward. An estimate warm, humid environments and can affect all of the frombirds.
can be made from the number of buds left on the vine
after winter pruning but frost damage, poor fruit set
and pests and diseases can all dramatically reduce the
final figure.
If yields are going to be too high then they can be
reduced by removing immature grapes shortly after
veraison.This practice, known as green harvesting, is
risky because if it is done at the wrong time the vine
will compensate for the loss by increasing the size of the
grapes that have been retained. This can not only return
the yield to the original size but will also dilute the
flavours in the remaining grapes.
THEVINEYARDCYCLE
This diagram shows the annual growth cycle of the vine and the timings of the most common vineyard tasks.
Budburst
March-April in the Northern Hemisphere
September-October in the Southern Hemisphere
Budburst
occursinthespring.Budsswellandburst,growing
intonewshoots.
Budburst isthestartofthegrowingseasonandgenerally beginswhen
themeandailytemperature exceeds10°C. Thetemperature
at which
budburstoccursdependsonthegrapevariety. Chardonnay
andPinot
Noirbudat relatively
lowtemperaturesandarecalledearly-budding
varieties,
whereasCabernetSauvignon isa late-budding
variety
needingwarmerconditions.
Newshootscanbekilledbyspringfrosts,reducing
yields
significantly,
particularly
inearly-buddingvarieties. 2, 3, 4. Budburst.
Spraying
againstfungaldiseases
andpests,ifpractised, 1. Avineyard
afterwinterpruning.
beginsat thistime.
Winter Dormancy
December-March in the Northern Hemisphere
July-September in the Southern Hemisphere
16. Avineyard
inwinterbeforepruning.
Astheweatherbecomescolder,thegrowingseasonendsanda periodof 1s. Hand-harvested
whitegrapes.
winterdormancybegins.Theshootsbecome woodyandfromthispoint
areknownascanes.Theleavesfallandthevinestoresitsreservesof 14. Ripewhitegrapes.
Notethechange
carbohydrates initsroots. incolour
postveraison.
Incontinental climates,
winterfreezecankillbudsandinextremecasesthe 13. Ripeblackgrapes.
vineitself.Earthmaybepileduparoundthevineto providesomeprotection.
Winterpruning
takesplace.
Harvest
September-October in the Northern Hemisphere
March-April in the Southern Hemisphere
Ideally
theharvestperiodshouldbedry.Excess rainfall
beforeharvest
cancausegrapesto swell,diluting
thejuice,anddueto dampconditions it
canincrease
the riskofrot.
Wherepractised,
spraying
musthavefinished
earlyenoughto ensurethatthereareno
harmfulchemicalresiduesinthewine.
VINEYARDMANAGEMENT 39
Shootsgrowrapidly
untilthevineflowers.Initially
thisisfuelledbythevine's
carbohydratereservesstoredoverwinterbutastheleavesmaturetheysupportthe
growthviaphotosynthesis.Thevineneedsa goodsupply ofwaterandsufficient
nutrients
earlyintheseason.Ifpractised,
shootsaretiedtothetrellisto
ensurethecanopy remainsopen.
Spraying
continues
asnecessary.
5. Early
shootgrowth. Whentheinflorescences
startflowering
thevinesneedswarm
6. Aninflorescence
before temperatures,
plentyofsunshineandlittleornorainotherwise
flowering. pollination
canbedisrupted, reducing
fruitset.
7. Aninflorescence
inflower. Fruitsetoccurs
whena flowerstartsto develop intoa grape.Not
everyflowerbecomes a grapeandafterfruitsetunpollinated flowers
8. Aclose-up
ofaninflorescence
inflower. dropoff.Ifmoreflowersthannormal failtofertilise
thiscondition
iscalledcouture.
Grapes canalsosometimes formwithoutseeds
andremainsmall.Thisisknownasmillerandage. Bothofthese
conditionsreduceyieldsandusuallystemfromcold,cloudy or
rainyweatherduringthepollinationperiod.
Spraying
continues
asnecessary
.
9. Fruitset.
1O.Immaturegrapesbeforeveraison.
Notethatallgrapesaregreenatthis
stage.
11. Blackgrapesduring
veraison.
Veraison and Berry Ripening
12.Avineyard
infullcanopy. July-September in the Northern Hemisphere
January-March in the Southern Hemisphere
green parts of the vine including the leaves and the and diseases significantly increased. There was also an
grapes. If affected, grapes lose their fruity flavours and increased use of chemical fertilisers. A number of grape
can give the wine a mouldy bitter taint. growers still rely on regular and systematic applications
of man-made chemicals to protect their vines and
Grey rot - This is caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea. It fertilise their land.
thrives in damp conditions, and typically attacks grapes. However, the extent of environmental damage that
It can taint grape flavours and lead to colour loss in black this amount of chemical spraying has caused both in
grapes. In certain conditions and for certain white grape vineyards and the surrounding areas has become an
varieties a Botrytis cinerea infection can be beneficial as increasing worry to many grape growers, consumers and
it helps to produce some of the finest sweet wines in the legislators. In many major vineyard regions there are
world. In this case the infection is called noble rot. More increasing efforts to reduce the quantity of chemicals
details can be found in the section Sweet Winemaking in used. There are three main options available to grape
Chapter 8. growers wishing to do this.
HARVESTING
1. Machine in
harvesting
France.
Theharvester
is
ableto straddle
a rowof
vines.Beatershitthe
trunksof thevines
knocking
offthegrapes,
whicharecaughtand
transferred
to a trailer
fordelivery
to thewinery.
2. Handharvestingin
Argentina.
42 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
is essential because the onset and level of rot can vary whole, intact grape bunches that can produce a very
between bunches and even within a bunch, meaning clean, pure juice when pressed in white winemaking and
careful selection is needed. Lessdamage tends to occur that are essential for whole bunch fermentations in red
to the grapes when they are manually harvested and the winemaking. Hand harvesting may also be the only
grapes can be further protected from damage by being option on steep vineyard slopes, such as many of those
transported in shallow, stackable trays. Unlike machine found in the Douro in Portugal, Mosel in Germany, and
harvesting, the grape stems are retained. This gives Northern Rhone in France.
COMMONELEMENTS
INWINEMAKING
AND MATURATION 43
Common
Elements
inWinemaking
andMaturation 7
There are certain factors and processes that are common to all wines and these are explored in this
chapter. It is important to get an appreciation of their roles in winemaking and maturation and how they
influence the style and quality of wine in order to be able to understand why white, red, rose and sweet
wines are made the way they are.
DIFFERENT
WINEMAKING
APPROACHES winemakers who choose to take a more hands-off
Winemaking is a process that starts with grapes and approach. They may monitor the wine's progress
ends with wine. After harvest, the grapes are processed throughout production, but overall the wine is
and prepared for alcoholic fermentation, at which point produced with as little human intervention as possible.
yeast convert the sugars in the grape juice to alcohol. Compared with the majority of wines on sale, wines
Once this is complete, the wines need to be stored prior made with minimal intervention often have a very
to packaging and sale. None of this can happen without different taste profile. They are sometimes referred to
the intervention of humans and the hundreds of choices as natural wines.
they make along the way. The approaches described above are at two ends of
In recent decades advances in our scientific a spectrum with many winemakers taking a stance
understanding ofwinemaking and the application of somewhere in between. In this chapter we will simply
this knowledge has meant that many more options are focus on the techniques that are used to make the vast
now available for winemakers to choose from. As a majority of wines that are available today.
result, very different views on what approach to take
have now evolved. COMMONELEMENTS THROUGHOUT
WINEMAKING
There are some winemakers who choose to control AND MATURATION
each part of the winemaking process as much as Oxygen
possible. They have a particular stylistic goal, and Oxygen is a gas that can react with grape juice as well as
they tailor their winemaking techniques to make sure with many of the component parts of a wine during the
they achieve this goal. However, there are some winemaking and maturation process.The effect of these
CONSTITUENT
PARTSOF GRAPES
This diagram shows the key parts of the grape and the role they play in winemaking.
Bloom- Thisisthewaxysurfacethatcovers
theskinsofthe
grapesandcontains
yeastthatcanbeusedtofermentthewine.
Seedsandstems- Seedsandstemsboth
containtannins.Seedsalsocontain
highlevels
ofbitteroils.Thestemsareonlyavailable
to
thewinemaker ifgrapesarehandharvested.
Pulp-Waterisbyfarthelargestsingle
component ina grape'spulpandconsequently
inthewineaswell.Sugaristhesecondlargest
component ina grape'spulpandisofvital
Skins-A grape'sskinandthearea ------ ~ importance: theyeastwilluseit tomake
immediately beneathcontains
a high
alcohol.
Acids arealsofoundinthepulp.The
concentrationofflavour
compounds,
mostabundant acidistartaricacidfollowed
by
whichgiveeachgrapeitssignature
malicacid,andthesegrapeacidsarepresentin
varietal
character.
Theskinsalsocontain
thefinishedwine.
tannins(seebelow) andcolour
compounds . Theamountoftanninsand
colour
inblackgrapesissignificantly
higherthaninwhitegrapes.
chemical reactions, referred to as oxidation, is sometimes For most wine, too much exposure to oxygen can be
positive and sometimes negative. damaging. The resulting wine can lose much of its fresh
fruit flavour and smell stale. In these instances the wine
Oxygen in winemaking - For any winemaker who is said to be oxidised and is unfit for sale. In extreme
wants to make a wine dominated by primary fruit cases, bacteria will use oxygen to change the wine into
characteristics, oxygen is an ever-present threat that vinegar, rendering the wine undrinkable.
needs to be countered. Antioxidants such as sulfur
dioxide are used, and every effort is made to keep Sulfur Dioxide
oxygen contact to a minimum. Grapes are picked at Sulfur dioxide (50 2) is almost indispensable in the
night when it is cooler and the effect of oxygen is winery. It acts as an antioxidant and an antiseptic. It can
reduced because chemical reactions occur more slowly be used to protect freshly harvested grapes and levels
at lower temperatures. The grapes are kept chilled until are adjusted throughout the winemaking process. The
they reach the winery. Once there, all efforts are made to upper levels of 50 2 in wine are strictly controlled by law
keep the grapes and juice away from oxygen by filling because it can be toxic (although the concentrations
airtight winery equipment with either carbon dioxide or found in wine lie far below toxic levels and are lower
nitrogen before they are used for grape processing or than those that can be found in dried fruit). It can also
winemaking. This process is sometimes referred to as cause allergic reactions even at low levels. Although
protective or anaerobic winemaking. some 50 2 is produced naturally in fermentation, most
Some argue that wines made in this manner can be winemakers agree that keeping additions of 50 2 as low
bland and uninteresting and that a higher level of as possible is preferable, not least because if levels
contact with oxygen during the winemaking process become too high the wine can seem harsh and lacking
helps to develop complexity and character in a wine. in fruit. A very small number of winemakers go a step
This ultimately is a question ofwinemaking style. further and refuse to use 50 2 at all.
Oxygen in maturation - Wines that have been Antioxidant effects - 50 2 protects the grape juice and
protected from oxygen during winemaking rarely if ever wine from the effects of oxidation. In doing this, 50 2
benefit from any contact with oxygen during maturation. loses the ability to have any further protective effect
In this instance the wines are stored in inert airtight and becomes what is known as 'bound'. Levels of 50 2
tanks or vats that are kept completely full. These vessels therefore need constant monitoring and replenishing
are either made from stainless steel or from cement lined to ensure the wine remains protected.
with epoxy resin.
Wines that are matured aerobically (in contact with Antiseptic effects - 50 2 is toxic to the many strains of
oxygen) are stored in wooden vessels that are normally yeast and bacteria that can cause unwanted flavours in
made of oak. Oak may be watertight but it is not airtight. wines. Fortunately for winemakers the principal yeast
Small amounts of oxygen can make it through the oak to involved in the alcoholic fermentation is able to tolerate
react with the wine. This can help to soften tannins in red levels of 50 2 that are toxic to these other species.
wines and gives more complexity to the flavours of the
wine; primary fruit flavours gradually fade and tertiary Oak Vessels
characters start to develop, such as leather and earth. The The vast majority of wooden vessels used in the winery
wine may also change in appearance: red wines gradually for fermentation and maturation are made of oak. As
become paler and gain a hint of brown; white wines stated above, oak vessels allow a small level of oxidation
become deeper in colour, and gain a hint of orange. while the wine is maturing, allowing tertiary aromas to
The amount of oxidation depends on the size of the develop. However, the wine can also extract tannin and
vessel and the length of time the wine is stored in it. flavours from the oak itself. Oak tannins give more
Small vessels such as 225-litre barriques have a greater structure to both red and white wines, increasing their
oxidative effect than larger vessels as they present a textural complexity. Oak can give aromas and flavours
proportionately larger surface area of wood to the wine. such as toast, vanilla, smoke and cloves. Hygiene is a
Consequently, wines are rarely kept in barrique for longer particular challenge when using oak, because it is
than two years. Wines kept in larger oak vessels may be difficult to keep wooden vessels completely free of
matured for longer. yeasts, bacteria and moulds. Wine can be ruined by
The effect of oxygen can be further enhanced if the tainted wood.
container is not completely full. This technique is Oak vessels differ widely in their characteristics and
sometimes used for fortified wines that are deliberately many winemakers will purposely use many different
oxidative in style such as O/oroso Sherry, Tawny Port and types of vessels to enhance the complexity of the final
Rutherglen Muscat. This extra oxygen contact, which can wine. There are four important factors to consider:
sometimes last for many years, means that these wines
develop a pronounced tertiary character of caramel, Species and origin of oak - Different species of oak
toffee and nuts. have different characteristics but it is also possible for
COMMONELEMENTSIN WINEMAKING
AND MATURATION 45
WINERYVESSELS
2. Adose-upofoakstaves.
3. Concrete
tanks.Arackofoakstavescanbe seeninfrontofthe
tanks.
4. Concrete
vesselsshapedlikeeggshavebecomefashionable
in
recentyears.Theshapeofthesevatsisthoughtto aidthe
naturalflowofthejuice/wine,reducingthe needformanual
punchingdownandpumpingover.
5. Alargewineryequippedwithstainlesssteeltanks.
46 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
the same species of oak to show different characteristics can be made in any shape and size. They can also
depending on where it is grown. Most winery oak vessels incorporate temperature control mechanisms to control
are made from either European oak or American oak. the juice or wine temperature. These may be sleeves on
European oak has broadly similar characteristics whether the outside of the vessels or internal coils through which
it comes from France, Hungary, Russia or elsewhere, cold or hot liquid can be circulated.
although there are some forests, especially in France,
that are considered to produce the finest oak. Concrete vessels - These vessels are usually lined with
epoxy resin, which is inert and provides a waterproof
Size - Small vessels (commonly referred to as 'barrels'), barrier. They were commonly used before stainless steel
such as the 225-litre barrique and the 228-litre piece, vessels became available and many have now been
have a much greater effect on the wine than larger replaced. They can be less easy to clean and maintain
vessels, which can reach sizes in excess of 2000 litres. than stainless steel tanks. However, some winemakers
This is because in smaller vessels more of the wine is in prefer these vessels because the thick concrete shells
contact with the surface of the barrel. help to regulate temperature during fermentation and
maturation without the need to use expensive
Production of oak barrels - The way in which the barrel temperature control equipment.
is made has a vital influence on how it will affect the wine.
Arguably the toasting of the barrel is one of the most Glass bottles are also inert vessels than can be used for
important procedures in this sense.The barrel production storage and maturation in the winery (see section Post-
process involves heating the staves so that they can be bottling Maturation on page 53).
bent into shape. This heating process also transforms the
tannins and flavour compounds in the oak, giving notes GRAPE PROCESSING
of sweet spice and toast. The temperature and length of Grape Reception
heat exposure, referred to as the level of toasting, affects The grapes usually receive their first dose of S0 2 as they
what flavours the barrel contributes to the wine. arrive at the winery. If the grapes are destined for a
premium wine they will usually be individually checked
Age - The effect of toasting diminishes each time the on a sorting table to eliminate unripe or rotten grapes.
barrel is used. A barrel that has been used once gives a Such a careful selection is rarely possible in high volume
wine less flavour than a brand-new one and, by the time wine production.
a cask is on its fourth usage, it imparts little flavour or
tannin. The flavours of new oak are not desirable for all Destemming and Crushing
wines and some producers choose not to use new oak These are both optional processes. Machine-harvested
barrels in order to make a wine with more subtle oak grapes arrive without stems, and even if the grapes have
flavours. been hand harvested, most winemakers choose to
remove them. This is usually done in a machine that can
Oak Alternatives subsequently crush the grapes. Crushing breaks the
Oak vessels are not the only means by which oak aromas skins of the grapes and liberates a quantity of juice,
and tannins can be added to a wine. Small planks of oak known as free run juice, but it should avoid damaging
known as staves or even smaller oak chips can be the seeds. If seeds are crushed they will release bitter oils
inserted into the wine during fermentation or maturation and tannin, and the wine may become unpleasantly
in inert winery vessels. Both methods can provide some astringent and bitter.
oak aromas and tannins at a much lower cost than using
casks.The oxidative effects of barrel ageing can be Pressing
replicated by adding small, controlled quantities of Pressing separates the liquid and the solid constituents
oxygen to the wine vessel. These techniques are still the of the grape. In the case of white wines, pressing occurs
subject of much research. As yet, premium wines are not before the start of fermentation, while for red wines
normally made using these techniques. this typically happens after fermentation. As with the
crushing process, seeds should remain undamaged.
Inert Winery Vessels Modern techniques are designed to achieve a gentle
These vessels do not add flavour to wines or allow pressing of the grapes for this reason.
oxidation and consequently they are frequently referred Traditionally, all wine presses were vertical, with the
to as inert. Most of these vessels are made of stainless pressure on the grapes coming from above using a plate
steel or concrete. They are widely used for fermentation that was raised or lowered using a screw or a lever. These
and are also often used to temporarily store finished vertical 'basket' presses, now often fully automated,
wine until it can be bottled. are still used by many wineries particularly, but not
exclusively, in the Champagne region. Pneumatic presses
Stainless steel - Most modern winery vessels are made are a more recent development. They consist of an
from stainless steel. They are easy to keep clean and inflatable rubber tube within a perforated, horizontal,
COMMONELEMENTSINWINEMAKING
AND MATURATION 47
GRAPE
RECEPTION
1.Sortinghand-picked
wholebunches
ontheirwayto thedestemmer.
2.Adestemmer.
Thepaddlesspinround,knocking
offthegrapes,whichexit
through
theholesinthedrum.
3. Sortingdestemmed
grapes.Theredstructures
at thebottomof thepicture
arethe rollers
at thetopof thecrusher.
stainless steel cylinder, which makes it possible to apply (often called the 'must weight'), the winemaker may
pressure over a larger area, in a controllable way. Some decide to carry out enrichment. This process involves
pneumatic presses are built within a closed tank so that increasing sugar levels in the juice by adding Rectified
the amount of oxygen in contact with the juice is kept Concentrated Grape Must (RCGM- a colourless,
to a minimum. odourless syrupy liquid) either before or during
The liquid released at the start of pressing is very fermentation. This in turn has the effect of raising the
different from that released towards the end, in terms level of alcohol in the final wine because there is more
of flavour and texture. The winemaker may decide to sugar available for the yeast to turn to alcohol.
separate the liquid into different pressings, called Enrichment is forbidden in many parts of the world and
fractions, and treat them individually. The different where it is permitted it is strictly controlled. If carried out
components can then be tasted and blended in different with care, enrichment may give a better wine. If abused,
proportions to create a certain style. Presswine is it can produce a wine that tastes hard and thin, because
discussed in the section PressWinein Chapter 9. there are insufficient flavours to balance the artificially
elevated alcohol. Where sugar from sources other than
ADJUSTMENTS grapes is added, for example sugar beet, this process is
Adjustments to one or more of the major components called chaptalisation.
of the grape juice or wine are sometimes required for a Another option is to remove water from the juice,
variety of reasons. Adjustments can be made before, which concentrates the sugars and can lead to a wine
during or after fermentation. What is legally permitted that is higher in alcohol. However, removing water also
varies from region to region. Note that grape juice is concentrates everything else, including tannins, acids,
commonly referred to as 'must'. flavour compounds and unfortunately any faults . It also
reduces the volume of the juice so less wine can be
Sugar and Alcohol made and sold.
In cooler climates, there may be insufficient natural It is very difficult to remove sugar from the juice, but
sugar in the grapes to give the wine a satisfactory level modern machinery can remove alcohol from the wine
of alcohol. Depending on the level of sugar in the juice after fermentation is complete.
48 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
PRESSES
1.Vertical
basketpresses.
2.Threepneumatic
presses.Abladder
inside
thepressthatcanbe
filledwithcompressed
airpressesthegrapes
againstrigidinternal
structures.
Malolactic Fermentation (MLF) fall to the bottom of the fermentation or storage vessel
Malolactic fermentation usually takes place once the within a matter of hours. The sediment that forms is
alcoholic fermentation has finished, and is carried out known as the gross lees and, if not removed, it can cause
by lactic acid bacteria. They convert the tart malic grape unpleasant aromas to develop in the wine. Smaller
acid (also found in apples) into the softer lactic acids (also particles may settle more slowly. These are known as the
found in milk). MLF softens and reduces acidity, as well fine lees and they are often removed gradually through
as creating buttery flavours and producing CO2. MLF may the wine maturation process (see section Sedimentation
be encouraged by raising the temperature of the wine on page SO).In some cases the winemaker may choose
and by not adding 50 2 after the alcoholic fermentation. to keep a white wine in contact with the fine lees during
It can be avoided through storage at cool temperatures, pre-bottling maturation in order to add extra flavours
the use of 50 2, or by filtering out the bacteria. and a richer texture to the wine.
CONSTITUENTS OF WINE
This is a graphic illustration of a typical still dry wine that shows the relative volumes of a wine's constituents.
The percentages given below cover a range that is typical for most wine. They are expressed as a percentage of
the volume in a bottle of wine.
Sugars
(0.1-20%)
Theamountofsugarpresentinthewinewillvarydepending
onthestyleofthewine.Sugarisobviously
a majorcomponent
insweetwinesbutevendrywinesmaycontain a verysmall
quantity
ofunfermentedsugar.
Thisrangecovers
mostsweetwines.Somelusciouswines,such
asPXSherry,mayhaveevenhigherlevelsofresidual
sugar.
Ethanol(8-22%)
Ethanol
isthemainalcohol inwine.Smaller
Acids
(0.3-1%)
quantities
ofotheralcoholsarealsomadeduring
Themostimportant
acidsinwinearetartaric,malicand lactic.
fermentation.
(Thisfigureincludes
fortified
wines.
) -------l • --'
Tannins
andColour
(upto 0.4%)
Tannins
andcolour
areparticularly
important
inredwines. -----p;•~iiiiii•liiil•••IJ
~ AromaandFlavourCompounds(upto 0.2%)
Hundreds ofdifferent
compounds havebeenfoundto
contribute
to thearomasandflavours
ofwines.Theyare
presentinverysmallamounts.
Water(70-90%)
Wateristhemostabundant
component
inwine.
Note:These
percentages areincludedforreference
only
andstudentswillnotbeexpectedto knowthesenumbers
fortheexamination
.
50 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
months, having been stored in an inert vessel. This is true and easy-drinking, to very complex and designed for
for both inexpensive red and white wines and some long -term cellaring. In some cases the winemaker may
premium wines too. For example, a premium Australian actively seek to create as many blending options as
Riesling rarely benefits from any contact with oak or possible throughout the winemaking process in order to
oxygen and will be stored before bottling in similar inert achieve this style. This may include separating different
vessels to an inexpensive Californian White Zinfandel. press fractions, fermenting or maturing the wine in
To survive medium- or long-term ageing, wines need different vessels, or only allowing a proportion of the
sufficient levels of tannin, acidity and/or alcohol, and wine to go through malolactic fermentation. Using
importantly, they must have flavours that will develop wines from different grape varieties, vineyard plots and
in an interesting way in order to make such ageing vintages may also help to achieve this goal.
worthwhile.
Many changes can occur to wines that undergo pre- CLARIFICATION
bottling maturation. The maturation vessel itself can The vast majority of customers expect their wines to be
affect the flavour by either adding oak flavours or by perfectly clear. There are three main techniques a
allowing oxidation to take place. Over time, components winemaker can use to achieve this: sedimentation, fining
in the wine react with each other, which can further alter and filtration. Some premium wines do not undergo all
the flavour or balance of the wine. Sometimes this can of these treatments because the winemakers believe
lead to the formation of particles that fall to the bottom some of them can harm the character of the wine. Their
of the vessel under the force of gravity, creating a consumers often value the concept of minimally treated
sediment that is periodically removed. wines and as such are unconcerned by sediment.
Blending Sedimentation
Blending plays a vital role in the winemaking process for Most wine will undergo sedimentation after the
virtually every wine, including those made from a single fermentation has finished. Once the gross lees have
grape variety. Blending can take place at any stage settled in a deposit, the wine can then be slowly and
during the winemaking process but is mainly carried gently pumped into a different vessel leaving the
out after fermentation or during the maturation process. sediment behind, a process known as racking. The wine
It can be used to improve balance, attain consistency or will continue to throw a deposit of fine lees during
achieve a certain style. When blending involves wines maturation and the clarity of the wine can be gradually
from different grape varieties, vineyard locations or improved by repeated rackings. For some fine wines,
vintages, the winemaker will need to be aware of any sedimentation and racking is the only clarification that
constraints imposed by local winemaking regulations will take place.
(see section Label Integrity in Chapter 11). Sedimentation relies on gravity to pull the suspended
particles to the bottom of the liquid but gravity is a weak
Balance - Blending allows the winemaker to adjust the force and acts slowly. This process can be accelerated by
balance of the wine, enhancing its quality. For example, putting the wine in a centrifuge; however, this piece of
when making a red wine, free run wine may be blended equipment is generally very expensive.
with press wine to increase the tannins in the final
product. Fining
Sometimes hazes or deposits may only appear in wine
Consistency- Significant variation among the bottles after a period of time in bottle. This is because some
of a single product will in most cases be viewed as a wine constituents slowly clump together over time,
fault, and thus blending to attain consistency is a vital eventually becoming large enough to become visible.
process in wine production. Wines matured in small Fining is a process that speeds up this process so that
barrels often develop in subtly different ways from one these particles can be removed from the wine before
barrel to another and thus need blending together in a bottling. It involves adding a fining agent to the wine -
large vat before bottling to smooth out inconsistencies. a substance that forms bonds with certain wine
Even without the influence of oak, different vats may constituents and causes visible clumps to form. These
need blending for consistency either due to variations clumps can then be removed by filtering.
in the fruit (different vineyards or different harvesting Fining is widely practised and is generally considered
times) or due to slight inconsistencies that arise during an important step in ensuring wine stability. However,
winemaking. some winemakers choose not to fine their wines as they
believe it can adversely affect flavour and texture.
Style - Blending is also very important in deciding and
maintaining the style of a wine. Although variations in Filtration
the weather may cause the wines of different vintages This is a process that physically removes particles from a
to vary, many winemakers aim to produce their wines in wine as it is passed through a filter. Wines can be filtered
a certain house style. This style may range from simple after fermentation and during maturation to remove the
COMMONELEMENTS
INWINEMAKING
AND MATURATION 51
FILTERS
1. Equipment
usedforsurface
filtration.
Thereplaceable
filtermembrane
is
positioned
insidethemetalcasing.
Twoexamples
of depthfilters:
2. Arotarydrumfilter.
3. Aplateandframefilter.
gross and fine lees quickly, and are usually filtered prior it changes in a slow, predictable manner. The time frame
to bottling to ensure that the wine is clear. There are two and the amount of change deemed to be acceptable will
methods of filtration: vary from wine to wine. For example, a high-volume
inexpensive red wine that should be consumed within a
Depth filtration - The filters used in depth filtration are year of production should not throw a deposit in bottle,
made from a thick layer of material. As the wine passes whereas a mature Vintage Port would be expected throw
through the filter the solid parts become trapped inside a thick deposit over the course of the 50 to 60 years it
this material. These filters are able to handle very cloudy may spend in bottle . Fining, which helps with clarity, can
wines and can be used to remove the gross lees. therefore also be seen as a stabilisation process because
it aims to produce a predictable outcome after bottling .
Surface filtration - The filters used for surface filtration There are three other important areas that require
resemble very fine sieves. The solid particles are trapped stabilisation:
on the surface of the filter as the wine flows through it.
The filte rs are very expensive and clog up extremely Tartrate Stability
easily, so are generally used for wines that have already Tartaric acid is less soluble in wine than in grape juice
been passed through a depth filter. Where the pore size and over time it can form crystals called tartrates. These
is small enough to remove yeast and bacteria that might appear as clear crystals in wh ite wine but as purple
still be present in the wine, this is referred to as sterile crystals in red wine because they are stained by the
filtration. This can be used as a final treatment prior to colour compounds. These crystals are harmless and
bottling. flavourless but for most consumers they spoil the
As with fining, some winemakers believe that filtration appearance of the wine. Cool temperatures accelerate the
can negatively affect a wine's character, especially its formation of tartrate crystals and if a wine undergoes a
texture. For this reason, some wines are bottled unfiltered. long maturation period in a cool cellar prior to bottling,
it will deposit some of its tartrates during maturation. In
STABILISATION situations where a long maturation is inappropriate,
All wines change with time and so a winemaker will winemakers can force the crystals to form prior to bottling
consider a wine stable if, over a specified time frame, by chilling the wine down to below 0°C for a short period
52 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
of time. The crystals that form are removed by filtration. these protected at all times. They are also sterile filtered
As with fining and filtration, some winemakers choose prior to packaging.
not to stabilise their wines in this way.
Oxygen Stability
Microbiological Stability If excessive levels of oxygen are dissolved in the wine,
Many different forms of yeast and bacteria can spoil a or if oxygen can enter through the packaging, the wine
wine and make it completely undrinkable and unfit for will oxidise, losing its fresh fruit aromas, and gradually
sale.These microorganisms can thrive in grape and wine turn brown. The risk of oxidation can be minimised by
residues, and therefore it is very important to keep avoiding exposure to oxygen and keeping 50 2 levels
winery equipment completely clean. The only wines that topped up. The winemaker must take a number of extra
are not at any risk from microbiological contamination precautions during packaging to ensure that oxygen
are fortified wines because the high level of alcohol they does not come into contact with the wine. For example,
contain is toxic for all microorganisms. However, a dry, bottles can be flushed with either carbon dioxide or
high acid wine that has undergone MLF is naturally nitrogen before filling to eliminate oxygen.
quite resistant to microbiological spoilage. The alcohol,
acidity and the lack of nutrients mean that most yeast PACKAGING
or bacteria struggle to survive. This is not a complete Bottles and Alternatives
guarantee, but some winemakers prefer to take this The majority of wine worldwide is packaged in glass
risk rather than sterile filter their wine, as described on bottles. They are portable, cheap to produce and quite
Alineupof different page 51. strong. Importantly, they do not allow air to get into the
packaging options; (from Wines that have not undergone MLF,as well as wines wine, and they do not taint the wine's flavours . They
leftto right)twosizesof that have low to medium alcohol, low acidity and a little remain the consumer's preferred form of packaging.
plasticbottles,a bag-in-box residual sugar, are particularly at risk from yeast or The main disadvantages of bottles are that they are
andtwosizesof glass bacterial spoilage. Consequently, very careful handling heavy and rigid. Weight adds to transport costs, and
bottles. and an appropriate amount of 50 2 is required to keep their rigidity means that they cannot be packed to make
-
--=
COMMONELEMENTSINWINEMAKING
AND MATURATION 53
Alineupof different
closures;
(fromleftto right)
a corkforstillwine,a cork
forsparkling
wine,a stopper
cork,a synthetic
corkanda
screwcap.
the best use of the available space. To lower these costs, Cork- This is the original wine bottle closure and it is
a number of producers have started using lighter weight still the mostly widely used. It remains the closure of
glass bottles. Others now transport their wines in bulk to choice for many wines that are intended for bottle
be bottled in (or nearer to) the country where the wine maturation as it allows a small amount of oxygen to
is to be sold. gradually enter the bottle achieving what many
The rigidity of glass bottles also means that once winemakers would consider to be an optimal balance
opened, a part-filled bottle will contain a space for air, between primary and tertiary characteristics. However,
at which point the wine is vulnerable to oxidation. a small but declining percentage of bottles with a cork
Plastic bottles are much lighter than glass. Unfortunately, closure suffer cork taint, and a further proportion (which
the plastics used for these allow small amounts of air to increases with the age of the wine) allows too much
pass through the plastic into the wine. This means that oxygen in, oxidising the wine. Cork taint is caused by a
wines packaged in plastic bottles can lose freshness and chemical called TCA (trichloroanisole) which is present in
fruitiness over a period of months . Bag-in-box packs are some corks and gives the wine a mouldy, cardboard-like
another form of packaging often used for large volumes aroma. Cork producers have invested considerable sums
of wine. The bag collapses as the wine is consumed, in developing treatments designed to prevent the
preventing air from entering. However, some air can formation ofTCA with varying degrees of success.
still get through the wall of the bag and as a result most
bag-in-box packs need to be used within approximately Synthetic corks - These are generally made from some
18 months of being filled. Plastic bottles and bag-in-box form of plastic. Although these closures only used to be
packs are adequate for most wines, since they are suitable for wines to be consumed within a year of
intended for early consumption, but for long-term storage bottling, there are now several premium versions on the
and ageing, glass bottles remain the best option. market that allow longer term storage .
that can mature in bottle for several years and are not any ageing time should be spent undisturbed in a cool
at their best in the years immediately after bottling. dark place, with a constant temperature, ideally around
Some notable examples include Vintage Port, the finest 10-1 S C.There should also be constant humidity and, if
0
German Rieslings and crusclassesBordeaux. The sealed with cork, the bottles should be stored lying on
chemistry involved in this maturation process is still their side, so that the corks remain moist and an
poorly understood. However, it is widely agreed that optimum seal is maintained .
WHITEAND SWEETWINEMAKING 55
and/ or filtration to improve the clarity and stability of Before fermentation, the juice will be highly clarified to
the wine. The relatively pale colour of most white wines ensure fruity flavours are retained during fermentation.
compared with red ones makes any haze or sediment Settling using gravity may be too slow, tying up valuable
readily apparent. Also, white wines that contain some tank space for too long, therefore, where possible, the
residual sugar are at risk from microbiological infection winery may use a centrifuge or filter to speed up the
and in such cases the winemaker may wish to sterile process.
filter the wine to remove any yeast or bacteria that may Stainless steel tanks are the fermentation vessels of
be present. choice for these wines. Fermenting at cool temperatures
can help to preserve as many primary fruit aromas and
PRODUCING HIGH-VOLUME, INEXPENSIVE WHITE flavours as possible. This is vital if the grapes have
WINES relatively little flavour, for example when Pinot Grigio has
These wines are widely produced and enjoyed by a large been grown to produce high yields. Commercial yeasts
proportion of wine consumers. They are not particularly will be used to ensure a quick, reliable fermentation.
complex, nor are they designed to mature in bottle, but If the winemaker wants to retain acidity and primary
for many they provide excellent value: an easy drinking fruit aromas, MLF will be prevented by chilling the wine
beverage, from a trusted source, at a reasonable price. and adding 50 2 • The wine will also be racked off its lees
Some of these wines are made from a single variety and as soon as fermentation has finished and stored
will state the name of the grape variety used on the label temporarily in another inert vessel. Some Chardonnay
(varietal labelling). However, it can be easier to make wines may undergo MLF if a soft, buttery style is desired.
high volumes by blending different grape varieties. Barrel ageing is an expensive and time-consuming
These wines often do not mention grape variety and process and for this reason oak chips or staves may be
instead are simply labelled 'dry white' or 'fruity white'. added to a stainless steel vessel to give a toasty flavour,
The grape varieties that tend to be made into high - if required .
volume, inexpensive wines are often fairly neutral in Many of these wines contain some residual sugar. This
flavour. Chardonnay and Pinot Grigio are classic is more often the case for Chardonnay than Pinot Grigio.
examples. The restrained varietal character of these Often the wines will be fermented dry and then sugar,
grapes means the wines they produce appeal to a wide in the form of unfermented grape juice or RCGM,will
range of consumers. Chardonnay and Pinot Grigio are be measured out and added. This allows the level of
also both easy to ripen, especially in warm climates. In sweetness to be precisely controlled .
these regions the grapes can have insufficient acidity The consumers who buy these products expect their
at harvest but this can be corrected in the winery . wine to be clear and bright and without sediment . For
Chardonnay can be made in an unoaked style and this reason, these wines are typically stabilised, fined and
display pure fruity flavours such as peach and melon. sterile filtered . Even though the shelf life of these wines
Alternatively the wines can be oaked, giving additional tends to be very short, 50 2 levels will be topped up at
flavours of vanilla and toast. Both styles may contain bottling to minimise the risk of oxidation.
some residual sugar to make them more palatable to a
wider range of consumers. Pinot Grigio is usually made PRODUCING PREMIUM WHITE WINES
in an unoaked style, with light pear drop aromas and Premium white wine is a wide-ranging category.
flavours, a light body and medium acidity . Although a huge range of price points can be covered
Due to its current popularity, Sauvignon Blanc is also under this heading, the common factor is that the main
sometimes used to make high-volume inexpensive focus of the winemaker is to make high-quality wine,
wine but rarely at the lowest price points. The vigorous often at the expense of volume.
nature of this grapevine lends itself to high yields, It must be noted that the explanations below are
but herbaceous flavours can dominate if the fruit is generalisations and thus only cover some of the major
underripe. styles of wine made from each of the highlighted
varieties. Furthermore, the winemaking practices for
Winemaking Choices premium wines often do not follow a precise formula,
Many of these wines are based on pure, simple primary and the best winemakers will adapt their techniques
fruit flavours and careful handling in the winery is according to vintage conditions, vineyard plot, and the
required to avoid oxidation. 50 2 will be monitored style of wine they want to make. The choices of aromatic
throughout the winemaking process and the juice and and less-aromatic grape varieties will be looked at
wine are usually handled protectively. The grapes will be separately.
destemmed and crushed, and then pressed. The grapes
for many high-volume, inexpensive wines are grown in Aromatic Grape Varieties: Sauvignon Blanc and
warm or hot regions and therefore acidification is one of Riesling
the most common adjustments made to these wines. Wines made from these grape varieties have
Chardonnay in particular can be flat and flabby when pronounced aromas and flavours . They include
acid levels are too low. Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling, as well as Muscat,
WHITEAND SWEETWINEMAKING 57
~
Blanc on page 60.
Riesling
Riesling is capable of producing a variety of wine styles
from different regions in the wine world. It is very
tolerant of cold winters and buds late so avoids spring clarification
andstabilisation
frosts, making it suitable for cool climates. In such
locations it can produce wines with green fruit flavours
and often floral notes. In warmer climates it becomes packaging
richer in flavour, with more predominant citrus and
stone fruit, but arguably loses some delicacy. Riesling is
mid - to late-ripening depending on the style of wine winefor sale
being produced; left on the vine it can accumulate sugar
without losing its naturally high acidity, and is therefore
58 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
SWEETWINEMAKING
Most wines are fermented to dryness: the yeast consume all the sugars present in the juice. Sweet wines contain
unfermented sugar and they can be made in a number of ways:
Stopping
theFermentation Thespreadofnoblerotisneveruniform andseveralpickings byhand
Fortification
(theadditionofgrapespirit)isthetraditional
wayof maybeneededtoselectthebestgrapes. Thisisanexpensive processasit
stoppingfermentationwhilesugarisstillpresent.
Thiskillstheyeast requires
skilled
labourovera prolongedperiodoftime.Furthermore, in
andnofurtherfermentation ispossible,
although it radically
alters someregionsfamous forthisstyleofwine,suchasSauternes, theideal
thestructuralbalanceofthewine.(FortifiedWinesarecovered in conditions
fornoblerotdonotoccureveryyear.Ifconditions aretoo
Chapters43- 45.) dampthefunguswilldevelop toorapidly
andcausegreyrot,splitting the
Fermentationcanalsobestoppedbyaddinga highdoseof501 orby grapeberries
andencouraging infections.
Although Botrytis
cinereaisthe
chilling
thefermenting wine.Thiswinemustbefilteredto remove any causeofbothnobleandgreyrot,thetermbotrytisisfrequently usedas
remainingyeast.Oncethishasbeendoneit isvitalthatnoyeastcome a synonymfornoblerot,andtheterm'botrytised'isoftenseenonsweet
intocontactwiththewinebecause fermentation willthenresume. This winelabels.
isanapproach usedforhigh-quality
German Kabinett andSpiitlese
as
wellassweetsparkling winessuchasAstifromItaly.Stopping the Dryinggrapes to aspasserillage.
onthevine- Thisisoftenreferred
fermentationbyadding501 orchillingtypically
resultsinwinesthat Oncegrapeshavereached fullsugarripenesstheybeginto dehydrate and
arelowinalcohol. turnto raisinsonthevine,increasing
thesugarconcentrationinthejuice.
Warmdryautumns areneededforthisto happenorelsegreyrotcan
Adding
a Sweetening
Component develop.Thesewineshaveanover-ripe fruitcharacter
(driedfruit,tropical
Insomecountries,
particularly
Germany,medium-sweet winescanbe fruits)anda richly
texturedmouthfeel.Wines madeinthiswayare
createdbytheaddition
ofunfermentedgrapejuice,orSussreserve. Thisis sometimes labelledasLateHarvest.
madebyfiltering
thejuicebeforefermentationstarts,orbydosingitwith
501. Sussreserve
isaddedtodrywineswhentheyarereadyto bebottled. Dryinggrapes afterpicking - Thiscauseshealthy
harvestedgrapesto
Rectified
Concentrated
GrapeMust(RCGM) canalsobeusedtoachieve dehydrate,againconcentrating
thesugarinthejuice.Conditions
mustbe
thesameeffectandisoftenusedtoadda littlesweetness to high-volume dryandwarmforthisto besuccessful, andcaremustbetakento remove
inexpensive
wines. allrottengrapesortherotwillspread
. Thistechnique
isusedinthe
productionofthepassito
winesofItaly,suchasRecioto dellaValpolicella
Concentrating
GrapeSugars DOCG. Thewinescanhavea raisinyquality.
Manyofthebestsweetwinescomefromgrapesthatareextremely rich
insugar.Thiscanbeachieved
ina numberofdifferent
ways,allofwhich Freezing grapesonthevine- Healthy grapesarelefthanging onthe
concentrate
acidsandflavours
at thesametime. vineintothewintermonths . Whenfreezingtemperatures arrive,the
waterinthegrapepulpturnsto ice.Whenthegrapesarepicked and
Noblerot- Thisisusedintheproduction ofmostoftheverybest pressed,
thisiceremainsinthepressandthesugarcontentofthe
sweetwineincludingSauternes, andBeerenauslesen
Tokaji, and resulting
juiceisincreased
. Thistechnique
isusedto produce Eiswein in
Trockenbeerenauslesen
fromGermany andAustria. Itiscausedbythe Germany andlcewine inCanada. Thesewineshavea verypurevarietal
fungusBotrytiscinerea.
Thisisthesamefungusthatcausesgreyrot; character.
Thesameeffectcanbereplicated artificially
byfreezing picked
however,underspecific
conditionsnoblerotcanforminstead . First,the grapesat a winery.
grapesmustbefullyripebeforethedevelopment oftherot.Second, the
grapesmustbegrownina regionthatprovides humidmistymornings Whensweetwinesaremadebygrapesugarconcentration techniques,
followedbysunnydryafternoons. Damp conditionsinthemorning allow thealcoholic
fermentationstopsnaturally
whentheyeasthaveconverted
rotto develop
onthegrapes. Thefunguspunctures thegrapeskinwith asmuchsugarintoalcohol astheycan.Thiscanhappenat quitelow
microscopic
filaments,
leavingtinyholesintheskin.Thewarmsunny levelsofalcohol,
sometimes aslowas7%abv,because yeaststruggle
afternoons
slowthedevelopment oftherotandcausewaterto evaporate to survive
inverysugaryenvironments.
German Trockenbeerenaus/esen
fromthegrape,concentratingitsacids,flavours
andsugars. Thefungus areclassic
examplesofthisstyle.
alsogeneratesitsownuniqueflavoursinthegrape.Wines madefrom
grapesaffectedbynoblerothavedistinctivehoney, apricot,
citruszest
anddriedfruitaromas.
WHITEAND SWEETWINEMAKING 59
Winemaking Choices
Aromatic grapes and juice need to be handled carefully
to retain the fruit and floral aromas of the freshly picked
grapes. 50 2 levels will be monitored throughout the
winemaking process. Crushed fruit or whole bunches
may be loaded into the press, either immediately or
after a little skin contact depending on the winemaker's
approach. The juice must be relatively clean before
thegrapeshaveshrivelled
Passer/I/age: butremain
fungusfree. fermentation to ensure there is nothing in the juice
that could mask the fruit flavours. A gentle method of
clarification will usually be used, such as settling.
Inert vessels are generally used for the fermentation
of aromatic varieties; any extraction of flavour from the
vessel may interfere with the pure fruit character from
the grapes. Stainless steel is often the material of choice
for New Zealand producers of both Sauvignon Blanc
and Riesling, allowing easy temperature control. Large
old oak vessels (foudres) are sometimes used for Riesling
in Alsace allowing a small amount of oxidation to take
place; this can enhance the texture of the wine and
add a little complexity to the flavours without adding
unwanted oak aromas. Cool fermentation temperatures
give a slow, steady fermentation, as well as encourage
the formation of primary fruit aromas and flavours in the
wine. The choice of yeast depends on the approach of
the winemaker.
Frozen
grapes:
thegrapeshavebeenleftonthevinetofreezeinthewinter.
Sauvignon Blanc will usually be fermented until dry;
Riesling on the other hand can be made in a whole
60 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
range of styles from dry to lusciously sweet. Premium - and hot regions ripe tropical fruits, such as banana and
quality sweet Riesling wines will generally be made by pineapple, are typical. In such climates Chardonnay can
prematurely stopping fermentation either by chilling or lose acidity quickly towards the end of the ripening
adding 50 2, leaving the desired level of residual sugar. process, and thus the timing of the harvest is critical.
For the sweetest Riesling wines made from botrytised The subtle aromas and flavours of Chardonnay make
grapes, the fermentation stops naturally. it the perfect blank canvas for a host of different
Aromatic grape varieties generally see very little post- winemaking techniques. Purely focusing on Burgundy
fermentation winemaking before bottling. High acidity is in France, Chardonnay can take many different forms.
a desirable feature in both Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling, In the north of the region, the wines of Chablis often
and therefore MLF is avoided by adding 50 2 to the wine have high acidity and show green apple and citrus
straight after fermentation. The buttery aromas that can notes, sometimes with a hint of wet stones and slate. In
sometimes result from MLF may also interfere with the the Cote d'Or, the best wines combine subtle notes of
pronounced fruit aromas of the wine. Riesling may stone fruit with creamy oak flavours. Further south in
undergo a period of lees contact to add texture and the Maconnais, the wines can be even more ripe and
flavours. Aromatic grape varieties will generally be rounded, with hints of toasty oak. Most wines go
bottled as soon as possible after fermentation; the through MLF and many producers use extended lees
aromas gained from maturation in new oak are usually ageing. With age the best wines develop complex
not desirable. However, in Alsace, and sometimes in aromas of nuts and/or mushrooms.
Germany, Riesling may be kept in large old oak vats for Outside of Burgundy the style of Chardonnay, and
up to a year. therefore the techniques used to make it, are more
Riesling is rarely blended with other grape varieties. dependent on the preferences of the individual
Sauvignon Blanc is also usually a varietal wine, but, as winemaker rather than the traditions of a particular wine
mentioned above, it may be blended with Semillon for region. Many used to be heavily oaked but producers of
greater body as seen in some Bordeaux whites and the premium Chardonnay are now heading firmly away from
wines of Western Australia. this style ofwinemaking. Regions that have built up a
reputation for premium Chardonnay include Russian
Other styles of Sauvignon Blanc - To create the River Valley and Los Carneros in California; Adelaide Hills,
creamy, spicy style of some Fume Blanc in California and Geelong and Mornington Peninsula in Australia; Gisborne
the whites of Pessac-Leognan in Bordeaux, Sauvignon and Marlborough in New Zealand; and Casablanca Valley
Blanc is barrel fermented. The winemaker may favour in Chile. However, this is not an exhaustive list and high-
ambient yeasts to achieve a greater complexity of quality Chardonnay wines are made in nearly every
flavours. The wines are then matured on their lees for a winemaking country.
number of months during which time they will usually
undergo MLF.It is common to use new oak barrels for Pinot Gris/Grigio
at least a proportion of the wine. This grape variety is called Pinot Gris in France and Pinot
Grigio in Italy. The wines from these two countries can
LessAromatic Grape Varieties: Chardonnay and be very different in style. In other countries, winemakers
Pinot Gris/Grigio will generally, but not always, choose to label their wines
Chardonnay and Pinot Gris/Grigio are both more neutral Pinot Gris or Pinot Grigio to indicate whether their wine
in aroma and flavour than Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling. is more similar to the French or Italian style.
This can be very positive from a winemaker's point of Premium Pinot Gris/Grigio wines can often be almost
view, as they can arguably play a more active role in unrecognisable from the huge volumes of less expensive
influencing the style of the final wine. The key aim for Pinot Grigios on the market .
less aromatic varieties is to enhance the base material Pinot Gris/Grigio is early budding and early ripening,
provided by the grapes. This may be achieved by doing and in warm climates or when left on the vine it can
relatively little and keeping the grape flavours in a accumulate high sugar levels, but lose much acidity.
relatively pure form. Alternatively, the winemaker may Alsace is the classic French region for this variety where
choose to use a range of techniques to add more the wines are usually dry or off-dry, often with an oily
complexity and texture to the wine. texture, ripe tropical fruit flavours and a hint of ginger
and honey . The grape skins often have a deep colour,
Chardonnay meaning that these wines can be golden in appearance.
Chardonnay can be grown and ripened without much A number of winemakers in New Zealand also label their
difficulty in a wide variety of climates. It is, however, early wines as Pinot Gris. These wines have the same viscous
budding, which means that it can suffer in areas where mouthfeel and medium acidity, but usually show more
spring frosts are common. In cool climates Chardonnay pure fruit flavours, and often have slightly more residual
can display flavours of green fruit and citrus, whereas in sugar. Tasmania, Australia and Oregon, USA also make
more moderate climates the flavours lean more towards Pinot Gris in a rich and often dry style.
fleshy fruits, such as white peach and melon. In warm The regions of Alto Adige, Trentino and Friuli- Venezia
WHITEAND SWEETWINEMAKING 61
LEES
STIRRING
1. Thewinemaker
usesa rodto stirtheleesinthe barrel.
Therodislowered
to
the bottomofthebarrel,
wherea layerof leeshascollected
overtime.
2. Therodisdragged
through
theleesto stirthemup.
3.Withcontinuous
stirring
the leesbecomefullymixedintothewine.
Giulia in north -east Italy make high-quality Pinot Grigio Fermentation may take place in a range of vessels.
wines in a dry style. The wines here can show a much Stainless steel or concrete may be used to retain fresh
greater depth of flavour than the cheaper versions made fruit flavours and are often seen in the production of
in high volumes from the Veneto plain. The choice of Chablis, the Pinot Grigios from north-east Italy, and Pinot
clone can be influential here as well as climate and Gris from New Zealand. Large, old oak vessels are more
viticulture . The premium Pinot Grigios from the northerly commonly used for Pinot Gris in Alsace. Small, new oak
alpine regions of Italy are made from the Pinot Gris/ barrels can be used to give toasty flavours and a rounder
Grigio clones typically found in Germany and France, texture , as seen with Chardonnay from the Cote d'Or.
which have small berries and are capable of greater Fermentation temperatures and the choice of yeast may
flavour concentration. By contrast, the high volume, vary. Some Pinot Gris style wines contain residual sugar.
inexpensive Pinot Grigio wines from the Veneto tend to Winemakers in New Zealand may ensure their wines are
be produced from a clone known for its pale skin and made in this style by prematurely stopping the
large fleshy pulp . It produces relatively neutral wines, fermentation by chilling or adding SO2 • In Alsace, the
especially when combined with high yields and early high degree of ripeness in the grapes may mean that the
harvesting. fermentation stops naturally, leaving some residual
sugar.
Winemaking Choices There is an even greater range of options open to the
Winemakers face a range of options during the winemaker after fermentation . A substantial amount of
winemaking process for less aromatic grape varieties flavour can be added to wine made from non-aromatic
depending on the style they want to produce . As with varieties at this stage. One of the most fundamental
aromatic varieties, the grapes can either be crushed or decisions is whether to put the wine through barrel
loaded into the press as whole bunches; the latter maturation and, if so, whether all the wine or just a small
technique being common for Chardonnay. For some proportion will be matured in oak. New oak barriques
non-aromatic grape varieties, controlled exposure may be used to impart the toasty flavours often found
to oxygen at this stage is often thought to improve in Cote d'Or and New World Chardonnays. Older oak
the wine's ability to age. This technique would be and larger barrels, more typically used in the production
detrimental for more aromatic grape varieties causing of Chablis and Pinot Gris/Grigio, impart less flavour but
them to lose some of their delicate aromas. still allow a gentle oxidation to promote complexity . In
Clarification is likely to be carried out using a gentle contrast, a short storage period in stainless steel or
method such as settling. Depending on the style of wine concrete will retain fresh fruit flavours.
being produced, the winemaker may choose to leave MLF may be encouraged in non-aromatic varieties to
some solid matter in the grape juice for added give the wines a rounder, creamier mouthfeel. It is used
complexity and texture . in almost all the premium white wines of Burgundy,
62 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
including Chablis, where it helps to soften sharp acidity. give a richer, rounder mouthfeel. Many winemakers
However, because MLF decreases the perception of enhance these effects using a technique called lees
acidity and diminishes primary fruit flavours, it may not stirring . This involves breaking up the sediment of fine
be desirable for fruity styles of wine. Extended contact lees and mixing it with the wine.
with the fine lees is another technique that is often used Premium Chardonnay and Pinot Gris are not usually
in the production of both Chardonnay and Pinot Gris to blended with other grape varieties.
RED AND ROS~WINEMAKING 63
The processes and main choices involved in making red thick mass of pulp and skins on its surface. This mass is
wine can be seen in the diagram on page 65. The key to known as the cap. If the cap is left to float, little colour,
red winemaking is the successful extraction of colour and flavour or tannin w ill be extracted from it. There are
tannin from the skins of black grapes, which is achieved many different cap management techniques a
by including the skins in the fermentation vessel.This winemaker can use to overcome this, and these methods
has two important consequences. First, there are may be combined or used at different stages of the
considerably more options to consider before, during and fermentation. The level of extraction can be controlled
after fermentation than is the case in white winemaking . by altering the duration of each technique and the
Second, pressing happens after fermentation and not number of times this is practised each day.
before. Note also that in red winemaking malolactic
fermentation (MLF) is standard practice rather than a Punching down - Traditionally this meant punching
stylistic choice as it is in white winemaking. the cap down by hand with paddles on the end of sticks.
This posed certain dangers for the winery workers, as
CRUSHED FRUIT FERMENTATION there was always the possibility of someone being
The vast majority of fruit used in red winemaking is intoxicated by carbon dioxide . Today, the same effect can
destemmed and crushed. Therefore the techniques that be achieved with mechanical paddles. This is a widely
are linked to this approach will be considered first. practised technique and is very effective at extracting
colour and tannin. Consequently, winemakers need to
Pre-fermentation Extraction take care not to overwork the cap by punching down
Once the fruit has been crushed, some winemakers too vigorously or too often. This is particularly important
prefer to leave the grapes to macerate for a period at a at the end of the fermentation when tannins are more
low temperature before allowing the fermentation to easily extracted. If too much tannin is extracted, the
start. This is sometimes referred to as cold maceration or finished wine can taste overly bitter and astringent.
cold soaking. The purpose of this maceration is to extract
colour and flavour compounds . Tannins are more soluble Pumping over - This involves drawing off fermenting
in alcoholic solutions and are therefore not readily juice from the bottom of the vat and pumping it up on
extracted at this point in the winemaking process. to the top, wetting the cap. Pumping over is a popular
extraction technique and is a good way of dissipating
Temperature Control During Fermentation heat and oxygenating the juice .
Red wine fermentation temperatures usually range
between 20°c and 32°C, depending on the style being Rack and return - The fermenting juice is drained from
made. These temperatures, which are higher than the fermenting vessel into another vessel, leaving the
those used in white winemaking, are necessary to aid cap behind. The juice is then pumped back over the
extraction of colour, flavour and tannin. However, care cap. This is normally only used once or twice during a
must be taken to ensure that the temperature does not fermentation as it can be very extractive . Like pumping
exceed 35°( as this may kill the yeast. Precise control of over, it is a very good way of dissipating heat.
temperature during the fermentation process can allow
the winemaker to influence the amounts of colour , Rotary fermenters - Fermentation takes place in
flavour and tannin that are extracted. For example, rotating horizontal tanks. This keeps the juice in constant
although tannins become more soluble as alcohol levels contact with the skins.
rise, a winemaker can reduce their extraction by lowering
the temperature towards the end of the fermentation. Fermentation Vessels
These cap management techniques mean that red wines
Cap Management Techniques are usually fermented in large vessels. Many are open -
If left to itself, a fermenting red wine will soon have a topped so that the grape skins can be worked easily:
64 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
these vessels can be made from oak, concrete or stainless and full of fruit, with distinctive notes of kirsch, banana,
steel. Fermentation in oak barrels is impractical for red bubble gum and cinnamon-like spice.
wines as it would be almost impossible to maintain
sufficient contact between the skins and the juice. Semi-carbonic maceration - This is a similar but slightly
different technique that does not involve filling the vats
Post-fermentation Extraction with CO2 • The vats are filled with whole bunches . The
Maceration after fermentation encourages the further grapes at the bottom of the vat are crushed under the
extraction of tannin, which may or may not be desirable. weight of the grapes above and some juice is released.
Therefore, the length of time that the wine stays on its Ambient yeast start to ferment the juice. This
skins once fermentation is complete depends on the fermentation produces CO2 , which fills the vat and the
style of wine being made. Some winemakers have found remaining intact berries undergo carbonic maceration.
that very long periods of post -fermentation maceration As the intact grapes begin to split and release their juice
can help to create a smoother tannin structure. the grapes are pressed and yeast complete the
fermentation off the skins.
Press Wine Some notable premium Pinet Noirs are made using
When the maceration has finished, the free run wine is this technique although the alcoholic fermentation
drawn off the skins and the remaining mass is pressed, continues on the skins. In this instance the grapes will be
creating press wine. At the start of pressing, this press progressively broken up using punching down over the
wine may be similar in composition to the free run wine, course of the first few days. An ever-decreasing amount
but as pressing continues the wine becomes deeper in of carbonic maceration takes place until all the grapes
colour and higher in tannin. Some winemakers will are broken up. The alcoholic fermentation will then
separate the wine from different stages in the pressing continue on the skins and may be followed by a post-
(these are called press fractions). Later press fractions fermentation maceration . This approach can result in
may then be used to adjust colour and tannin in the final a better integration of the aromas from intracellular
blend. fermentation with aromas from the grape variety. It
results in wines with a fresher fruit character.
WHOLE BUNCH FERMENTATIONS
As has been noted, the vast majority of red wines are Whole bunches with crushed fruit - A further variation
made solely with crushed fruit. However, some is to mix whole bunches with crushed grapes in the
winemakers include whole bunches of uncrushed grapes fermenting vessel at the start of the fermentation.
in the fermentation. In some cases the uncrushed fruit Although the whole bunches in the vat are not
may make up the entire vat; in others, only a small blanketed in (0 2, they are largely submerged by the
percentage may be used to make a more subtle crushed grapes and kept away from oxygen, therefore
contribution to the flavour of the wine. Importantly, if intracellular fermentation takes place. The whole
whole bunches are used, the winemaker must ensure bunches are progressively crushed during the
that the grape stems are fully ripe: if not, the tannins in fermentation as the cap is regularly punched down.
the stems can give the finished wine an undesirable More 'carbonic' characteristics can be achieved by raising
bitter taste. the percentage of whole bunches that are present at
The objective of this technique is to create an oxygen- the start of the fermentation. This technique is thought
free environment for the uncrushed fruit. This lack of to give the wine a silkier texture and a brighter, fresher
oxygen has a number of outcomes. First,the berries create fruit character.
some alcohol in their cells, without the involvement of
any yeast. This is referred to as intracellular fermentation. MATURATION OPTIONS
Second, and more importantly, a range of distinctive fruity The option of whether or not to use oak is perhaps the
aromas is created inside the berry, which gives wines most important decision when it comes to pre-bottling
made in this way unique qualities. maturation in red wine production. Virtually all red
There are three forms of whole bunch fermentation: wines undergo MLF and their more robust flavours and
textures, compared with most white wines, mean they
Carbonic maceration - This involves placing only whole, generally benefit less from extended time on their lees.
uncrushed bunches into vats that are then filled with CO2 Oak is widely used in red winemaking. As with white
to remove all the oxygen. This causes the intracellular wines, this may be in the form of oak barrels, or oak
fermentation to start. Once the level of alcohol in the staves or chips that have been added to an inert vessel.
grape reaches 2 per cent the grape skins start to split and The trend for winemakers to mature their premium red
the grapes release their juice. The grapes are generally wines entirely in small new oak barrels is declining in
pressed at this stage to separate the juice from the skins. most wine regions. Now, many wine producers are
Yeast then complete the fermentation off the skins. aiming for greater subtlety and integration, using oak
Importantly, this method extracts colour from the vessels of different ages and larger sizes. However, a
grapes, but little tannin, and the resulting wines are soft winemaker's best wines will still often be aged for longer
RED AND ROSE WINEMAKING 65
direct
grapesorting ....... •
wholebunches __.. semi
-carbonic
maceration
drainandpress
7
pressing
destem
crush juice
crushed
fruit
Sometimes
pre-fermentation
maceration semi-carbonic
Sometimeswhole fermentations malolactic
bunches
areadded continue
onthe fermentation
shortperiod tocrushed
fruit. skins
.
alcoholic
fermentation
onskins
newlymadewine
post-fermentation
maceration
drain
•
blending
freerunwine
+ l
clarification
and
stabilisation
wineforsale
malolactic
fermentation malolactic
fermentation
blendwith
whitewine ~
blending
CRUSHED WHOLE
FRUIT BUNCH
maturation OPTIONS OPTIONS
clarification
andstabilisation INPUT
/OUTPUT
musthappen
winemaker's
choice
packaging
ROSE
OPTIONS
wineforsale
66 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
and with more new oak than their lower level wines. The and wine are usually handled protectively with 50 2
best wines will usually be made with higher-quality, levels being monitored throughout the winemaking
more concentrated fruit that can support a greater level process. The grapes for these wines are usually
of new oak flavours. destemmed and crushed on arrival at the winery . Due to
the warm or hot climates where most of these grapes are
BLENDING grown, tartaric acid may need to be added to raise the
The blending of two or more grape varieties is fairly acidity. A pre-fermentation maceration may take place,
common in red wine production, and is often used to but this process can tie up vat space and therefore is not
enhance or balance out certain aspects of the wine, such always possible in a high throughput winery .
as colour, body, tannin, acidity or flavour. The use of Fermentations will generally take place using
different press fractions to boost the colour, flavour and commercial yeast at around 22°C to 25°C in order to
tannin of the more delicate free run wine is another maximise fresh fruit flavours. Different wineries may use
widely practised technique. The wine's complexity can different fermentation vessels; these can be static and/or
also be enhanced by blending wines matured in oak rotary. The frequency of cap management procedures
vessels of different ages, sizes and toasting levels. If a will vary according to the exact style of wine being
more subtle oak influence is sought, a winemaker may produced and the grape variety, but typically the cap will
blend wines matured in oak with wines matured in not be heavily worked . Post-fermentation maceration is
stainless steel or concrete vessels. generally avoided due to constraints on vat space and
time, and also because the additional tannins this can
Clarification and Stabilisation extract are often not desirable in these easy-drinking
The majority of red wines will undergo some form of styles. If extra structure is needed, the winemaker may
fining and/or filtration to improve the clarity and stability macerate a small proportion of wine and blend it with
of the wine. However, some winemakers avoid these the remainder before bottling .
processes believing that they harm the wine's structure. Fruity wines with low tannins can also be produced by
Gradual sedimentation naturally occurs on all wines that carbonic or semi-carbonic maceration. These techniques
are subjected to a long maturation before bottling, are often used on inexpensive wines made from
improving the clarity of these wines without filtration. Grenache, and are also widely used on basic Beaujolais.
There are many options open to the winemaker
PRODUCING HIGH-VOLUME, INEXPENSIVE RED WINES regarding the maturation of the new wine. The
The grape-growing areas responsible for high-volume, winemaker can choose to store the wine in stainless steel
inexpensive wines tend to be warm, sunny and dry, and until bottling, making a wine with pure fruit flavours.
for that reason the black grape varieties used are those Sometimes, a period of oak ageing may be used to smooth
that can thrive in these climates. Cabernet Sauvignon, any harsh tannins and add spicy or toasty flavours. Oak
Merlot, Syrah/Shiraz and Grenache/Garnacha are all ideal maturation for these wines may only be a matter of
candidates. Not only are they all suited to warm or hot months, and if barrels are used, they will usually be second-
climates, but due to the concentration of colours, or third-fill (on their second or third usage), with new
tannins and flavours in their skins, they can produce barrels reserved for higher-quality wines . Alternatively,
fruity wines with adequate colour even at high yields. oak staves or chips may be added to stainless steel or
Compared with premium wines from each grape variety, concrete vats to obtain toasty flavours quickly.
these high-volume red wines may display less colour, Just as with white wines at this quality level,
lighter tannins, and less intense and complex aromas consumers expect high-volume, inexpensive red wines
and flavours. Often, the specific characteristics that make to be clear and without sediment. The wines are typically
these grape varieties so distinct can be diminished, stabilised, fined and sterile filtered before bottling . Even
leading to wines that can seem quite homogeneous. though the shelf life of these wines tends to be very
By contrast, Pinot Noir is a grape that is rarely used in short, 50 2 levels will be topped up at bottling to reduce
the production of high-volume, inexpensive wines. It is the risk of oxidation.
hard to grow, prefers cool climates and it can be difficult
to extract enough colour and tannin when grown at PRODUCING PREMIUM RED WINES
high yields. It is therefore less suited to high-volume Cabernet Sauvignon
winemaking compared with many other grapes. Cabernet Sauvignon is a thick -skinned variety and
As with white wines, high -volume, inexpensive red therefore has an abundance of colour, flavour and
wines may either come from a single grape variety or be tannin. It is also late ripening and in some of the cooler
a blend of varieties. Blended wines may be labelled with places in which it is grown, it can struggle to ripen fully if
a description of the style such as 'fruity red'. the weather is poor, giving wines with astringent tannins
and herbaceous flavours.
Winemaking Choices Cabernet Sauvignon is the classic grape of the Haut-
Typically these wines are made in a fruity, low-tannin Medoc in Bordeaux. Here, it makes long -lived wines that
style. To retain fresh, primary fruit characters, the juice often display grippy tannins in their youth, together with
RED AND ROSE WINEMAKING 67
some cedar and blackcurrant leaf aromas. With age, the The intense flavours, medium to full body and high
tannins soften and the flavours become more expressive. tannins mean that a high proportion of new oak can
The wines are usually blended with a proportion of often be used without overpowering the wine . French
Merlot, which ripens earlier and gives juicy plum fruit oak is widely used, with 225-litre barriques being the
flavours and a smoother texture to the wine. Within most popular size of barrel. The period of maturation
Europe, Cabernet Sauvignon is also found in the south of can last anywhere from six months to three to four years,
France, in Italy and in Spain. In these regions, Cabernet with 12 to 18 months being typical.
Sauvignon is generally blended with indigenous grape Blending often plays a vital role in Cabernet
varieties, such as Sangiovese in Italy and Tempranillo in Sauvignon wines. On its own, Cabernet Sauvignon can
Spain. have high tannins and a lack of body and therefore it is
Outside of Europe, Cabernet Sauvignon is seen in both often blended with other grape varieties, particularly
varietal and blended styles. The ripeness it attains from Merlot, which can provide a certain softness and fruit
the warm temperatures and long hours of bright sunlight to complement Cabernet's lean structure. Shiraz is
in many regions of these countries gives full-bodied sometimes used to play a similar role in Australia.
wines with ripe blackcurrant and black cherry notes and
smooth tannins . Classic regions include the Napa Valley Merlot
in California; Coonawarra and Margaret River in Australia; Merlot is considered the other great grape of Bordeaux .
Hawke's Bay in New Zealand; Stellenbosch in South It buds and ripens earlier than Cabernet Sauvignon,
Africa; and Colchagua Valley in Chile. with which it is frequently blended. Merlot is dominant
In the winery, Cabernet Sauvignon is usually in Saint-Emilion and Pomerol.
destemmed and crushed . The stems on whole bunches The best quality Me riots tend to follow one of two
of this variety can often give a herbaceous and styles. Some are made from grapes that are harvested
astringent character to the wines and are therefore as late as possible to generate the maximum possible
discarded. Cabernet's thick skins mean that it is capable degree of intense purple colour, concentrated
of producing wines that are deep in colour. The blackberry and plum fruit, and soft, velvet-textured
winemaker may choose to maximise the extraction of tannins. These wines are often matured in new oak to
colour from the grape skins by leaving the grapes to add toasty flavours. This is the 'international style; and it
macerate before fermentation begins. is made with great success in many New World countries,
Fermentation temperatures for Cabernet Sauvignon the south of France, as well as some Bordeaux estates.
tend to range from 26°C to 30°C, warm enough for The other style is produced by harvesting the grapes
sufficient extraction yet cool enough to promote fresh earlier to make a wine of medium body and alcohol, but
fruit flavours. Cabernet Sauvignon grapes have high which has higher acidity and more of a fresh red fruit
levels of tannin , and therefore high temperatures and character, as well as some vegetal, leafy aromas. The
extractive cap management techniques are generally second approach is rarely found outside of Bordeaux.
avoided towards the end of fermentation, especially if the Merlot is made using very similar techniques to
tannins are not fully ripe. A period of post-fermentation Cabernet Sauvignon. The grapes are destemmed and
maceration, however, may be used to encourage a more crushed, and a pre-fermentation maceration may
gentle extraction of tannin and to soften existing tannins . enable the winemaker to extract greater colour and
The structure of Cabernet Sauvignon wines means flavour if desired. The skins of the Merlot grape tend to
they are well-suited to oak maturation and bottle ageing. be a little more supple than those of Cabernet
ROS~WINEMAKING
In basic terms, rose wines can be made in one of three ways (see flow chart Making Dry Redand RoseWineon
page 65). In all cases oak is rarely used.
PUMPING
OVER
1. Pumping
overbyhand.
2. Pumping
overby
machine.Noteeachtank
haspipework
witha
spraythatcanbemoved
intopositionfor
pumping
over.
Sauvignon so less rigorous extraction may be needed climate is very important for Pinot Noir. If it is planted in
during fermentation. a region that is too hot, the fruit flavours become jammy
The toast, vanilla and clove notes of new oak tend to and unattractive.
suit the juicy, plum fruit of Merlot, and oak maturation is Pinot Noir grapes may be handled in a number of
often used to enhance complexity. As with Cabernet different ways when they reach the winery . Some
Sauvignon, 12 to 18 months in oak is common. winemakers will choose to destem and crush their fruit.
Typically a period of pre-fermentation maceration will
Pinot Noir take place to maximise colour and flavour extraction
In contrast to Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir is an early from the skins. Other winemakers may decide to include
budding and early ripening variety that produces grapes a proportion of whole bunches in the ferment, a practice
with a thin skin. It is a very old variety and therefore that is becoming increasingly popular. This practice
there are many different clones available with varying generally enhances the red fruit and floral characters of
characteristics. Pinot Noir can be made in a range of still Pinot Noir. The whole bunches are gradually crushed by
wine styles - from light and fruity with red cherry notes, a series of punch down operations, and fermentation
to complex and earthy with flavours of spice and forest continues on the skins once the grapes have been
floor. Colour and tannin can be tricky to extract from broken up.
the skins, therefore it is important to maximise the It is common for Pinot Noir fermentation temperatures
extraction without overworking the juice. If this happens, to rise to above 30°C. Cooler ferments may be used for
the elegance of the primary aromas can be lost or lighter, fresher styles but warm temperatures enable
overwhelmed. more colour, flavour and tannin to be extracted for
As an early ripening variety Pinot Noir is best grown in longer-aged wines. Post-fermentation maceration is
cool and moderate climates. This means it is the perfect not widely practised for Pinot Noir.
black variety for the vineyards of Burgundy. At an entry Like Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir is also a grape
level, the wines can be very light, often with marked that is often matured in oak barrels and it is usual for
acidity and a hint of oak to provide structure. However, premium wines to spend between 12 and 24 months in
the wines from better sites in the Cote d'Or have greater oak. Pinot Noir's delicate flavours mean that too much
intensity and complexity. They can range from delicate new oak can be overpowering, so many winemakers
and almost floral, to more tannic and spicy. However, will use second or third-fill barrels and only a small
there is always the risk that in very cool vintages the proportion of new barrels.
grapes, especially those grown in the lesser vineyard Pinot Noir is not usually blended with other grape
sites, may not ripen fully, leading to wines with vegetal varieties. However, the winemaker may blend different
notes such as cabbage and wet leaves. vineyard plots or wines that have undergone different
Within Europe, Baden in Germany is also known for treatments in the winery to increase complexity or
the high-quality of its Pinot Noir wines. In the New improve consistency. The best wines can develop in
World, high-quality Pinot Noirs can be found from a bottle for many years, gaining flavours of forest floor
number of regions, including Los Carneros and Sonoma and mushroom.
(California); Martinborough, Marlborough and Central
Otago (New Zealand); Yarra Valley, Mornington Peninsula Syrah/Shiraz
and Tasmania (Australia); Walker Bay (South Africa) and Syrah grapes are small with thick, darkly coloured skins
Casablanca Valley (Chile). Finding areas with the right and they will not ripen in very cool climates. It is a grape
RED AND ROSEWINEMAKING 69
PUNCHING
DOWN
1. Punching
downby
hand.
2. Mechanical
punching
down.Thisdevice
canbemovedonan
overhead
railto work
eachindividual
tank
inturn.
that can produce wines in a range of styles. Depending new oak may complement the concentrated fruit
on the climate in which the grapes are grown and the flavours.
winemaking techniques to which it is subjected, Syrah Winemakers in warm or hot climates can also choose
can range from medium-bodied with pepper and fresh to make a more restrained style, which often starts with
black fruit aromas, to smooth and full-bodied with harvesting the grapes earlier, giving wines with lower
intense, very ripe black fruit flavours and hints of alcohol. These winemakers, together with those in
liquorice . Syrah's intensity of fruit flavours, together moderate climates, tend to use gentler cap management
with its deep colour and high tannins, makes the best techniques and may include a proportion of whole
examples suitable for long-term ageing. bunches in the fermentation. A fine tannin structure
In Europe, Syrah is most famously grown in the may be achieved by an extended post-fermentation
Northern Rhone in France.The climate here is at the maceration to extract and smooth tannins, and a
coolest limit for Syrah production and therefore wine number of winemakers are swapping their 225-litre
styles will vary depending on the vineyard site. Lesser barriques for 300- 500-litre barrels, and using older oak.
sites produce quite light wines with simple black fruit and All of these techniques can result in the production of
herbaceous flavours, and often slightly grippy tannins. more restrained, elegant wines .
South-facing slopes, such as those found in Cote Rotie
and Hermitage can produce fuller bodied wines with Grenache/Garnacha
berry flavours and hints of pepper, often complemented Grenache is a late-ripening grape variety and needs to
by notes of meat and leather after a little ageing. be planted in warm or hot climates. Conveniently, it also
Syrah is also widely grown in Languedoc and has a high tolerance for drought conditions. Its sweet,
Roussillon in France, where it is blended with other thin -skinned grapes give wines that are high in alcohol,
black varieties such as Grenache, Mourvedre, Carignan low in acidity and are full-bodied with soft tannins and
and Cinsault. The warmer climate here provides wines red fruit flavours.
with riper flavours and tannins. In Spain, Grenache is known as Garnacha and it is an
In the New World, Australia has a well-established important blending partner in the wines of Priorat and
reputation for its Syrah, here called Shiraz. Hot regions , Rioja. In Priorat, Garnacha is blended with Carignan to
such as the Hunter and BarossaValleys, produce soft produce deeply coloured wines with high levels of
earthy, spicy styles of Shiraz with concentrated black tannin, fresh black fruit and toasty oak . In Rioja,
fruit aromas. Cooler regions, such as Great Southern, Garnacha is mainly planted in Rioja Baja and, in blends
Geelong and Heathcote, produce leaner, more peppery with Tempranillo, it contributes perfume, body and
styles. Other classic areas in the New World producing alcohol to the wine. It is also widely grown in Calatayud,
Syrah are Chile, South Africa, Hawke's Bay in New Carinena and Navarra. A number of regions also produce
Zealand, and Washington State in the USA. rose wines from Garnacha.
Winemaking technique has an important impact on Grenache is the most widely planted grape variety in
the style of Syrah/Shiraz that is made. Full-bodied, the Southern Rhone. It arguably makes its finest wines in
intensely ripe wines with high alcohol can be produced the appellation of Chateauneuf-du-Pape. Here, it is usually
in warm and hot climates. These wines have typically blended with other grape varieties typical of the south of
been subjected to vigorous cap management to extract France,in particular Syrah and Mourvedre, to produce full -
maximum colour, flavour and tannin from ripe or over - bodied, richly textured wines with concentrated spicy red
ripe grapes. Toasty flavours from a high proportion of fruit. Grenache is also widely planted in Languedoc and
70 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Roussillon where it is often blended with varieties such as Fermentation is usually conducted in open top
Syrah, Mourvedre, Carignan and Cinsault. The wines may fermenters, often made from stainless steel or cement,
vary in style depending on the blend of grapes and the though some producers may choose old oak. Gentle cap
vineyard climate but most tend to have a spicy, perfumed management techniques, such as punching down, are
character reminiscent of the local herbs. used on premium wines to produce wines with more
Outside Europe, the highest-quality Grenache is finesse. Post-fermentation maceration may be carried
probably produced in Australia, particularly in the out if the winemaker wants to enhance the tannic
BarossaValley and McLaren Vale. These wines used to structure of the wine. However, usually Grenache will
be produced in intensely concentrated, full-bodied be drained off the skins at the end of fermentation.
styles with high levels of alcohol. Now, they are made Grenache is usually matured in large vessels such as
with more restraint. Old bush vines yield low volumes of foudres made from old oak, as the toasty notes from
highly concentrated grapes, giving robust, ripe wines new oak can overwhelm Grenache's fruit flavours.
with intense flavours of red berries and peppery spice. Grenache is rarely made as a varietal wine and more
Grenache tends to be destemmed and crushed on usually blended with other varieties. In hot climates it
arrival at the winery. Pre-fermentation maceration is can be jammy and high in alcohol and therefore grape
common, promoting the extraction offlavour and colour varieties that are even more tolerant of heat, such as
before alcohol levels rise in fermentation. Some producers Carignan and Mourvedre, can lend fresher fruit flavours
choose to retain a proportion of whole bunches to as well as greater tannin and colour to the blend.
enhance the ripe red fruit flavours of this grape.
FACTORSTHAT AFFECTTHE PRICE OF WINE 71
Factors
thatAffectthePriceofWine~here are a num_beroffactors that_
influence the price of a bottle of wine.
It is impossible to discuss all of these in detail in this chapter, not least because there are so many
10
differences between individual markets. However, it is possible to highlight the key common factors that
apply throughout the world. These include the costs associated with the production, packing, transport
and retailing of wine.
Incredibly
steepvineyards,
suchastheseinMosel,
are
moreexpensive
to cultivate
thanflatland,addingtoa
producer's
costs.
72 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Any delay in being able to take a profit from the wine TAXES
needs to be factored into the sales price. Nearly every government in the world taxes alcoholic
beverages. The level of tax charged varies significantly
PACKAGING from country to country but it can add substantially to
Bottles, labels, capsules, closures and cartons all need to the price of a bottle of wine.
be designed and purchased. Unusually shaped or heavy Such taxes are seen as essential in controlling the
bottles cost more. It is cheaper to export wine in bulk consumption of alcohol by increasing the retail price and
and bottle it in the market where it is to be sold but this are an important source of revenue for governments.
is only an option for large producers and it is not always
permitted by local wine laws. RETAILERS
Most wines are sold in shops or restaurants and these
TRANSPORT, DISTRIBUTION AND SALES businesses need to make a profit from these sales.Wines
For a very small number of producers the cost of getting will generally cost more in restaurants than in shops. This
a wine to market is negligible because they only sell is because restaurants expect to generate more profit
their wine to people who visit their winery. However, from wine, but also because the price takes account of
the majority of producers seek to sell their wine further the occasion, the environment and the level of service.
afield, often in both domestic and international markets.
Transport, distribution and sales are a very complex MARKET FORCES
part of the wine trade and are highly regulated. In the Ultimately, the price of a bottle of wine is determined by
majority of cases, producers have to rely on other how much the destination market is prepared to pay for
businesses to transport and distribute their wines, it. The costs of production, packaging, distribution and
therefore it is important that they choose partners who retail must all be taken into account to ensure the
offer both value for money and accessto reliable sales. product is commercially viable.
Where high demand exists for a product that is While some wine businesses are profitable, there are
available in limited supply, the retail price can far others that struggle due to lack of demand. Some steep
outweigh the costs. For example , over the last ten years, vineyard sites in Mose! have been abandoned because
demand for premium estate wines from Bordeaux has the costs of production could only be recovered by
put pressure on supply, driving up prices substantially. pricing the wines at a level consumers were not
However, market forces may in time lead to a reversal prepared to pay.
of this trend .
74 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
affect the behaviour of anyone who consumes too much increases risk-taking. Therefore driving or operating
(often in very socially unacceptable and dangerous machinery under the influence of alcohol significantly
ways). For some people it can be highly addictive and, increases the risk of injury and death for the
when consumed to excess,it can have a very negative operator/driver and those around them.
impact on both short- and long-term health. In some As well as sett ing and enforcing regulations, some
cultures alcohol is not considered socially acceptable governments also encourage safe consumption by
and its consumption is banned as a result. publishing sensible drinking guidelines. Typically,
In countries where alcohol consumption is permitted, alcoholic drinks are broken down into fixed quantities
legislation is used to try and control accessto alcohol of alcohol or'units : and governments recommend the
and limit its potentially harmful effects. Legal controls maximum number of units men and women should
focus on two areas in particular. First, a minimum legal consume in the course of a day and over the course of
age is set for both the purchase and consumption of a week.
alcohol. These restrictions seek to limit young people's Many governments also often place limits on the
accessto alcohol as this age group is considered more advertising and marketing of alcohol. This can be
vulnerable to its potentially harmful effects. through voluntary industry codes, through direct
Second, there is a legal limit on the amount of legislation, or a combination of both. These are normally
alcohol someone can have in their blood when driving designed to place limits on the lifestyle claims that can
a vehicle. This is typically expressed in terms of be made for a product in advertisements and/or
milligrams of ethanol per millilitres of blood. Alcohol encourage or require the use of responsible drinking
reduces co-ordination, slows reaction times and messaging in advertising and on packaging .
INTRODUCTION TO FRANCE 77
PDOWines PGIWines
TheFrench forPDQisAppellation d'origine protegee(AOP) butthe TheFrenchforPGIisIndication
geographique protegee (IGP).
traditional
termAppellation d'origine
controlee (ACorAOC) ismore Manyproducersusethistermontheirwinelabelsalthough
the
widelyseenonwinelabels.Itiscommon foroneplotoflandto be traditional
termVindePays(VdP)isalsooftenseen.
coveredbybotha genericanda moreprestigious appellation.
Eachyear
theproducercanchoose whichappellationtheywishto use,a decision VindeFrance
ofteninfluenced
bythequalityofthevintage . InChapters
13to 21PDQ Wines
withouta GIaretermedVindeFrance.
wineswillbereferred
to as'appellation'
wines.
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FRANCE
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Toulouse - 4000m+
·~_;,. ~ 2000-4000 m
~ ., p
-~.,,.,,.
-,! r e l-....... 1000-2000 m
-"\,•-· ' ' 1,;- ~ ,-s
ANDQR~8,.'
500-lOOOm
SPA IN
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
42' N 42' N 200- 500 m
0- 200 m
78 UNDERSTANDINGWINES: EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
Bordeaux
Bordeaux is the largest appellation region in France, in terms of both volume and
13 value. It is home to many of the most prestigious names in fine wine. However, these
wines only represent a tiny proportion of total production and there is a massive gap between the
resources available to a few very wealthy producers and the vast majority of growers and producers.
CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING that it can be very risky to rely too heavily on one variety.
Bordeaux has a moderate maritime climate that benefits The different varieties permitted in Bordeaux flower and
from the effect of the Gulf Stream. This warming ocean ripen at different times, meaning that one bad frost or
current extends the growing season: spring frosts are heavy shower is unlikely to ruin an entire crop.
rarely a problem and grape ripening can continue well Thirteen grape varieties are permitted under the
into October. However, the Atlantic also brings high levels appellation regulations, but in practice three black
of rainfall and humidity. The vineyards are protected from grapes and two white predominate.
the worst of the Atlantic storms by the Landes forest and
the coastal sand dunes that lie to the west of the region. Black Varieties
Rain falls throughout the year and can disrupt flowering Cabernet Sauvignon dominates in the Haut-Medoc,
and fruit set, promote rot and dilute the flavours in the and it is also very important in the Bas-Medoc and the
grapes at harvest. Consequently, vintage variation is an Graves.The high stone/gravel content of the soils here
important consideration in Bordeaux although the top raises vineyard temperature and consequently these are
producers can greatly reduce the differences in style and the only areas where Cabernet can reliably ripen. Here it
quality between the vintages by rejecting unhealthy can account for three-quarters of the blend in the finest
and unripe grapes. Changes in canopy management wines.
techniques have resulted in healthier grapes (plus a Cabernet Franc is widely used in Saint-1:milion and,
decline in the use of sprays) and a marked rise in the to a lesser extent, in the Medoc and Graves. It produces
levels of sugar and flavour development at harvest time. wines with less body and tannin than Cabernet
Sauvignon. It can have herbaceous or stalky flavours
GRAPEVARIETIES AND WINEMAKING when unripe but when ripe it can contribute vibrant fruit
Almost all red Bordeaux wines and most Bordeaux and floral notes to a blend. Like Cabernet Sauvignon it
whites are produced from a blend of grape varieties. The prefers well drained warm soils.
variability in the weather, in particular rainfall, means Merlot is the most widely planted variety in Bordeaux
and is particularly important in the premium wines of
Avineyard
inthe Haut- Saint-1:milion and Pomerol. This is because Merlot can
Medoc
showingthehigh successfully grow on the cooler clay soils found in these
gravelcontentof thesoil. areas, whereas Cabernet Sauvignon would struggle to
ripen. Merlot's softness means it is usually the grape
that is predominant in high volume, inexpensive wines.
Petit Verdot has far smaller plantings than the three
black varieties above. It ripens fully only in very hot
years, giving a very deep-coloured, tannic wine that
ages slowly. It never plays more than a minor role in a
blend, where it is used mainly to add tannin, colour and
some spicy notes.
of their top wine, most of the leading chateaux now It only makes up a small percentage of any blend.
make second and even third wines from blends that are Similar to the red wines, dry white Bordeaux is also
not suitable for the grand vin (best wine) . Some wine made in a range of styles.Those at the lower end of
may even be sold off to a negociant. the market tend to be fresh and fruity, fermented in
Top-quality red Bordeaux is aged in small oak temperature controlled, inert vesselswith minimal
barriquesof 225 litres. In the finest chateaux, all the wine further ageing, but some show toasty hints of oak.
may be put into new casks.Lesserproperties may use a Premium dry whites from Pessac-Leognanare frequently
smaller proportion of new casks and generic Bordeaux fermented and matured in new oak barrels and have
wines are unlikely to see oak at all. a richness and concentrated nutty flavour overlaying
Constant improvements in the winery have led to riper, the fruit. The great sweet wines of Bordeaux are made
fruitier and more concentrated wines even in difficult from fruit that has been infected by noble rot. The best
vintages. examples are fermented and matured in new oak barrels
for anything up to three years.
White Varieties
Given its thin skin and affinity for noble rot, Semillon is REGIONSAND WINES
the most important variety for sweet wines in Bordeaux. The Dordogne and Garonne rivers combine to form the
It is also blended with Sauvignon Blanc in the premium Gironde Estuary and divide the Bordeaux vineyards into
dry white wines of Pessac-Leognanand Graves,where it three broad areas.West and south of the Gironde/
adds body to these wines. Garonne lie the districts of Medoc, Gravesand Sauternes.
In Bordeaux, Sauvignon Blanc produces wines with This area is often referred to as the Left Bank. Most of the
citrus and green fruit aromas. It is used increasingly for area between the Dordogne and the Garonne is covered
varietal, dry white wines: the one exception to the by the appellation Entre-Deux-Mers. Finally,the principal
generalisation that all Bordeaux wines are blends. In districts to the north and east of the Gironde and
blended wines it provides high acidity, which is Dordogne are Saint-Emilion and Pomerol, commonly
particularly necessary for sweet wines. Muscadelle has a referred to as the Right Bank.
pronounced grapey, floral flavour and plays an important There are over 50 different appellations in Bordeaux.
supporting role in sweet and dry white wine production . They range in size from the very large generic
BORDEAUXCLASSIFICATIONS
With the exception of Saint-Emilion, Bordeaux's classification systems lie outside of the appellation system.
Furthermore, the classifications do not rank individual vineyards but individual estates, commonly known as the
chateaux. Over the years the estate may vary in size due to the purchase or sale of individual vineyard plots. Thus
a chateau name is more of a brand than a designation of a specific vineyard.
KEY
~
100- 200 m
Bay of
Biscay _J
~
45•oo·N 45 00 ' N
BORDEAUX
e 44"30 ' N
t--~~,........_ _ _._,_~----,-,
SOkm
30mllH
t.
f\J
appellations, which cover the whole vineyard area, down White Bordeaux is increasingly dominated by Sauvignon
to the small commune appellations. Unlike Burgundy, Blanc and shows a vibrant grassy character.
these various appellations do not form a neat hierarchy
based on quality and it is easier to look at them in The Reds of Medoc and Graves
groups based on the styles of wine made in them . The Medoc lies to the north of the city of Bordeaux and
Graves lies to the south . The northernmost part of the
Generic Appellations Medoc is called the Bas-Medoc, and the wines from
The output of the generic appellations is mainly red here are labelled simply Medoc . Here, the soil is
labelled as either Bordeaux or Bordeaux Superieur (the predominantly clay, but there are outcrops of gravel.
latter designation has slightly stricter appellation rules and These wines tend to have a higher proportion of Merlot
requires a higher level of alcohol in the final wine) . The in the blend than those just to the south and tend to
remainder is white labelled as Bordeaux and rose labelled be more early-drinking in style. From Saint-Estephe
as Bordeaux Rose or Bordeaux Clairet. The standard of southwards lies the more highly rated area of the
these basic Bordeaux wines has improved considerably Haut-Medoc . Within the Haut-Medoc there are a
and continues to do so as export-focused producers are number of smaller appellations , sometimes referred to
trying to ensure that their wines can compete with as 'communes: in which most of the higher classified
similarly priced wines from other parts of the world . chateaux can be found . From north to south, the four
At their best, red Bordeaux and Bordeaux Superieur with the highest reputation are Saint-Estephe, Pauillac,
are early drinking medium-bodied wines with ripe red Saint-Julien and Margaux. These wines have a high
and black fruit, and sometimes cedar notes from oak. percentage of Cabernet Sauvignon in the blend and
The cheapest can be lighter in body and have more generally display a core of blackcurrant fruit,
astringent tannins than the better wines . The best complemented by cedar notes from oak. They can have
Bordeaux rose is fresh and fruity with an increasing grippy tannins when young, and often have a long
number of producers making high-quality examples. ageing potential.
Clairet is a style of wine that is mainly popular on the Immediately to the south of Bordeaux lies the Pessac-
French market. It undergoes a longer maceration than a Leognan, the most highly rated area in Graves. Soils, like
typical rose and is deeper in colour and fuller in body. those of the Haut-Medoc, are gravelly and well-suited to
BORDEAUX 81
Asortingtableina vineyard
intheMedoc. Someproducers
chooseto dothis inthe
winery.
82 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Thebotrytis-affected
grapes be labelled with a generic appellation name). The
usedforSauternes
cannot appellations of Graves and Pessac-Leognan are
beharvested
bymachine permitted to produce white wines as well as reds. The
andmustbeselectively white wines of Graves and Entre-Deux-Mers tend to
pickedbyhand. be made from Sauvignon Blanc in an unoaked style.
Pessac-Leognan is the home of many of the very best
dry whites, and here the whites may be eligible for cru
clam! status. They tend to be blends of Sauvignon Blanc
and Semillon and have usually been fermented and/or
matured at least partly in new oak, giving a medium to
full body and toasty oak flavours. Some producers in
Medoc and Sauternes also produce premium dry whites.
However, these wines cannot be sold using these
appellations and instead they are sold using the generic
Bordeaux appellation.
Sweet Wines
The top sweet wine appellations of Bordeaux are
grouped on the banks of the Garonne and its tributary
the Ciron. The rivers create the ideal misty autumn
conditions for noble rot to develop on fully ripened
grapes. The level of noble rot in the vineyard varies from
year to year. Passeri/logeis needed to help concentrate
sugars in years when there is little noble rot.
The best wines come from Sauternes, which lies on
the west bank of the Garonne. Within Sauternes lies the
Merlot based and meant for early drinking. The best village of Barsac. Producers in Barsac have the right to
wines can offer excellent value for money. The producers use either the appellation of Barsac or that of Sauternes.
in Cotes de Bourg who make wines of a similar style In these appellations, Semillon dominates because of its
chose not to join this group. Note that Premieres Cotes thin skin and susceptibility to botrytis. Sauvignon Blanc
de Bordeaux is a sweet wine appellation, unconnected supplies refreshing acidity and fruity aromas, and
with the Cotes de Bordeaux group. Muscadelle, where used, adds exotic perfume. The best
wines tend to be high in alcohol, sweet yet balanced
Premium Dry White Wines by high acidity, and display the apricot and citrus peel
A few appellations are permitted to produce dry white aromas of noble rot, along with notes of toast and vanilla
wines. Entre-Deux-Mers, a large appellation located from oak fermentation and/or maturation.
between the Rivers Garonne and Dordogne, can only There are a number of other sweet wine appellations
produce white wines (red wines from this area must near Sauternes that are made in a similar style.
THE DORDOGNE AND SOUTH WEST FRANCE 83
TheDordogne
andSouthWestFranceThesewi~esmaybedivided'.ntotwo
groups. First, there are the wines of
the Dordogne, many of which are made from the same grape varieties as those used in Bordeaux.
14
Second, there are a number of regions that make wines from varieties often never seen in Bordeaux,
with styles that differ considerably - these we shall call the wines of South West France.
THE DORDOGNE the River Lot. Now a broad range of styles is produced ,
To the east of the vineyards of Entre-Deux-Mers lie the depending on whether the vineyards are in the fertile
vineyards of the Dordogne. Here the climate is similar valley bottom , on the poorer soils of the slopes or on
to that of Bordeaux, although with less moderating the plateau above. The most important grape variety is
maritime influence. The major appellation is Bergerac, Malbec. The other varieties planted are Merlot and
which may be used for both red and white wines made Tannat. At their best, the wines are aged in oak, deeply KEY
from the same varieties as in Bordeaux. Monbazillac is coloured , high in tannin, with intense, dark berry fruits.
- 1500m+
a source of good value botrytised sweet wines made They mature slowly to reveal notes of cedar and earth.
1000- 1500 m
from Semillon and Sauvignon Blanc. To the south-east of Bordeaux, there is considerable
production of IGP wines, of which the most important 500- 1000 m
SOUTH WEST FRANCE is Cotes de Gascogne.These are generally dry, light - 200- 500 m
Cahors is situated to the east of Bordeaux. Historically, bodied white wines made from Ugni Blanc,with aromas
100- 200 m
these were described as 'black' wines, and were very and flavours of green apples.
tannic and long -lived. The region is located either side of Further south towards the Pyrenees is Madiran. Here, 0- lO0m
FRANCE THEDORDOGNEAND
SOUTHWESTFRANCE
45' N
Bay a f
Biscay
44"N
~-,·--
•,./
I
SPAIN j ~
(....._1(._'-·
84 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
red wines are produced from blends led by the deeply Right in the foothills of the Pyrenees is Juram;:on
coloured, high tannin variety Tannat. These wines where both dry and sweet white wines are made. The
traditionally needed a long period of bottle ageing to most important are the complex sweet wines made
soften their tannins. Today, riper grapes and modern from the high acid Petit Manseng. The grapes remain
winemaking techniques mean that the best wines have free of botrytis and undergo passeril/age. The wines have
concentrated black fruit and high levels of softer riper pronounced apricot and grapefruit aromas, sometimes
tannins. accompanied by spicy notes from new oak.
BURGUNDY 85
Burgundy
The large number of producers and appellations in Burgundy can make this region
seem very complicated. However, in essence Burgundy is quite simple. It is the home
of Chardonnay and Pinot Noir and this region still provides the benchmark of excellence for these
15
varieties against which all other producers of these wines around the world are judged.
CLIMATE
AND GRAPEGROWING For the best wines, 16 to 18 months' barrel ageing is
Burgundy covers a wide area and the climate ranges normal. Generally speaking, the better wines will be
from cool continental in the north around Chablis to aged in a proportion of new oak, although this will
moderate continental further south. Rain can frequently depend on the producer.
disrupt both flowering in early summer and harvest later
in the year. Pinot Noir is particularly susceptible to grey Chardonnay
rot and this can also be a problem in a wet growing Chardonnay accounts for nearly half the total vineyard
season. Among the other natural climatic hazards that area. The character of Chardonnay varies dramatically
the grower may face are spring frosts, particularly in the from the lean, steely, high-acid wines of Chablis in the
Chablis region, where they can appear as late as May, north of the region, via the often fabulously complex,
and localised summer hailstorms, which can often expressive wines of the Cote d'Or, to the more full-
destroy considerable proportions of a grower's crop. bodied, riper-fruited wines of Macon in the south.
A vineyard's location is extremely important in Burgundian winemakers were the pioneers of the
determining its quality level in the appellation hierarchy. techniques that are now associated with premium
Basic village-level vineyards tend to be located on flat Chardonnay production around the world: barrel
sites or at the bottom of slopes, whereas those of premier fermentation, barrel ageing (typically six to nine
cru or grand cru level are often found mid-slope. These months), MLF for white wines and use of the lees during
desirable hillside locations are less prone to frost than maturation. Some of the most expressive and sought -
those on flat land. The highest-quality vineyards after Chardonnays made using these techniques come
generally have a south or east facing exposure, offering from the Cote d'Or. Debates continue regarding how
protection from prevailing westerly winds. much new oak is appropriate, and the ideal level of Vertical
shootpositioning
The soils in Burgundy are very varied. A large number toasting for barrels. Whichever techniques are used, the onthe hillat Corton.
Light
of small geological faults, combined with gradual best wines are well-balanced and complex expressions canclearlypenetrate
the
erosion, mean that precise soil types change significantly of Chardonnay that can mature in bottle for a decade canopyandthefruitis
over small areas.These variations are often linked to or more. unshaded.
subtle changes in the styles of the wines although the
exact role the soil plays in this is the subject of much
debate. What is certain is that the soils on the hillsides
tend to be shallower with better drainage, whereas the
soil on the flat land is deeper and more fertile.
GRAPEVARIETIESAND WINEMAKING
The vast majority of wines in Burgundy are produced
from Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, although other grape
varieties including Aligote and Gamay are also grown .
PinotNoir
Pinot Noir accounts for over a third of the total vineyard
area. It is grown throughout the region, but the most
important plantings are in the Cote d'Or. Classic
Burgundian Pinot Noir has red fruit flavours in youth that
evolve into flavours of earth, game and mushroom as
the wine matures. The wines tend to have high acidity
and low to medium levels of tannins, but this can vary
according to the vineyard, the producer and the vintage.
A wide range ofwinemaking techniques is used on
Pinot Noir, varying from producer to producer. The use
of whole bunches has gradually become more popular.
86 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Other Varieties
Aligote is a white grape that tends to produce neutral
- GRANOCRU
- PREMIERCRU
wines with high acidity . It is capable of mak ing high-
quality wines when grown in sites where it can reach full
ripeness, but as these locations are usually reserved for
more profitable Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, such wines
are rare. Gamay produces early drinking red wines with
47"00'N 47'00 N ripe berry fruit and low tannins. It can be used in some
regional appellations, but only Pinot Noir is allowed for
wines of village level and above.
Thehillof Corton
isonthe
leftandthemainslopeof
theCoted'Or
isontheright.
Beauneisinthedistance.
TheVillages
vineyardsareon
theflatwhereasthepremier
cruandgrandcrusitesare
ontheslopes.
BURGUNDY 87
rather than green apple), and have more body, yet are
still balanced by high acidity. A number of producers
ferment or age a portion of their grandcruand
sometimes premiercruwines in old oak, which can give
47"N
a rounder texture and subtle flavours. Others prefer to
retain pure fruit flavours by fermenting and storing the ANCE
wines in stainless steel or concrete .
Regional
Appellations onthelabel.Occasionally,
ifthewinecomesentirely
froma single
Theappellations ofBurgundy forma hierarchybasedonthequalityof vineyard asa premier
thatisnotrecognised cruorgrand cru,the
thevineyard sites.Atthebaseofthehierarchy aretheregional vineyard
namemayappearaswell.Notetheterm'village'issometimes
appellations.
Theyaccount forhalfoftheproduction oftheregion. usedinsteadofcommune.
Mostregional appellation winescomefromvineyards thatdonot
havetherighttoa superior appellation,
although therearesomewines SingleVineyard
Appellations:
Premiers
Crus
andGrands
Crus
thathavebeendeclassified froma superior appellation.Such Above thevillage arethepremier
appellations cruandthengrand cru
declassification
maybedueto excessive yieldsorbecause a quality
- sites- vineyards thathaveconsistently
madehigh-qualitywines.Itis
mindedproducer wantsto preservetheprestigeofthesuperior rarethatthevineyard willbelongtojustoneowner(thisistermeda
appellationbynotincluding lower-quality
wines. monopole); mostvineyards willbedividedbetween a number of
Bourgogne Rouge andBourgogne Blanc arethemostgeneric different owners, eachofwhomwillgrowandharvest theirindividual
appellations
andcancomefromanywhere inBurgundy. Theyare parcelofvines.
usuallymadefromPinotNoirandChardonnay. Inall,therearemorethan600premiers crusspreadbetweenChablis,
Therearealsoa numberofregional appellationsthateachcover theCoted'0randtheCoteChalonnaise. Together,theyprovide
slightly
morerestricted areas.TheseincludeBourgogne Hautes Cotes approximately a tenthofBurgundy's production.
These winesmust
deNuits,Bourgogne Hautes CotesdeBeaune andBourgogne statepremiercru onthelabel.Ifthewinecomesfroma singlevineyard
CoteChalonnaise. IntheMaconnais theregional appellationsinclude the nameofthevineyard alsoappearsonthelabel.Producers mayalso
Macon forredandwhitewinesorMacon Villages forwhitewines blendwinesfromvarious premiercruvineyardswithina village
inwhich
only. casenovineyard nameappearsonthelabel.
Atthetopofthehierarchy arethegrand cruvineyardsaccounting
for
Commune
Appellations littlemorethan1percentofthetotalproduction. Thereare33ofthese
Thenextstepinthehierarchy
isthatofcommuneappellations
suchas intheCoted'0randoneinChablis. Theycanberecognised bythefact
ChablisorGevrey
-Chambertin.
Theseaccount
forabouta thirdofthe thatonlythevineyard appearsonthelabel.Thetermgrand crumust
totalproduction.
Usually,
justthenameofthecommune willbegiven appearonthelabel.
88 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
are lighter and tend to mature earlier. These wines are to full body . There may be a hint of creaminess from MLF.
seen as less prestigious than those of the Cote d'Or. The reds tend to be light and fruity and made for early
There are four village appellations. Rully produces drinking .
more white wine than red. It is also an important centre Wines labelled Macon Villages or Macon, followed
for the production of sparkling wine. Mercurey is the by the name of a particular village, are white wines that
village on the Cote Chalonnaise whose red wines enjoy generally represent excellent value for money. Certain
the highest reputation. Givry, whose reds are individual villages, such as Lugny, have built up a
particularly admired, is the smallest of the village considerable following for their wines. A wine called
appellations. Montagny produces only white wines. Macon Villages may come from any one, or a combination,
These communes each have premier cru vineyards but of the villages. The wines are generally similar in style to
no grandscrus. white Macon, but tend to display more ripeness, body
Bourgogne Cote Chalonnaise applies to all wines and character.
made on the Cote Chalonnaise from Pinot Noir for red, There are a number of village appellations in the
and Chardonnay for white. It is classified as a regional Maconnais region, of which the two most famous are
appellation. Pouilly-Fuisse and Saint-Veran. The best wines from
these villages display ripe notes of tropical and stone
Maconnais fruits and most are matured for a period of time in barrel
Chardonnay is the most widely planted grape of the to enhance texture and add flavours. The vines are
Maconnais, and the reds tend to be made of Gamay, planted on the limestone slopes of the Roche de Solutre
although some Pinot Noir is still grown. with east and south-east exposures. These amphitheatre -
Macon, the local regional appellation , can be red or like slopes, which act as natural suntraps, help produce
white . The better white wines show a good balance of some of the richest and ripest Chardonnays in Burgundy,
fresh apple or citrus fruit, medium acidity and medium which are often complemented by toasty oak flavours.
90 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
Although it is possible to make red, rose and white wines in Beaujolais, production
16 Beaujolais
is dominated by the red wines made from Ga may. Therefore only these wines will be
considered here. Styles range from wines that are light and fruity and best consumed when young, to
those that can develop complexity with bottle age.
Gamayvinesengobeletearly
intheseason.
BEAUJOLAIS MACONNAIS
lOmllH
• Beaujola
is crus
FRANCE
46 °N 46 N
BEAUJOLAIS
and tannin, with red berry fruit and often notes of production are Brouilly, Morgon, Fleurie and Moulin-
kirsch, banana and cinnamon-like spice from carbonic a-Vent. Moulin-a-Vent and Morgon often produce the
maceration. most structured wines. The fruit concentration and level
of tannins mean that these wines can improve with
Beaujolais Villages and the Beaujolais Crus bottle-ageing. Brouilly and Fleurie tend to produce
To the north and west of the region, the vineyards are lighter, more perfumed styles. A range of techniques
planted on a series of rolling hills, where the granite soils may be used in the production of these wines . Many of
are found. Thirty-nine villages here have the right to call these wines undergo a crushed-fruit fermentation and
their wine Beaujolais Villages. Individual village names some will receive oak ageing, often in large vats rather
rarely appear on wine labels. Beaujolais Villages tend to than casks;the wines rarely display pronounced aromas
be made from blending wines from different villages. or flavours of new oak. Other producers use semi-
Ten villages are entitled to their own appellation ; carbonic maceration or a small proportion of whole
these are the Beaujolais crus.The four with the greatest bunches to give brighter fruit aromas.
92 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
AlsaceLocated on the border between Germany and France, Alsace is unusual for a French wine
17 region in that most of its wines are varietally labelled. Still wine production is focused on
aromatic white grape varieties made in dry, off-dry and sweet styles. Some red wine is also made.
CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING consequence there is a great variety of soils in the
Alsace has a cool to moderate continental climate. The vineyards that lie on the foothills of the Vosges.This
Vosges Mountains shelter the vineyards from the geological complexity is a key factor that contributes
prevailing westerly, rain-bearing winds and the lack of to the variety of styles of wines produced, and the
clouds results in sunny summers and dry autumns. influence of geology on wine production is more clear
These conditions ensure that the grapes can achieve here than in many other regions.
high levels of sugar ripeness, although in the driest Grape growing practices vary depending on whether
years drought can be an issue. the vineyards are on slopes or on the plain. On the
The best vineyards are located on the steepest slopes slopes vines are trained low to benefit from radiated
with east and south-east aspects.The more northerly part heat and the rows are oriented to maximise the vine's
of the vineyard area has the coolest climate and the least exposure to the sun. Harvesting is done by hand. On the
protection from the Vosges.The lesservineyards lie on the plain the vines are trained high to minimise the risk of
plain between the Vosgesfoothills and the Rhine. Here spring frosts. Organic and biodynamic viticulture is
the grapes are often used for the production of Cremant widely practised in Alsace in part due to the low disease
d'Alsace,the local AC sparkling wine. (Cremant is covered pressure in the sunny, dry conditions.
in more detail in Chapter 42 Sparkling Wines of the World.) Many growers face a key logistical challenge at harvest
Alsace has had a dramatic geological history and as a time because they have a number of small plots of vines,
Alsace Manygrandscrusareconsideredbysometopproducersand
Alsaceaccountsforthevastmajorityoftheregion's production
. Most commentatorsto befartoolargeandencompasslandnotworthyofthe
winesaremadefromasinglegrapevarietyandthesewinesare appellation.
Forthisreasonsomeproducerswithgrandcruvineyards
varietally
labelled.
If agrapevarietyfeaturesonthelabel,100percent choose
notto labeltheirwinesasgrandcru.
ofthegrapes usedmustbefromthenamed variety.
Asmallnumber of
blends arealsomade; thesewinesarenotvarietallylabelled.
Some Vendanges Tardives(VT)
villageshavetherightto addtheirnameto thisappellationforcertain Thismeans'LateHarvest'.
These winescanonlybemadefromoneofthe
stylesofwine,although suchwinesarerare. fournoblevarieties
andmusthavea specific
minimumsugarripeness
dependingongrapevariety.Inthebestwinesthegrapeswill have
Alsace Grand Cru undergonepasseril/age,
andtheremaybesomeinfluence of noblerot.
There areover50vineyardsthateachhavetheirowngrandcru
appellation.
Thewinesmustbeproduced fromasinglenoblegrape Selection deGrainsNobles (SGN)
variety(Riesling,
Muscat,
Gewurztraminer orPinotGris);however,
a few Thesewinescanonlybemadefromoneofthefournoblevarieties and
exceptionstothisruledoexist.Thelabelmuststatethenameofthe musthavea certainminimum sugarripenessdependingongrape
vineyard,thevintageand,whereappropriate,thegrapevariety. variety
. Minimumsugarripeness
levelsaresethigherthanthoseforVT,
ControversyhasdoggedtheAlsace GrandCruappellation
fromthe andareusuallyachievedwithnoblerot.Thesewinesarenotproduced
start.Themajorissuecontinuesto bethatofvineyardboundaries. everyyearandonlyeverin smallquantities.
ALSACE 93
WINEMAKING
AND WINESTYLES
A range of grape varieties is grown in Alsace. The most
important are Riesling, Gewurztraminer, Pinot Gris and
Muscat, often termed the 'noble' varieties. They are the
only grapes that can be used for VT, SGN and grand cru
wines.
The vast majority of Alsatian wines are made from a
single grape variety. Blended wines tend to be
inexpensive and made from juice that was not selected
for varietal wines. They are either labelled Edelzwicker or
Gentil, or otherwise they carry a producer's brand name.
Some very high-quality blends are made, including some
from grand cru vineyards, but these are very rare indeed . not typically show as much floral character as those from Aviewacrossto grandcru
Most of Alsace's grape varieties are aromatic and Germany. vineyards.
Aspectand
therefore winemaking is focused on retaining the steepnessof slopearevital
aromas and flavours of the grapes. Traditional producers Gewurztraminer ingredients
to qualityin
ferment their wines in large old oak barrels, often more Gewurztraminer is renowned for its pungent aromatic Alsace.
than 100 years old. On the inside of these there is a thick spicy nose, reminiscent of lychees, roses and sweet
tartrate deposit, which prevents the wood from having baking spices. The skin of the grape has a light pink
any influence on the wine . In modern cellars, stainless tinge, giving a golden colour to some of the wines.
steel vats are now more commonly used, facilitating the
control of temperatures at the time of fermentation. MLF
is normally not encouraged for aromatic varieties since
this would mask the pure fruit flavours, although some
producers allow it to occur. Bottling usually takes place
in the spring following the vintage, while the wine is
young and fresh. Most wines are then ready to drink, 48 ·3o·N
Riesling
Mulhouse o
) KEY
\
•t !'
l000m+
Riesling is the most widely planted of the noble varieties .
The best are medium- to full -bodied, dry with medium ALSACE '...
,,. r 500-l000m
0- l00m
residual sugar. As a point of comparison these wines do
94 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Large
oakvatsare textured and have a pronounced flavour intensity with
traditionaltotheregion,but fresh and dried fruits and a honeyed character.
nowmanywinemakers are
usingstainlesssteelor, Muscat
increasingly
forreds,small There are a number of grape varieties called Muscat, two
oakbarrels. of which are grown in Alsace. The best wines come from
a
Muscat Blanc Petits Grains, and are intensely aromatic
with flavours of orange blossom, rose and grape. They
tend to have a light to medium body and low to medium
a
acidity. Unfortunately, Muscat Blanc Petits Grains is
prone to poor fruit set and rot, and so the less aromatic
Muscat Ottonel is more widely planted because it can be
relied on to crop more regularly.
TheLoireValleyThe Loire is France's longest river. However, the most important vineyards
of the Loire Valley only lie along the last few hundred kilometres of the
river as it flows west towards the Atlantic. This is a very varied wine region that is made up of a large
18
number of appellations. No one signature style is produced here; instead, there is an incredibly diverse
range of white, red and rose still wines.
The Loire Valley can be loosely grouped into four sub- and high in acidity, w ith hints of green apple and wet
regions. From east to west they are the Central Vineyards, stones. It is often said that those from Pouilly-Fume have
Touraine, Anjou-Saumur and Nantais . These are not subtle smoky notes. Certain individual villages such as
appellat ions themselves and, furthermore, unlike most Chavignol , and vineyards such as Les Monts Damnes
other French regions there is no regional generic (both in Sancerre), have created high reputations for
appellation for the whole of the Loire. (Production of particularly expressive wines. Some of these wines are
Rose de Loire and Cremant de Loire is focused in Anjou able to evolve in the bottle, although in most cases
and Saumur respectively.) There is, however, an IGP - Sancerre and Pou illy-Fume are not wines for ageing.
Val de Loire - that covers the whole region. These wines Winemaking techniques vary from producer to
are typically straightforward wines displaying freshness, producer . Gentle pneumatic pressing and temperature -
a light body and simple fruit flavours. controlled stainless steel vats are used to create fresh,
fruity wines. Certain producers ferment and mature their
CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING wines in old oak vessels and keep the wines on the lees
The different sub-regions of the Loire Valley are subject to give them a broader texture. A few use new oak.
to different climatic influences . Overall the climate is Whether or not MLF takes place depends on the style
cool, but the Central Vineyards, which are well inland, of wine the producer wants to create, and is most likely
have a continental climate whereas the Nantais region, to be encouraged in cooler vintages in order to lower
with its coastal location, experiences a maritime climate. the acidity of the wines.
The vineyards of Anjou are slightly warmer and drier To the west and south of Sancerre, Sauvignon Blanc
than might be expected given their proximity to the is also produced from vineyards lying on the tributaries Oneofthetopvineyards
in
ocean. They are protected by the Mauges hills and of the Loire. Here the most important appellation is Sancerre
. Notethewell·
certain vineyards there benefit from warm stony soils. Menetou-Salon, which provides a source of more drained
chalkysoilinthe
By comparison Touraine , which is further inland, has a moderately priced wines made in the same style as foreground
andthesection
cooler, wetter climate and clay soils. Sancerre and Pouilly-Fume. of vineyard
inthe
The vineyards lie at the northern limit for the The majority of Sauvignon Blanc, however, comes background
thathasbeen
production of the grape varieties grown, and variations from the Touraine region. Here, this grape is used to clearedforreplanting.
in the weather patterns from year to year can mean that
vintages differ widely . Fungal disease linked to high
levels of rainfall can be a part icular issue. As with many
other cool climates the best vineyards tend to be those
that experience the most sunshine and warmth. The
most desirable locations are therefore those with a
southerly aspect, generally on the mid-slope, and facing
the river for extra heat and reflected light.
Sauvignon Blanc
Sauvignon Blanc is mainly grown in the Central
Vineyards and Touraine . The Central Vineyards area has
by far the smallest production of the four sub-regions,
but it contains two of the most prestigious appellations
for Sauvignon Blanc wines: Sancerre and Pouilly-Fume.
These vineyards are located on very chalky, well-drained
stony soil. The wines from these regions tend to be dry
96 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
make white Touraine, a generic appellation that covers those shrivelled in the sun or affected by noble rot .
the whole of the Touraine region. The wines often Recent years have seen a move to seek greater ripeness
appear under a varietal label such as Sauvignon de even for dry wines, giving wines with higher alcohol
Touraine. They often have less concentration than those levels that often have a few grams of residual sugar.
from the more prestigious appellations, and are usually Young wines can have flavours that vary from fresh
made in a simple fruity style. apple through to tropical fruit, depending on the
ripeness of the grapes. The dry wines can also have a
Chenin Blanc steely, smoky character and the sweet wines often have
Chenin Blanc is a high acid non-aromatic grape variety the apricot and citrus peel flavours of noble rot . Dry
that is responsible for the greatest white wines of both and sweet Chen ins can age for decades. With age, they
Touraine and Anjou-Saumur. One peculiarity with this become richer and rounder and develop aromas of
variety is that even within one bunch it is common for honey , toast and hay, which balance well with the high
grapes to reach different levels of ripeness. This can acidity common to all of these wines.
result in green, herbaceous aromas if care is not taken Climate and soil can both have an important influence
during the harvest to exclude unripe grapes. For this on the style of Chen in Blanc wines, and as a result there
reason, several passes through the vineyard may be are clear differences between wines made in different
necessary at harvest time to ensure grapes are picked regions . Vouvray, located to the east of the city ofTours,
at the desired level of ripeness. makes both still and sparkling Chenin Blanc wines . The
The wines made from Chen in Blanc can be dry or still wines range in style from dry to lusciously sweet
KEY
sweet, still or sparkling . The variety of styles that this depending on the vintage. The cool climate and clay
1000m+
grape produces is directly related to the degree of soils here mean that Vouvray tends to be light to
500 - 1000 m ripeness that it has achieved at the time of picking. medium in body, with fresh fruity and floral notes . It is
200 - 500 m Barely ripe fruit (with only enough sugar to produce a rarely fermented or matured in new oak. To the west,
wine with 10-11 % abv) is used for sparkling wines, Saumur and Anjou have similar climates and soils.
100- 200 m
while the dry, medium and sweet styles of still wine Saumur is renowned as a source of sparkling Chenin
0- 100m reflect the use of increasingly ripe berries, including Blanc made by the traditional method, whereas Anjou is
48 N 48.N
MENETOU-
SALON"--...,a
..f.ql!'r .-
SANCERRE
47°N -
SAUMUR-
CHAMPIGNY
ATLANTIC
OCEAN FRANCE
46.N
Anjou-Saumur
LJ Touraine
o TO 20 30 40 50mlles
CentralVineyards
,,
THE LOIREVALLEY 97
Chenin
Blanc
bushvinesin
Savennieres.
better known for dry wines, that are often (but not Maine. All wines from the Muscadet appellations are dry
always) matured in new oak. with medium alcohol (the maximum permitted alcoholic
Savennieres and Coteaux du Layon are located strength for the wines is 12% abv). Traditionally, the
towards the west of Anjou-Saumur. The relatively warm, wines were fermented in large old oak vessels but now
dry climate here compared with that ofTouraine leads to concrete or stainless steel vats are more common. The
wines that are medium- to full-bodied, and less floral in wines display high acidity, a light body and subtle green
style . Savennieres produces full-bodied Chenin Blanc fruit flavours. They should be drunk young.
in a dry style. Air circulation around these well-exposed Muscadet (Sevre et Maine) Sur Lie is a speciality
vineyards impedes the development of noble rot, but from the area. The wine is bottled in the spring following
enables late-harvested Chenin Blanc grapes to be used the vintage, having spent the winter on its lees (lie is the
for full-bodied, complex dry wines. The best wines are French for lees). This lees contact gives the wines a richer
noted for their ability to evolve for decades in the bottle. texture. The wine is handled very little, to retain delicacy
Coteaux du Layon makes some of the most renowned and freshness.
sweet wines in the region. The appellation is located in
the sheltered valley of the River Layon to the south of RED GRAPEVARIETIESAND WINE STYLES
the Loire, where noble rot develops well. The two most Cabernet Franc
favoured sites, Quarts de Chaume and Bonnezeaux, have Cabernet Franc is well suited to the Loire as it flowers and
their own appellations and rank among the world's ripens early. It is made in a range of styles, dependent on
greatest sweet wines. site climate and soil, as well as winemaking techniques.
In Touraine, Cabernet Franc is grown in Chinon to the
Melon Blanc south of the Loire and Bourgueil and Saint-Nicolas-de-
This variety is sometimes referred to as Muscadet or Bourgueil to the north. In all of these appellations light,
Melon de Bourgogne . It ripens early and is frost-resistant, fruity wines for early drinking tend to come from sandy
making it well suited to the cool climate. soils, whereas fuller-bodied, more tannic versions come
The vast majority of Melon Blanc is grown in the from south-facing slopes with limestone and clay soils.
Nantais region, which lies mainly to the south of the Some producers choose to mature their wines in oak,
Loire as it reaches the Atlantic. The wines are generally and the best wines have the capacity to evolve in bottle
known as Muscadet and are made in a number of over many years.
different appellations, usually with Muscadet in their To the west, Saumur and Saumur-Champigny also
title. The appellation of Muscadet covers the widest produce red wines from Cabernet Franc. Overall the wines
area but the greatest production comes from the more here tend to be lighter in body and tannin than those from
highly regarded appellation of Muscadet Sevre et the Touraine appellations, but display juicy berry fruit and
98 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
sometimes floral notes. They tend to be best drunk young, Saumur. It is always dry and must have a minimum of
particularly Saumur, and can often be served chilled. There 30 per cent Cabernet Franc and/or Cabernet Sauvignon
are, however, a few producers making fuller-bodied styles grapes in the blend. Anjou-Saumur has another two
that are capable of further ageing. appellations for different styles of Rose, of which the
highest quality is Cabernet d'Anjou . This is always
Other Black Varieties medium-sweet in style and is made from a blend of
Gamay is the second most planted black grape variety Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon. Rose
in the Loire and is mainly planted in Touraine and Anjou d'Anjou is less sweet and is made predominantly of
where it makes fruity, usually early drinking wines . A Grolleau (a local high yielding black grape) blended
small amount of Pinot Noir is grown in the Central with Cabernet Franc and other local varieties . The rose
Vineyards. The best sites are usually reserved for wines ofTouraine can be made from a wide array of
Sauvignon Blanc, and so these red wines tend to be black grape varieties and are generally dry, fresh and
quite rare and generally light in style. fruity in style . Sancerre rose must be made from Pinot
Noir and is usually pale in colour, light in body and dry
ROS~ WINE STYLES with delicate fruit flavours.
Rose wines are mainly produced in Anjou-Saumur with Rose wines may be made either by direct pressing or
significant amounts also made in Touraine and Sancerre. a short maceration on the skins. They are usually
Rose de Loire can be produced in both Anjou-Saumur fermented in inert, temperature-controlled vessels to
and Touraine, but in practice it is mainly made in Anjou- retain fruit flavours.
THE NORTHERN RHONE 99
TheNorthern
RhOne Many of the vineyar_dsof th.e Northern Rh~ne ar_esituated on steep
slopes next to the River Rhone between V1enne m the north and
Valence in the south. Although they are responsible for only a small percentage of the total production
19
of Rhone wines, these northern vineyards are home to many of the premium wines.
Thevineyards
of Hermitage
riseuponwell-exposed
steepslopesbehindthe
townofTain.
100 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Condrieu
CROZES- This is a white wine made solely from the Viognier grape.
HERMITAGE
The area under vine has grown significantly in recent
1J~ l:::::~:g:E
years and the best wines come from low-yielding old
vines, grown on steep, well-exposed, terraced vineyards .
Tournon- ) Chateau-Grillet is a single property appellation within
ur-Rh6ne CROZES -
7 HERMITAGE Condrieu that produces wines in a similar style.
R./sere
t•..,cf\
45 ·oo ·N
Saint-Joseph
Saint-Joseph runs along the western bank of the Rhone
from Condrieu in the north to Tournon in the south. The
NORTHERN o Valence vast majority of the wines here are reds made from
RHONE Syrah. Some white wines are made from Marsanne and
Roussanne.The best wines generally come from the
20 aokm
t
\Smiles N terraced vineyards nearTournon, which can have a
flavour intensity and structure similar to Hermitage.
Excellent wines are also produced just south of Condrieu.
White Varieties Large volumes of relatively light-bodied wines, often
Viognier makes full-bodied white wines with perfumed incorporating elements made using carbonic
aromas of blossom and apricots, and flavours of stone maceration, come from the more fertile, flatter sites on
fruits. The wines tend to have low acidity and high the valley floor and the plateau above the slopes. These
alcohol as the grapes do not develop their signature wines can be among the lightest-bodied of the Northern
aromas until very late in the season when they have Rhone, expressing the pepper-perfumed aspects of the
reached a very high level of sugar ripeness. The grapes Syrah grape.
need careful handling in the winery so that the wines do
not develop an overtly oily character that can overwhelm Hermitage
the varietal aromas. New oak is increasingly being used Hermitage is located on a steep south-facing slope,
but it too has to be handled carefully as oak flavours can behind the town ofTain-l'Hermitage. It is divided into
easily overwhelm primary aromas. A small number of a number of /ieux-dits,named sites, which are not part
wines are made in an off-dry style from late-harvested of the appellation system. They vary in steepness and
grapes. aspect, which gives wines of subtly different style and
Marsanne and Roussanne are also grown in the body. The best Hermitage has traditionally been a
Northern Rhone and are usually blended together. blend of wines from these different sites, but some
Marsanne has richness and weight whereas Roussanne producers have started to release wines made from
offers acidity and a perfumed fruit characteristic. These specific lieux-dits.Red Hermitage is generally the fullest-
wines do not have the aromatic intensity ofViognier but bodied of the Northern Rhone red wines and ages well.
they can age well and develop complex hazelnut aromas. Although up to 15 per cent of Roussanne and Marsanne
may be fermented with Syrah, this is now rarely done
REGIONS AND WINES and instead they are made into white wines that
Most of the wines in the Northern Rhone come from one account for approximately a fifth of Hermitage's
of the cru appellations, although theoretically generic production.
THE NORTHERN RHONE 101
TheSouthern
RhoneThe vineyard area ~f the So~thern Rhone i~ much ~reater than that
20 of the Northern Rhone and 1t produces an 1mpress1verange of
wines, from high-volume and inexpensive to premium. Production is dominated by red wine, although
there are some high-quality white and rose wines too.
CLIMATE
AND GRAPEGROWING Rhone wines are often complex blends. In certain
The Rhone valley opens out south of Valence and the circumstances wines are made from a dozen or more
vineyards are planted on much flatter terrain than those grape varieties.
of the Northern Rhone. Many, but by no means all, of
the best sites have very stony soils that absorb the sun's Black Varieties
heat and warm the vineyard, aiding ripening. In some Grenache dominates most of the red wines of the
sites, particularly in areas of Chateauneuf -du-Pape, these Southern Rhone and is by far the most widely planted
stones or ga/ets completely cover the soil surface. The variety. The warm summers mean that Grenache can
climate in the south is different too. It is Mediterranean, ripen fully here, producing wines with concentrated
with mild winters and warm dry summers when drought spiced red fruit flavours . However, in hot years the fruit
can be a problem. In this part of the Rhone the north flavours can become baked and jam my. Syrah and
winds known as the mistralgain speed and can cause Mourvedre play a supporting role to Grenache. Syrah
extensive damage to vineyards. There are fewer slopes provides blends with extra colour and tannin but it can
to protect the vines from the wind, meaning windbreaks struggle in the hottest sites. Mourvedre, on the other
have to be planted. For the most part, Grenache is bush- hand, is at the northern limit of where it can ripen
trained low to the ground to offer protection from the successfully and thrives in these locations. It is deeply
wind and to benefit from the warmth of the soil. Syrah is coloured and very high in tannins. When it is fully ripe it
more easily damaged in the wind and it benefits from can develop dense black fruit flavours as well as gamey
the support offered by trellising systems. and meaty aromas that are highly prized by many top
producers, especially in Chateauneuf-du-Pape. Cinsault
GRAPEVARIETIES
AND WINEMAKING can also perform a supporting role in red wine blends
Instead of the wines being made from just one ortwo providing red fruit flavours rather than tannin or colour,
different varieties, as is the case in the north, Southern but it is best known as a blending partner to Grenache in
the production of fresh, fruity roses.
Thevineyards
ofthe It is not only the range of grape varieties used that
SouthernRhonearenot varies, but also the winemaking methods. Consequently,
restricted
to a narrow
valley it is almost impossible to describe a typical Southern
astheyareinthenorthand Rhone red, although all winemakers must find a way of
manyareplantedonflat managing potentially high tannins and high alcohol
openterrain.
levels in order to produce a balanced wine. Techniques
vary from cold pre-fermentation maceration and storage
in stainless steel to warm extractive fermentations in
traditional open fermenters and maturation in large
old oak vessels. Usually winemakers will make up their
blends from wines that have been fermented using
different techniques. New oak is used by some, although
a number of traditional producers believe it overwhelms
the flavours of Grenache. The styles of the wines vary
from light- to medium-bodied fresh, fruity wines with low
tannins to highly tannic full-bodied reds with flavours of
spice, meat and/or earth .
White Varieties
The cultivation of white grapes remains a minority
concern in the Southern Rhone. There is no Southern
Rhone equivalent to Condrieu or Viognier. Clairette,
Grenache Blanc and Bourboulenc are the notable
additions to the Northern Rhone trio ofViognier,
THE SOUTHERN RHONE 103
Generic Appellations
Cotes du Rhone accounts for more than half of the
entire production of appellation wines in the Southern
Rhone, most of which is red wine . Most are medium-
bodied, fruity but simple wines. Fruity roses and white
wines are made under this appellation too.
Within the Cotes du Rhone, a number of villages are
entitled to call their red and, in some cases,white and
rose wines Cotes du Rhone Villages. To qualify, more
stringent minimum alcohol levels and maximum yields
must be observed and a greater percentage of the blend
must be made from Grenache, Syrah and Mourvedre .
There are a number of individual villages that can add
their name on the label if 100 per cent of the wine comes
from the named village, for example, Cotes du Rhone
Villages Cairanne. These are the best w ines outside of
the crus,and have more body, structure and spiced red
fruit flavours than generic Cotes du Rhone. All of these
named villages have the option to apply for crustatus.
Chateauneuf-du-Pape
Situated on the east bank of the Rhone, Chateauneuf-
du -Pape is by far the largest of all the crusin the Rhone
valley . It has a particular place in French wine history,
because it was the first area to have Appellation contr6/ee
status .
The vineyard area is notably flat, although small
variations in aspect can have a marked impact on how
well Syrah and Mourvedre perform. The appellation 's
size and the associated wide range of soil types, aspects 44'00'N 44'00'N
-!
COTESDU RHONEVILLAGES--
characteristic high alcohol. Unfortunately, the very
factors that offer consumers such interest and variety
also mean there is a lot of mediocre Chateauneuf that is
rather dilute and unbalanced by the high alcohol. A
small quantity of white Chateauneuf-du-Pape is made . Goffe du Lion 1----,-0--~ •~0 - ,~,. - ,,,~
, Mkm
Avineyardin 6igondas.
The
redwinesfromthiscruare
oftensimilar
in styleto the
morefamousChateauneuf·
du-Pape.
Grenache and Cinsault, are full-bodied compared with long-standing crus.They make red wines, usually
Provence roses, intensely flavoured and capable of Grenache-led blends, in a similar full-bodied, spicy style
developing greater complexity when aged in bottle (for to Chateauneuf-du-Pape and many of the wines are as
more information see section Provence in Chapter 21). good as those that come from the more famous
Only roses can be made in Tavel. Lirac also produces top appellation. However, given the global success of
quality red and white wines in the style of Chateauneuf- Chateauneuf-du -Pape these crusare likely to remain in
du-Pape. the shadow of their more famous neighbour. Some crus
also permit rose and white wine production . Beaumes de
Other Villages Promoted to Crus Venise has a separate AC for its fortified Muscats called
Other Southern Rhone villages that lie in and around the Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise. See Chapter 45 Fortified
hills to the east of Chateauneuf have been promoted to Muscats for more details .
cru status. Gigondas and Vacqueyras are the two most
SOUTHERN FRANCE 105
Southern
FranceThe vineyards of southern France lie along the Mediterranean coast
from Italy in the east to the Spanish border in the west. They are split into
three broad areas: Languedoc and Roussillon to the west of the Rhone, and Provence to the east. The
21
prevalence of the local IGP, Pays d'Oc, for the wines of Languedoc and Roussillon, alongside a number
of more traditional appellations means that a great diversity of wine styles can be found in this part of
France.
CLIMATE
AND GRAPEGROWING GRAPEVARIETIES
AND WINEMAKING
This region has a warm Mediterranean climate with Black varieties account for the majority of the plantings
summer temperatures often in excess of 30°C, mild in the region . The last 20 years has seen dramatic
winters and low rainfall levels especially during the changes to the composition of the vineyards and today
growing season. Consequently, in most years this area both black and white wines reflect a mix of local and
can offer ideal conditions for growing grapes. international varieties.
However, the region is by no means uniform.
Vineyards planted inland in the foothills of the Black Varieties
mountains that surround this region are noticeably The most important local varieties include Grenache
cooler than those on the coastal plain and often have and Syrah. Grenache is well suited to the warm, dry
less fertile, well-drained soils that are better suited to summer climate, whereas Syrah tends to perform better
quality viticulture. Strong winds can also have a in the cooler sites. Carignan is also widely grown. This
significant impact on the climate. Cool dry winds blow grape is naturally high in tannin, acidity and colour but
from the north, cooling the eastern and western ends can lack fruit or finesse, although old vine Carignan on
of the region. The mistralblows down the Rhone valley poor soil can produce quality wines. Its popularity in the
and the tramontane blows through the gap between the past was due to its ability to produce enormous yields;
Massif Central and the Pyrenees. however, plantings have been reduced significantly, a
The warm dry climate means that the biggest grape trend that is likely to continue. Nevertheless, it is still so
growing challenge is drought, whereas fungal diseases widely planted it is permitted by all AC regulations. There
are less of a problem here than anywhere else in France. are smaller plantings of Cinsault, which is used in rose
However, the region can occasionally experience production or to add red fruit flavours to red blends.
summer floods. Mourvedre can ripen successfully only in the warmest
Ploughing
during
the
growing
seasonto keep
weedsundercontrol.
106 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
KEY
- 2000m+
Massif
1500- 2000 m , Central
1000- 1500 m
FRANCE
500- l000m
200- 500 m ,.
44 N
100- 200m
0- 100 m
\
,
G o ffe du
Lio n
Pays d'OcIGP D
LanguedocAC ~
MEDITERRANEAN
SEA
SOUTHERN
42'N
FRANCE
SPAIN
40 60 km
CLIMATE
AND GRAPEGROWING circulation of air. Where vineyards are located near a
Most of the wine regions in Germany have a cool river, reflected sunlight can also help the grapes to ripen,
continental climate, with all the associated problems, and the air movement created by flowing water can help
although the vineyards in the far south in Baden are protect against frosts.
not iceably warmer. Summers can be wet; however, the Because of the fact that wines are classified by must
rain generally declines in autumn during the final stage of weight (the level of sugar in the grape juice), the harvest
ripening. The long, cool ripening period gives the grapes can be spread out over a number of weeks and months.
time to reach sugar ripeness while retaining their acidity. It is possible to make a range of Qua/itcitsweineand
When the conditions are right, noble rot will develop and Prcidikatsweineeach year from an individual vineyard.
botrytised sweet wines can be made in every region in Pickers will pass through the vineyard several times in
Germany. Annual weather conditions vary considerably, order to ensure that they get the ideal grapes for each
leading to significant variation in the quality, quantity category of wine. Grapes can also be sorted and
and styles of wine made from year to year. categorised after each picking.
In such marginal conditions, small differences in
vineyard location can make significant differences in the GRAPEVARIETIESAND WINESTYLES
quality of wine. In nearly all regions the best sites are In order to satisfy the demands of the local market, the
found on steep and often stony slopes with a southerly ongoing trend in German winemaking is for dry styles of
aspect, which maxim ise the available heat and sunlight. wine. These wines, both red and white and at all quality
Vineyardswitha favourable These vineyards have to be worked by hand and on the levels, will quite often simply be sold as Qualitcitsweine.
aspectanda high most extreme slopes equipment has to be manoeuvred Prcidikatsweineare largely the preserve of white wines
ofslateonthe into place by winches. On these slopes, vines are head-
concentration and in order to keep things simple these styles will only
surfacebenefitfromextra pruned, individually staked and the canes tied in at the be discussed in the context of Riesling which, in terms
warmth. top of the stake to maximise grape exposure to light and of vineyard plantings and wine quality, is the most
important grape variety in Germany. It is important to
note that other grape varieties are also produced as
Prcidikatsweine.
Riesling
Riesling is the most widely planted grape variety in
Germany. The variety expresses itself differently from
region to region, and even from vineyard to vineyard,
due to variations in the climate and soil. Flavours can
range from delicate and floral to a richer peachy fruit
character. Wines can range from bone dry to lusciously
sweet. The dry styles are often labelled as Qualitcitsweine.
They range from light and fruity to very concentrated
and intense and many of the very best are labelled
GrossesGewcichs(GG)- see section German Wine Laws
and Labelsopposite. On the other hand, nearly all wines
labelled as Prcidikatsweinewill have residual sugar, but
up to the category Ausleseit is possible for these wines
to be made in a dry style. The key to understanding
Prcidikatsweineis to think of them as an indicator of
style.
in body, with high acidity and flavours of green apple or apricot) are common characteristics of Spiitlese wines
citrus fruit often balanced with residual sweetness . The made from Riesling.
sweet styles will have an alcohol level between 8-9%
abv whereas drier styles can reach 12% abv. It is possible Auslese - These wines are made from individually
to sweeten these wines after fermentation by adding selected extra-ripe bunches of grapes. Whether dry or
unfermented grape juice (Siissreserve) but this is not a sweet, Auslese wines are richer and riper compared with
technique that is used to make high-quality wines. The Spiitlese wines from the same region and regardless of
best sweet styles of Kabinett are made by stopping the style noble rot can play an important part in the flavour
fermentation early, before the yeast has converted all of profile of these wines.
the sugar in the juice to alcohol. This achieves a better
sugar/acid balance. Beerenauslese (BA) and Trockenbeerenauslese (TBA) -
Noble rot is essential to achieve the must weights
Spatlese - These wines are made in the same way as necessary for TBA. It is not essential for wine labelled
Kabinett but they are more concentrated, riper and BA(it is possible to reach the minimum must weight
have a little more body, alcohol and, where relevant, without noble rot); however, noble rot is typical for these
sweetness, compared with a Kabinett wine from the wines. Some sites are well suited for these wines but
same region. Citrus and stone fruit aromas (peach or BAand TBAare not necessarily made every year and
!
minimum mustweightat harvest.Therearetwofundamental levels • Kabinett drytomediumsweet
inthesystem, Qualitatswein andPradikatswein, andthelatteris •Spiitlese drytomediumsweet
subdivided intosixPriidikat
categories.EachPriidikat
canbemadein •Auslese drytosweet
• Beerenauslese
(BA) sweetonly
a varietyofdifferent
sweetness levels.
Thekeyinformationisshown
•Eiswein sweetonly
inthetable.
highest (TBA) sweetonly
• Trockenbeerenauslese
WineLabels
AllPD0winesmustcomefromonlyoneregionandthenameofthe Thereisnothingonthelabelto indicate
whethera wineisfroma single
regionwillappearonthelabel.ForPriidikatsweine
thePriidikatlevel vineyardornotbuttheretailpriceisnormally
a veryreliable
indicator.
willalsoappearonthelabel.Varietal
labellingiscommon andlabels
mayalsoinclude information
aboutthefollowing threeareas: Indications ofquality- ThePriidikatlevelsarea goodindicator of
style,somethingdiscussedinthesectionRiesling. However, thereare
Sweetness- Drywinescanbelabelled andwinesthatareoff-
trocken nolegallydefinedlabellingterms,suchasPremier CruandGrand Cru,
dryormedium canbelabelled Someproducers
halbtrocken. feelthat thatcanbeusedto indicate thequalitylevelofa wine.
hasa negative
halbtrocken association
withlowerqualitywinesanduse Thishastosomeextentbeenaddressed byanindependent group
thetermfeinherbinstead.Unlike
theothertwoterms,feinherb
isnot ofGerman wineproducers calledtheVerband Deutscher
legally
defined.Many winesdonothaveanyindicationofsweetness on Pradikatsweingiiter (VDP). Themembers haveclassifiedtheir
thelabelbutthiscanoftenbededuced fromeitherthewinecategory vineyardswhich,byconsensus, includethevastmajority ofthebest
orthealcohollevel. sitesinGermany.
Thisclassification
istypicallyonlyseenonlabelswhenmembers
Vineyard location- Thisiscommonly statedonGerman winelabels. makedryQua/itiitsweinefromthebestvineyard sites.Thesedrywines
Thenameofthevillage comesfirstandthisisfollowedbythenameof arecalledGrosses Gewachs andthisisindicated bythelettersGG
thevineyard.Forexample,
a winelabelledPiesporter
Goldtropfchen
is anda bunchofgrapesthatareembossed ontheneckofthebottle.
fromthevineyard ofGoldtropfchen
locatedinthevillage
ofPiesport. Thevarieties
permitted bytheVDP varyfromregionto region.Itis
Thevastmajorityofthewineslabelledthiswaywillbefromsmall importantto notethatGrosses Gewiichsisa trademark oftheVDP and
singlevineyards.
However,
lowerqualitywinesthataremadefrom isnotpartoftheGerman winelaw.Nevertheless, theseareconsidered
grapesthatcomefroma largenumber ofneighbouring vineyards
can to betheverybestdrywinesmadeinGermany.
belabelledinthesameway(forexample, Piesporter
Michelsberg).
110 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
KEY volumes vary considerably when they are made. These WINE REGIONS
2000 - 4000 m wines are sweet and low in alcohol with flavours of Mosel
honey, dried stone fruit, candied peel and flowers . This region includes the River Mose!, from where it joins
1000- 2000 m
They rank among the best sweet wines in the world . the River Rhine (Rhein) to the German border and its two
500- 1000 m small tributaries, the Saar and the Ruwer. White grapes
200-500 m Eiswein - These are genuine rarities and are made and Riesling in particular dominate production. Riesling
0-200 m
infrequently. Importantly, noble rot is not a key is the only permitted variety for GG wines .
component of this style and the focus is rather on Production is concentrated in the centre of the region
varietal purity . The best of these wines achieve a very in an area known as the Middle Mose! where there are a
fine balance between acidity and sweetness. number of villages that have an established reputation
Winemakers also seek to maintain varietal flavours, for top -quality wine . The best known are Piesport,
which can be accentuated by using carefully selected Bernkastel and Wehlen. The best vineyards are found
yeast, handling the juice with care and avoiding on very steep slopes with slate soils right next to the
processes that could mask the flavours of the grape, river. The Rieslings here are typically lighter in body ,
such as MLF or new oak. lower in alcohol and higher in acidity compared with the
wines of Rheingau, Rheinhessen and Pfalz. Floral and
Other White Grape Varieties green fruit flavours predominate.
Miiller-Thurgau (Rivaner) is a crossing made in the The cooler Saar and Ruwer account for only a tiny
1880s between Riesling and Madeleine Royale. It ripens percentage of the overall plantings in the Mosel. The
earlier than Riesling but it does not have the same high best wines are similar in both style and quality to the
level of acidity or flavour intensity. It can produce an Middle Mosel often showing an even higher level of
attractive floral and fruity wine but in Germany it rarely acidity . In cooler vintages grapes from even the best
produces wines of high quality . It remains the second sites do not ripen fully and are used in sparkling wine
most widely planted white variety but it is now in steady production.
decline as the market for the inexpensive medium -dry/
GERMANY 111
Nahe
The vineyards of the Nahe are spread over a wide area
that lies in between the Mosel and Rheinhessen. The
best vineyards are situated on the banks of the River
Nahe itself in the short section between the villages of
Schlossbockelheim and Bad Kreuznach. These vineyarl;ls
are on steep south-facing slopes. The best wines are
made from Riesling, which is the most widely planted
variety here, and can be made in a style that lies in
between that of the Mose I and the fuller bodied wines
from Rheingau, Rheinhessen and Pfalz. This is the only
permitted variety for GG wines. They have the
pronounced acidity of the Mose I but they can have a
slightly riper fruit character as the climate here is warmer.
Rheingau
The Rheingau is a small but prestigious region. Most
vineyards are situated on the slopes of the north bank
of the River Rhine (in the west of the region) and the
River Main (in the east) and have a southerly aspect. This,
combined with the protection offered by the Taunus hills Pfalz KEY
to the north, provides optimal conditions for ripening Pfalz is the second largest wine-growing region in 500- 1000 m
grapes. Germany . The majority of the vineyards can be seen as
200- S00m
The majority of the vineyards lie on the slopes to the a continuation of the vineyards of Alsace. They run in a
west of the region and surround the villages of narrow 80 kilometre strip north from the French border 100- 200 m
Johannisberg and Riidesheim. Riesling dominates and lie to the east of the Haardt Mountains, which are a 0- l00m
plantings and the majority of the wines are made in a continuation of the Vosges.This means that the Pfalz is
dry style. The Rieslings have a medium to full body and the driest of the German regions and in very warm years
a distinct ripe peach character to their fruit flavours. The the vines can suffer from water stress.
humid conditions generated by the Rhine mean that Riesling is the most widely planted variety and has
some of Germany's best BA and TBA wines are made the longest reputation for high-quality winemaking.
here too. The vineyards to the east of the region on the Mi.iller-Thurgau is also widely grown, while plantings of
Main are centred around the village of Hochheim. The Grauburgunder and Wei8burgunder are gradually
Rieslings can be riper and fuller bodied due to a slightly increasing. Black grapes account for just under 40 per
warmer climate . Some excellent Spatburgunder is also cent of the vineyard area. Dornfelder is the second most
made here to the west of Ri.idesheim in the village of widely planted variety of either colour and there are
Assmannshausen. GG wines can be made from Riesling significant plantings of Portugieser (for the local market)
or Spatburgunder. and Spatburgunder (which is gaining an international
reputation). GG wines can be made from Riesling,
Rheinhessen Wei8burgunder or Spatburgunder.
This is the largest vine-growing region. A very broad The most established quality vineyards surround
range of black and white varieties are planted here. Forst and Deidesheim, an area often referred to as
Mi.iller-Thurgau and Riesling are the two most planted Mittelhaardt. Set on the steep slopes to the west of the
varieties of either colour. Black varieties, mostly villages, the vineyards here produce a ripe, fuller-bodied
Dornfelder, Portugieser and Spatburgunder, make up style of Riesling. As has happened in Rheinhessen, young
approximately 30 per cent of the plantings. GG wines and energetic growers are making top-quality wines
here can be made from Riesling or Spatburgunder . outside of this core region. The majority of wines are
The reputation of Rheinhessen was based on the now made in the drier styles.
steeply sloping vineyards on the west bank of the Rhine
centred around the village of Nierstein. This area, often Baden
referred to as the Rheinterrasse, produces some of the Baden is the warmest and most southerly wine region
fullest-bodied Rieslings in Germany. and produces the fullest-bodied German wines with the
In recent years a number of growers working in areas highest alcohols. Baden's vineyards are spread over a
that do not have a long-standing reputation for wine large geographic area although in terms of vineyard
production (for example the area in the south of the area it is only the third largest vine-growing region in
region near Worms) have started to produce top-quality Germany. Most of the vineyards are spaced out over a
wines. As a result, Rheinhessen has gained a reputation narrow strip of land that follows the Rhine to the Swiss
for innovation and excellence. border . Nearly a third of the plantings are concentrated
112 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Aspectandslopearekey
factorsthatdetermine
fruit
qualityinMosel,
AustriaAustria is best known for the quality of its dry white wines, both from its own grape
variety Gruner Veltliner, and from Riesling. However, Austria is also home to many fine
red wines made from the local varieties such as Zweigelt and Blaufrankisch and sweet botrytised dessert
23
wines made from Welschriesling.
CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING The second most planted white variety is
The Alps cover the western parts of Austria and Welschriesling (note this is not the same grape variety
consequently the wine producing areas are found at the as Riesling).When produced in a dry style its wines are
eastern end of the country. These vineyard areas have usually fresh but simple, displaying citrus and green
a cool continental climate, with short summers and apple flavours and high acidity. However, due to its
very harsh winters. The more northerly regions can susceptibility to botrytis it is also capable of producing
experience cooling northerly winds, whereas those high-quality dessert wines.
closest to the Hungarian border are warmed by easterly Riesling is less widely planted and the best examples
winds. There is much less variation in annual weather tend to come from Wachau, Kamptal and Kremstal.
patterns than in northern Europe. These are usually dry and medium- to full-bodied, with
ripe, peachy primary fruit. The best examples are capable
GRAPE VARIETIES AND WINEMAKING of maturing in bottle.
White Grape Varieties Other widely planted varieties are Chardonnay, Muller-
The most widely planted variety is Gruner Veltliner, Thurgau and Sauvignon Blanc, the last of which has a
a high-quality grape that has given Austria a point of growing reputation particularly in the southern region of
difference in export markets. It tends to produce fresh Steiermark.
but unexciting wines if yields become too high, but
when grown with care it is capable of producing full - Black Grape Varieties
bodied, concentrated wines with naturally high acidity. The most widely planted black variety is Zweigelt
In youth it often gives flavours of citrus or stone fruit, (Blaufrankisch x St Laurent) which gives very deeply
sometimes with hints of white pepper, and develops coloured reds with soft tannins and bramble fruit.
layers of honey and toast as the wine ages.The majority Blaufrankisch, which is the most highly regarded of the
of producers ferment and store their wines in stainless Austrian black varieties, produces wines with medium
steel, however, old oak casksare also commonly used, tannins, high acidity and a peppery, sour cherry flavour.
and some producers may mature a proportion of their St Laurent is an Austrian speciality that gives wines
best wines in new oak barriques. similar in character to Pinot Noir. Oak ageing is common
AUSTRIANWINE LAWS
The vast majority of wine made in Austria is PDO.PGIwines are labelled Landwein and wines without a
geographical indication are labelled Wein.
PDOWines Trockenbeerenaus/ese
(TBA),andStrohwein
orSchi/fwein,
where
There
arefourfederalstatesandafurther16smaller
areasthatqualify bunches of grapes
arelaidoutonbedsofstraworreedsduringthe
forPDQstatus caneitherhavethestatusQualitiitswein
. These orDAC. winter,to concentrate
sugars.
KEY (Styria), and Wien (Vienna). The first two account for the
4000 m+
2000 - 4000 m
1000- 2000m
500- lOOOm
AUSTRIA
t---~~--,~,m-llu~•ookm
•1 CZECH
REPUBLIC
49 N
vast majority of production .
4TN
0 Graz -~ Gruner Veltliner or Riesling.
Weinviertel DAC is Austria's largest vine -growing area
..l-5 47N
/ HUNGARY and was the first Austrian DAC.The wines can only be
,.-·----~._;-·-·---t-·(.( made from Gruner Veltliner. There are two levels to this
DAC. Klassikwinesmust be made in a light, fresh and
..,,. \.
•-"'-•y-'' SLOVENIA ("''·.h...., fruity style with no discernible oak flavours . Reserve
wines must have a higher minimum alcohol and are
allowed to be matured in oak.
for these wines. A number of producers are blending
these Austrian varieties with international varieties such Burgenland
as Pinot Noir, Cabernet Sauvignon or Merlot. This region lies to the east of Austria, along the border
with Hungary, and is best known for top-quality sweet
REGIONS AND WINES wines and red wines. Dry whites are made too,
For PDO wines, the four federal states are principally from Pinot Blanc, Welschriesling, Gruner
Niederosterreich (Lower Austria), Burgenland, Steiermark Veltliner and Chardonnay.
Wachau issituatedina
steep-sidedvalleycutoutby
the River
Danube.
AUSTRIA 115
Neusiedlersee, a vast shallow lake in the north of the The best red wines in Austria come from the higher
province, is the key for sweet wine production in this ground away from the lake and in the hills further south.
region. The vineyards for sweet wine production are Zweigelt is the most widely planted variety. Other
situated on the low-lying ground near the lake to varieties including Blaufrankisch and St Laurent, and
benefit from autumn mists that come from the lake and internat ional varieties such as Pinot Noir, Merlot and
the wetland regions on its margins. These are ideal Cabernet Sauvignon are also grown. Neusiedlersee is a
conditions for botrytis, which can almost be guaranteed DAC for Zweigelt. There are three DACs for Blaufrankish,
every year. Welschriesling is one of the most widely used the largest of which is Mittelburgenland.
grape varieties for these sweet wines .
116 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
24 TokajThe region of Tokaj (note the wine it produces is called Tokaji) is located in the foothills of the
Carpathian Mountains in the far north east of Hungary and close to the Slovakian border. It
has a long-standing reputation for producing premium botrytised sweet wines, but Late Harvest sweet
wines and dry wines are becoming more popular.
CLIMATE AND GRAPE VARIETIES a producer will often make a number of different styles
Tokaj's climate is moderate and the best vineyards are of wine in each vintage. To allow for this, pickers may
located on hillside slopes with southerly aspects.The separate the grapes into three different categories during
Bodrog and Tisza rivers and their many tributaries help the harvest. Where noble rot has been widespread
generate the early morning humidity necessary for the pickers pass through the vineyards several times
development of noble rot. selecting individual aszu (rotten) grapes. Bunches that
There are three principal white grape varieties that are remain unaffected by noble rot are collected separately.
used in the making ofTokaji; they are often blended. There is also a selection known as Szamorodni, which
Furmint is the most widely planted variety and makes means 'as it comes'.This involves bunches that are
concentrated, high acid white wines with flavours of partially affected by noble rot. These three different
apples when young, developing into nuts and honey as harvests can then be used to make a variety of different
they age. It can make premium quality dry white wines styles of wine.
but due to its late ripening and susceptibility to botrytis
it is better known as the principal grape variety used DryWines
for sweet Aszu wines. Harslevelu is also late ripening Dry wines without botrytis - This category is gaining
and contributes perfume to a blend. Sarga Muskotaly importance. It allows producers to make wine in years
a
(Muscat Blanc Petits Grains) is also used for its aromatic where there is not much noble rot. These dry wines can
qualities. vary in style from simple, unoaked wines that are made
to be drunk young to more concentrated age-worthy
WINE STYLES blends, which are often fermented and matured in new
Tokaj has long been famous for its sweet wines, which oak. These wines are usually made from Furmint.
rank among the best in the world, but producers are
increasingly making top-quality dry wines as well. The Tokaji Szamorodni - These wines are made from the
dry wines are bottled in 75 cl bottles whereas the sweet grapes harvested as Szamorodni and may be dry (szdraz)
wines are by tradition bottled in distinctive 50 cl bottles. or sweet (edes),depending on the amount of noble rot
Depending on the degree of noble rot development, that is present. By the nature of the harvest the dry
TraditionalLaws 2013Laws
Theminimum residualsugarforTokaji
Aszuwastraditionally 60g/Land Theminimum residual
sugarforTokaji Aszuhasbeenraised to 120g/L.
thewineswouldbelabelled ona scaleofthreeto sixputtonyos Thisisthelevelofsugarthatwastraditionally needed forawineoffive
depending onthelevelofresidual
sugarabove thisminimum amount. puttonyos.Wines witha lowerlevelofresidual sugarmustnowbe
Minimum ageingrequirementswerestipulatedwhereby thewineshad labelledasLateHarvest orTokaji
Szamorodni depending onhowthey
to spend24months in oakandcouldonlybereleased fromtheJanuary aremade .ThelabellingtermAszuEszencia hasbeenabolished (but
inthefourthyearafterharvest.
ThesweetestwinesintheAszticategory notethatthetermTokajiEszencia stillexistsforwinesmadefromthe
couldbelabelled
AszuEszencia; aminimum of 180g/Lresidual sugar free-runjuiceofasztiberries).
WinesintheTokaji Aszucategory arealso
wasrequired. nowsubject to shorterageingrequirements; a minimum of 18months
in oakisneeded andthewinescanbereleased intheJanuary ofthe
thirdyearafterharvest.
TOKAJ 117
FAR
LEFT:
Grapes
inTokaj
showingthedifferentrates
at whichnoblerotaffects
the bunches.
LEFT:
Thepickerisselecting
individualasz,igrapes,
whichcanbe seenin the
bucket.
GreeceGreece's most interesting wines arguably come from the country's many indigenous
25 varieties. These grapes thrive in hot, arid conditions, and provide Greece with a unique
selling point on export markets. The three grape varieties that have received most recognition on export
markets are each linked to a particular wine region: Xinomavro from Naoussa, Agiorgitiko from Nemea
and Assyrtiko from Santorini.
CLIMATEAND GRAPEGROWING well adapted to survive in the arid, hot conditions found
Overall Greece has a hot Mediterranean climate. In the in Greece and many can produce high-quality wines.
summer, temperatures can reach well over 30°(, although There are some plantings of both black and white
coastal areas tend to be moderated by the sea. Altitude international grape varieties but most PDO wines require
and wind, which in the islands to the south-east of the the use of native varieties . Of the many wines that are
mainland are strong enough to destroy unprotected made in Greece the following three have gained the
vineyards, can also have a cooling effect . Most of the best widest international reputation.
vineyards are to be found in these cooler sites away from
the blistering heat commonly associated with Greece. NaoussaPDO
Rainfall levels can vary, but even in the wetter areas in the Naoussa is in northern Greece in the region of
west of the country the almost complete lack of rain in Macedonia. The vineyards are at altitudes up to 400
the growing season can cause water stress. Drought is a metres and are noticeably cooler than the surrounding
particular concern on the eastern side of Greece,which area. This PDO is for red wines that are made exclusively
lies in the rain shadow of the mountains where there is from Xinomavro, a variety that is often compared with
little available water for irrigation. Nebbiolo. It has high levels of tannin and acidity and
its wines have traditionally had a medium colour that
REGIONSAND WINES quickly fades to tawny and they tend to lack fresh fruit
There are over 200 grape varieties native to Greece, very aromas even in their youth. As with Nebbiolo these
few of which are grown elsewhere. These varieties are wines are long-lived and can develop complex spice
and earthy aromas with age. Some winemakers are now
•1
choosing to make their wines in different styles. Some
are more deeply coloured and less tannic; and some are
GREECE
aged in new oak.
NemeaPDO
Nemea is in the north of the Peloponnese close to the
narrow strip of land that joins the peninsula to the rest
of mainland Greece. This is a PDQ for red wines that are
made exclusively from Agiorgitiko. The vineyards are
spread over a wide range of altitudes from 230 to 900
metres. The best fruit comes from the vineyards in the
middle of this range. Fruit from the hotter lower slopes
can be overly jammy and tends to be made into fruity
wines for early consumption. The fruit from the higher
slopes has a higher acidity and less fine tannins. It can
add freshness to a red blend but it is best suited to rose
production. The best wines have a deep ruby colour
with high levels of smooth tannins, low to moderate
KEY acidity and sweet spice and red fruit flavours . These
wines have a great affinity for new oak and age well.
2000- 4000 m
36 N
1000- 2000 m 3ffN Santorini PDO
500- 1000 m Mediterranean Santorini is a windswept volcanic island in the Aegean
Sea
CRETE Sea.The winds are so strong that a unique training
200- S00m
method has to be used here to protect the vines. The
0- 200 m
permanent wood is trained very low into a basket
GREECE 119
GREEKWINE LAWS
The wine laws of Greece follow those of other EU countries, with wines classified as Protected Designation of
Origin (PDO) or Protected Geographical Indication (PGI).For export markets producers of dry PDO wines may
either use the term Protected Designation of Origin or, less frequently, Appellation d'origine de qua/ite
superieure (a subcategory within the PDO classification) on their wine labels. On the domestic market the Greek
equivalent of PDO is used (Prostatevomeni Onomasia Proe/efsis).
shape and the fruit grows on the inside . The PDO covers Aclose-up
ofanAssyrtiko
red and white wines made in dry and sweet styles, but vinein Santorini.
Thebasket-
it is the white wines made from the Assyrtiko grape liketraining
systemprotects
that have the highest reputation. Dry wines from this the vineandthegrapes
grape display perfumed aromas and concentrated againsttheverystrong
flavours of ripe citrus and stone fruit, balanced by the windsexperienced
here.
natural high acidity of the variety . The sweet wines are
known as Vinsanto. Late-harvested grapes are sun-dried
for up to 14 days. The wines are then aged in old oak
barrels for a minimum of two years, although many
producers age their wine for far longer. The luscious
sweetness is balanced by high acidity and the older
wines show a marked oxidative character of caramel
and nuts.
120 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Introduction
to Italy Italy is home to a la~ge number of grape var'.etie~, many of which
26 are rarely seen outside of the country. The d1vers1tyof these
varieties and the styles of wine they produce mean that it is simpler to cover Italy over a number of short
chapters. In this brief introduction we cover the wine laws that apply throughout Italy and show how the
different wine regions relate to each other on the map.
•
ITALIAN WINE LAWS
ITALY The geographical indications below are common to
all Italian wine regions.
t---'-r~--½-~-e ,so-'-,2
,oo..
00mllu
t
N PDOWines
TheItalianforPDO isDenominazionedi OrigineProtetta(DOP)
~ -- ~ ./
. butthefollowingtraditional
termsaremorewidelyseenonlabels:
Denominazione
di OrigineControllata
e Garantita{DOCG)
- In
additionto meetingallDOCrequirementsthesewinesmustbebottled
intheareaofproduction andaresubjectto a Ministry
ofAgriculture
tasting.
PGIWines
TheItalianforPGIislndicazione Protetta(IGP)butthe
Geografica
traditional
termlndicazione Tipica(IGT)iscommonly
Geografica
used.
40"N ' 40' N
TYRRHENIAN
SEA OtherLabellingTerms
ALABRI
J - Overtime,theboundaries
Classico ofa numberofappellations
have
J expanded to allownewplantingsoutsidetheoriginal
zone.Theterm
Palermo. • •,.· Classico
acknowledges winesthathavebeenmadesolelyfromthe
original
classifiedlandandincludes
manyofthebestwinesfromthe
SICILY area.
'----r ..___ ./ ~&\} Riserva - Thistermacknowledgeswineswithbothhigheralcohol
ALGERIA .}__, TUNISIA
, I levelsandlongerageingthanthe minimumsstipulated
bythe
appellationlaws.
Northern
Italy Northern Italy produces a wide range of wine styles from the full-bodied
tannic reds of Barolo to the delicate white wines of Soave. All this is possible
because of diverse geography and an incredible number of unique local grape varieties. This chapter will
27
cover the regions of Alto Adige, Trentino, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Veneto and Piemonte.
The vineyards are planted on terraces on the south-east- low rainfall during the growing season, similar to Alto 200- 500 m
and south-west-facing valley sides of the River Adige. The Adige, but overall the vineyards experience a slightly
100- 200m
region has a moderate climate , with short, dry summers warmer climate. This is due to Trentino's more southerly
0- 100 m
and low rainfall during the growing season. Most of the latitude, the greater number of vineyards at lower
vineyards experience a large diurnal range due to their altitudes, and the mountains to the west side of the
altitudes, making them ideal for the production of valley that protect the region from the cooling
aromatic whites and elegant, light-bodied reds. influences of Lake Garcia.
The most notable white wine here is Pinot Grigio. It The main varieties are Chardonnay and Pinot Grigio.
tends to be made in a dry style, with a light to medium The wines made from grapes grown on the valley floor
body, high acidity and citrus and green fruit flavours tend to be medium-bodied with medium acidity and
(for further details on how this variety is typically ripe stone fruit flavours . Those made from grapes grown
produced see section Pinot Gris/Grigio in Chapter 8). at higher altitudes are more similar to the whites from
Gewurztraminer, Chardonnay and Pinot Blanc are the Alto Adige. Merlot and the Italian varietyTeroldego are
next most important white grapes. Red wine production the two most planted black grapes, grown mainly on the
is dominated by Italian variety Schiava, producing light mid -slopes and valley floor. The latter grape produces
fruity wines with low to medium tann ins and flavours of wines with a deep colour , medium to high tannins, high
raspberries and plums. Almost all wines are labelled acidity and a medium to full body with aromas of black
under the regional name of Alto Adige DOC. fruit . The wines are normally matured in oak, and the
122 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
VineyardsinAltoAdigeset
againsta mountainous
backdrop.
best examples have the ability to age. Most wines are Valpolicella. The region extends from the southern end
labelled under the regional name ofTrentino DOC. of Lake Garda in the west to Venice in the east and
ranges from the foothills of the Alps in the north to the
FRIULI-VENEZIA GIULIA flat plains of the Po in the south . The climate is warm
The wine region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia is located in with moderate rainfall. Cooling influences come from
northern Italy's eastern corner. The most northerly altitude, exposing the vineyards in the foothills to a large
vineyards in the region are located in the foothills of the diurnal temperature range, and breezes from Lake Garda
Alps. The climate is moderate and continental, cooled by cool the vineyards in the west of the region . The flat
cold air from the mountains. The vineyards in the south plain is affected by moist air and fog from the River Po,
of the region are based on the flat plain near the Adriatic increasing the number of sprays needed to combat
Seaand experience a warm maritime climate . A large disease and rot.
number of grape varieties are planted, producing rich, The flat fertile plain is a source of fruit for inexpensive,
ripe white and red wines, the most prevalent being high volume brands growing international grape
Pinot Grigio and Merlot. Friuli-Venezia Giulia produces varieties such as Pinot Grigio, Chardonnay and Merlot
some of the richest Pinot Grigio in Italy, the medium- to and Italian grapes like Corvina, Garganega and Trebbiano.
full -bodied wines displaying juicy peach and tropical High yields mean that these wines are usually simple and
fruit flavours. Merlot is the most planted black variety, fruity . They are labelled Veneto IGT.
making medium-bodied wines with medium acidity and Prosecco is a sparkling wine DOC, the greater part of
tannins and ripe red fruit flavours, often with a hint of which is in Veneto, although some of the vineyards are
spice from oak. The native white Friulano is also widely located in Friuli-Venezia Giulia (for more details see
grown giving wines with medium to high acidity, Chapter 42 Sparkling Wines of the World) .
medium body and aromas of pear, red apples and herbs.
Wines from the plain are labelled Friuli Grave DOC. Soave
They tend to be white, and made in a simple, fruity style. Soave is east of Verona and has two distinct parts :
The regions of Collio DOC and Colli Orientali DOC, foothills to the north and a flat plain in the south , near
both located in the hills, are known for premium, more the River Po.The soils on the foothills are made up of
concentrated white wines with Colli Orientali also noted limestone and clay with some volcanic rocks. These soils
for its reds. are naturally cool, and this together with the influence of
altitude, slows down ripening, leading to grapes with full
VENETO flavour ripeness yet high acidity . The wines are capable
Veneto is one of Italy's largest wine-producing regions of maturing for a number of years. The vines on the plain
and home to some of its best known wines, Soave and are planted on sandy, alluvial soils that aid ripening so
NORTHERN ITALY 123
the grapes are fruitier with medium acidity and the GrapedryinginValpolicella.
wines are meant to be drunk young. The main variety is Thegrapesarestored
the Italian white grape Garganega but small amounts of indoors
inveryshallow
other white grape varieties can be added to the blend. stackable
cratesto keep
The wines typically have medium to high acidity levels, themfreeofrotasthey
a medium body and display aromas of pears, red apple, shrivel.
stone fruit and sometimes white pepper. They do not
typically display any aromas or flavours of new oak. The
best examples can age, developing aromas of almonds
and honey .
Wines made using grapes from the entire region can
be labelled Soave DOC but wines made using grapes
from the foothills can be labelled Soave Classico DOC.
Valpolicella
Valpolicella is north-west of Verona, and has a similar
topography to Soave. The foothills in the north have
limestone, clay and volcanic soils, which slow down
ripening so the grapes have more acidity. The soils in the
flatter south of the region are gravel and sand, which is
warmer, so the grapes are fruitier with less acidity . The
main grape in Valpolicella is Corvina, an Italian grape
native to the region, which has a thin skin, moderate
colour, low to medium tannins and high acidity. In order
to increase the colour and tannins of the wine, local
grape varieties can be added to the blend. Wines made
using grapes from the entire region can be labelled as
Valpolicella DOC and wines made using grapes from
foothills can be labelled Valpolicella Classico DOC.
The wines are simple and fruity, with light tannins, and
display red cherry flavours; they are rarely caked and
are made to drink immediately.
-1
and tannins and they have the ability to develop in the
bottle.
PIEMONTE
The wines are often made from grapes sourced from
different villages. A village name may appear on the
label if the grapes are sourced purely from that area, for
>--~-,........._
_ ____._,,O_m_ll~ ~ •Okm
example Barolo Serralunga d'Alba DOCG. The best wines
come from named vineyards or crus,which may appear
on the label, such as Barolo Cannubi DOCG.The region
does grow other grapes, mainly Dolcetto and Barbera,
which are labelled using the generic Alba DOC.
Barolo DOCGmust be aged for three years before
release, of which 18 months must be in oak. Traditionally,
Barolo was aged for several years in large oak barrels to
~ urin
soften harsh tannins. Today, improvements in vineyard
45 00'N 45 00 N management and gentler methods of extraction result in
\ ·--- wines with smoother, riper tannins, and mean that many
producers now choose to mature their wines for shorter
periods of time . Oak maturation may take place in small
barrels (often including some new oak) or larger casks
depending on the style that the producer wants to
achieve. All Barolo wines tend to benefit from further
bottle ageing. This continues to soften the tannins and
adds further complexity, giving the wine aromas of
truffles, tar and leather.
DOLCffiO • Barbaresco
44 30 ' N
D'ALBA l
The smaller region of Barbaresco is also renowned for
c·'
l )
Nebbiolo. It has south-facing slopes at lower altitudes
LIGURIA
({ than those of Barolo (200 to 400 metres). The lower
altitude and influence from a local river means that
Nebbiolo ripens earlier here compared with Barolo and
Gulf of
Genova is fruitier and less perfumed. It has similar acidity and
tannin levels, which gives the wines the ability to age in
bottle. By law, Barbaresco DOCG must be aged for two
years before release, with nine months in oak. As the
KEY which provide different aspects and altitudes for region is smaller than Barolo, there are fewer mentions
1500 m+
viticulture. The main grapes for Piemonte are the black of villages on the labels but higher quality wines will be
varieties of Nebbiolo, Barbera and Dolcetto and the from a single named vineyard or cru.
1000- 1500 m
white varieties of Cortese and Moscato (Muscat).
500- 1000 m There are many designated wine regions within Asti and Alba
200- 500 m Piemonte, but the more famous wine areas are located The wider area around Asti and Alba is home to a
south of the main city Turin, around the towns of Asti number of DOCs and DOCGs.The majority of these
100- 200 m
and Alba. Barolo DOCGand Barbaresco DOCGare the appellations are named after a grape variety followed by
0- l00m most prestigious appellations in the region, but a their nearest town. The black Barbera grape is the most
number of other DOC and DOCGwines are made in the widely planted variety and is used to produce Barbera
wider area around the two towns. There is no IGT or IGP d'Alba DOC and Barbera d'Asti DOCG, the latter often
for the region with all wines achieving either DOC or regarded as higher quality. It is a late ripening grape,
DOCG status. with medium to deep colour, low to medium tannins
and high acidity, displaying aromas of red cherries and
Barolo plums and sometimes black pepper. The wines are
The wine region of Barolo is a horseshoe-shaped valley typically made in two styles: youthful and fruity with
spanning several villages each having steep (300 to 500 no oak influence, or barrel-aged to give spicy flavours.
metre) south-facing slopes. Barolo DOCG must be made Dolcetto is also widely planted. It is earlier ripening
entirely from Nebbiolo, a black grape with high levels of than Nebbiolo and Barbera and therefore can be
acidity and tannins but little colour. The grapes ripen planted in the coolest sites. Dolcetto d'Alba DOC tends
slowly at these altitudes developing perfumed aromas to produce many of the finest wines. The wines have a
of sour cherries, herbs and sometimes dried flowers. In deep, often purple, colour with medium to high tannins
the best years the wines are full -bodied with high acidity and medium acidity. They display aromas of black plums,
NORTHERNITALY 125
red cherries and dried herbs. Both Barbera and Dolcetto WinesmaturinginBarolo.
can be drunk young but the best examples can age for Notethatheretheproducer
several years. is usingbothlargeand
Nebbiolo is also widely planted throughout this area. smaller oakvessels.
Asti is also famous for its sparkling wines made from
Moscato (see Chapter 42 Sparkling Wines of the World).
Gavi
The white wine region of Gavi is located in south-eastern
Piemonte. The vines are grown in hills where the altitude
and sea breezes result in long, slow ripening of the white
grape Cortese, emphasising its natural high acidity and
floral character. The wines are labelled as Gavi DOCG or
Cortese di Gavi DOCG. If the grapes come from the town
of Gavi itself the wines may be labelled Gavi di Gavi
DOCG.The wines are pale and light-bodied, with high old oak vessels for fermentation and lees stirring to add
acidity and aromas, and flavours of citrus, green apples complexity to the wines . Most of the wine is ready to
and pears. Protective winemaking is the norm with cool drink on release from the winery but wines from the best
fermentation in stainless steel but some producers use producers can age well in bottle.
126 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
I ltaly This part of Italy is most widely associated with the grape variety Sangiovese and
Centra
28 the most famous wine made from it, Chianti. However, there is more to central
Italy than this. Refreshing whites and premium full-bodied reds from both local and international grape
varieties are made with great successthroughout the region. This chapter will cover the regions of
Tuscany, Umbria, Lazio, Marche and Abruzzo.
CLIMATE
AND GRAPEGROWING Both small barrels and larger casks can be used. With
South of the Po Valley, the wine regions of central Italy bottle age the wines develop meaty and gamey aromas.
are dominated by the Apennine Mountains, which run Red wines predominate in this part of Italy although
the length of the Italian Peninsula. Grapes are planted in some white wines are also made throughout the region .
the hills and valleys of this mountain range with altitude
providing a moderating influence on the hot climate. Chianti
Coastal regions on both sides of the country benefit Chianti is based in the foothills of the Apennines between
from cooling sea breezes. the cities of Pisa,Florence and Siena. It covers a wide area,
which is divided into seven sub-zones. Sangiovese is the
TUSCANY dominant grape, but the wines are often blends with small
Tuscany stretches down the western coast of central amounts of other black grapes (of both French and Italian
Italy. The region can be divided roughly into three parts: origin). Producers of large volumes of Chianti will source
the mountainous Chianti region in the north, the hills their grapes from the greater region and use Chianti
and valleys to the south and the flat coastal plain. DOCGon the label. Higher-quality Chianti DOCGw ines
Sangiovese is the dominant and most prestigious grape may be made from the grapes from a particular sub-zone,
throughout these three areas making wines with high the name of which can appear on the wine label (note this
levels of acidity and tannin. It is late to ripen, so needs a does not include Chianti Classico DOCG).The sub-zones of
warm climate, hence its home in this part of Italy. The Chianti Rufina DOCGand Chianti Colli Senesi DOCGare
wines have aromas of red cherries, plums and dried particularly well known for the quality of their wines .
herbs and are usually aged for a period of time in oak Chianti ClassicoDOCGhas its own DOCG and is not
to soften the tannins and sometimes add spicy flavours. a sub-zone of Chianti DOCG. Its vineyards are at higher
Aviewacrossthe vineyards
inChiantiClassico,
showing
the hillylandscapeand the
importanceofaltitudeand
aspect.
CENTRALITALY 127
Southern Tuscany
The vineyards of southern Tuscany are at lower altitudes
than those in the north and have a warmer climate;
however, cool maritime breezes from the south-west can
moderate the temperatures. Brunello di Montalcino
t---
: -:-N
_T
_R
_A_L"_I_T_A_L_Y_ __ , ~V<?
::: MOl'ITEPULCIANO
•..J?'l')l!~U~O
I .. -----
DOCG and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano DOCG are
the best known appellations in the region. Due to the
climate, wines from this part ofTuscany are often more
'\
intense and fuller-bodied than the wines from Chianti.
The regulations for Brunello di Montalcino stipulate that UMBRIA KEY
the wines must be made entirely from Sangiovese and Umbria has a climate similar to Tuscany's but it is more 1500m+
undergo a minimum ageing of five years before they are continental without any influence from the Mediterranean.
1000- 1500 m
sold, two of which must be spent in oak. Vino Nobile di The region is known for its white wine Orvieto DOC,
which is a blend of Grechetto, Trebbiano and, often, a 500 - 1000 m
Montepulciano can be a blend of Sangiovese with other
permitted varieties and must be aged for a minimum of few other local grapes. The wines are light in body with 200- 500m
two years before it is sold. Producers from both Brunello med ium to high acidity and flavours of ripe grapefruit 100- 200 m
di Montalcino and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano can and peaches. The best examples tend to be those with
0- 100 m
declassify their wines to DOC as necessary (for example, the most Grechetto in the blend. Wines are made
if there is a poor vintage or the vines are very young). protectively and undergo cool fermentation in stainless
These wines are called either Rosso di Montalcino DOC steel.
or Rosso di Montepulciano DOC respectively. Umbria's most prestigious red wine is Sagrantino di
Montefalco DOCG,made from the thick-skinned
The Coast Sagrantino grape.
The relatively flat coastal region ofTuscany is cooled by
sea breezes rather than altitude . Black Bordeaux varieties LAZIO
and a number of other international grapes are widely To the south ofTuscany is the region of Lazio. The best
planted here. known wine is Frascati DOC. Situated in the hills to the
The Tuscan coast witnessed the birth of the first south of Rome the vineyards are cooled by both altitude
'Super-Tuscan'.The original wine was made from and a number of small nearby lakes offering perfect
Cabernet Sauvignon and sold for a premium price conditions for white grapes. The wines are blends of
despite not being eligible for PDQ status. Super-Tuscans Malvasia and Trebbiano, usually made in a fresh,
were a turning point for the international image of unoaked style. They are medium in body with medium to
Italian wines as they re-established Italy's reputation high acidity and flavours of citrus fruit, sometimes with
for excellence . the Malvasia providing floral, orange blossom aromas.
Many Tuscan producers have followed this example
and make high -quality wines from international varieties, MARCHE
sometimes with Italian varieties as part of the blend . Marche is located on the eastern side of the Apennines
Many are bottled as Toscana IGT but the relatively and is best known for its white wines made from the
recently formed appellations of Bolgheri DOC and Verdicchio grape . The most famous of these is
Maremma Toscana DOC both permit wines to be made Verdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi DOC. Verdicchio is
entirely from non-Italian varieties including Cabernet naturally high in acidity with flavours of green apples,
Sauvignon, Merlot and Syrah. lemons and sometimes displays notes of fennel and
128 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
almonds. Many of the wines are simple and fruity, but its name to the main wine Montepulciano d'Abruzzo
the best have greater concentration and can develop DOC (no relation to the town of Montepulciano in
notes of honey and almonds with bottle age. The red Tuscany). The Montepulciano grape has high levels of
wines of the region are blends of Montepulciano and colour and tannins, medium acidity and flavours of
Sangiovese, of which the best known is Conero DOCG. black plums and cherries. Many wines are simple and
fruity, made without any oak ageing, but the most
ABRUZZO concentrated examples are often matured for a short
Below Marche is the region of Abruzzo. The region is time in oak.
famous for its black variety Montepulciano, which gives
SOUTHERNITALY 129
1000- 1500 m
Aglianico is the most prestigious black grape of the SICILY ' SOUTHERN ,-..
south; it has deep colour with high acidity and tannin, ITALY VI 500- l000m
lSOmiles
t
N
200- 500 m
100- 200m
It is found in a number of wines in Campania and other
regions but is at its best in Taurasi DOCG. 0- l00m
130 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Handharvesting
inSicily. medium levels of acidity and tannins, with aromas of
Pickinggrapesinthecoolof plums and black cherries. It is often made in a fruity,
thenightslowsdown early-drinking style but those from the best producers
oxidation,
whichcouldlead are more concentrated and complex. Local white grape
to off.flavours. varieties are either sold as varietal or blended wines, and
are usually made in an unoaked style, displaying citrus
and stone fruit flavours. International varieties, such as
Chardonnay and Syrah are also planted; Syrah has been
particularly successful.
There are a number of small appellations. Some of the
best wines on the island come from Etna DOC, produced
from old, low-yielding vines at high altitudes. The reds
are particularly noteworthy; these are made from Nerello
Mascalese and Nerello Cappuccio, which are blended
together to create fragrant wines with both high acid
SICILY and tannins, and aromas of sour red cherries, cranberries
Like Puglia, Sicily also grows vast quantities of grapes, and raspberries, sometimes with dried herbs. With bottle
most of which find their way into either IGT Terre di age the high tannins soften and mushroom -like aromas
Sicilia/Terre Siciliane, or if yields are slightly lowered, can develop. High-quality white wines are also made.
Sicilia DOC. Nero d'Avola is the dominant black grape They tend to be medium-bodied with high acidity, and
in these wines and is grown widely throughout the display citrus fruit often with a stony/steely character
island. It produces medium- to full-bodied wines, with developing aromas of honey and wax with bottle age.
SPAIN 131
SpaintoSpain has a long history of wine production but its wines have only relatively recently come
prominence on international markets. Styles vary from traditional barrel-aged reds to 30
modern, fruity whites; and although international varieties have been planted in many of Spain's wine
regions, it is the country's indigenous grape varieties that are increasingly celebrated.
CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING growing in Spain. Although this does mean that the
Spain has three broad climatic zones: incidence of fungal disease is low, it places a heavy stress
The north and north-west coast of Spain has a on the vine. Low density, bush-trained vineyards remain
moderate maritime climate dominated by Atlantic the best way of managing this situation by maximising
weather systems. Rainfall, with its associated risks, is the amount of water available to each vine and shading
high. the fruit from excessive heat. Where it is practical and
The east coast from Catalunya in the north to the affordable wire training is slowly being introduced to
Levante further south has a warm Mediterranean climate. facilitate machine harvesting.
Many of the vineyards are moderated by the influence of
the sea or altitude, depending on their location. The GRAPE VARIETIES AND WINE STYLES
climate becomes increasingly hot further south. Key Black Varieties and Styles
The Meseta Central, a large plateau in the centre of Spain's red wines come in a wide range of styles.
Spain, is mostly cut off from the influence of the sea by Inexpensive wines may be made without oak and semi-
encircling mountains and has a hot continental climate. carbonic maceration is often used to enhance the fruity
In winter, temperatures fall below freezing and in the nature of these wines. The best wines almost always see
summer temperatures are very high and rainfall is very oak maturation, usually with at least a proportion of new
limited. However, the summer temperatures can be oak. Traditionally, American oak was mostly used, but
moderated by the cool nights of high altitude sites. now French oak is also common.
With the notable exception of north-west Spain, heat Tempranillo - Tempranillo is Spain's premier black grape
and the lack of water are the biggest challenges to grape variety. It is grown widely throughout the vineyards of
Vineyards
inRiojaAlta.
TheCantabrian
Mountains
protectthe regionfromthe
worstoftheAtlantic
weathersystems.
132 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
northern and central Spain, although it is often referred to sunny conditions to ripen. It is grown in south-eastern
by one of its many synonyms. It is a thick-skinned grape, DOs such as Yecla and Jumilla, where it can easily reach
with medium levels of acidity, and so while it needs full ripeness and produces very deeply coloured, full-
sufficient warmth to develop its flavours, hot climates bodied wines with high levels of tannin and alcohol, low
without a high diurnal temperature range could cause to medium acidity and flavours of ripe blackberry fruit.
the wine to lack the necessaryacidity for an ideal balance.
Consequently it is at its best in areas where summer Other Black Spanish Grape Varieties
temperatures are moderated by the sea and/or altitude. Graciano is a highly valued grape but challenging to grow.
Fermented on its own, often using semi-carbonic It is cultivated mainly in Rioja,where it is used as part of
maceration, it can produce a fresh strawberry scented the blend in many of the finest wines. Small quantities are
Joven wine, an increasingly popular early drinking style. used to add concentrated black fruit aromas, acidity and
It also plays a key role in more concentrated ageworthy tannins to the structure of a wine to help it age. Cariiiena
oaked blends either with the traditional varieties is the Spanish name for Carignan, although it is called
Garnacha,Graciano and Cariiiena/ Mazuelo or Mazuelo in Rioja. Cariiiena gives wines that are high in
international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon. acidity, tannin and colour. A small proportion of this makes
an ideal blend with Tempranillo. It is also grown in Priorat,
Garnacha Tinta - Garnacha is the Spanish name for where it is blended with Garnachato enhance the tannic
Grenache. This grape is discussed in more detail in structure of the wines. The other local variety that is
Chapter 9 Redand RoseWinemaking. It gives a wine high increasingly coming to prominence is Mencia. This suits
in alcohol, with a tendency to mature early but there are moderate climates, giving wines with fresh fruit, medium
notable exceptions. It is widely used for rosados. It is also to high acidity, and sometimes a hint of herbaceousness.
important in Priorat, where low-yielding old vines enable
the production of intense, complex, full-bodied reds. Key White Varieties and Styles
Most of Spain's white wines are fresh and fruity.
Monastrell - Monastrell (Mourvedre) is a thick-skinned Harvesting at night or early morning and fermenting in
grape variety that is drought tolerant, but needs hot, temperature controlled stainless steel vessels help retain
PDOWines
TheSpanish
for PD0isDenominaciondeOrigenProtegida
(DOP) Vinosde Pago(VP)- Thiscategory applies
to a smallnumberof
buta number
oftraditional
termsarecommonly
used: singleestates
with highreputations.
Approvedestates
mayonlyuse
theirowngrapes,whichmustbevinifiedandmatured ontheirestate.
Denominacion deOrigen(DO)- Incommon withallwinesofthis
type,theseshouldbewinesofa certainminimum quality,satisfying PGIWines
specifications
covering
grapevarieties,
viticulture
andlocation. ThetraditionaltermVinodelaTierra(VdlT)iscommonly
used
.
Joven 0
Crianza 24 18
Reservo 36 12 24
Gran
Reserva 60 18 48 6
Note:Someregions,
suchas Rioja,
requirethatthewinesmadethereareagedforlongerbothintotalandinbarrel.
SPAIN 133
delicate fruit aromas. However, some producers use oak variety. It is thick-skinned and thus able to resist fungal
fermentation and maturation, as well as techniques such disease, which is useful in the damp climate in which it
as lees stirring, to add texture and different flavours to is grown. Albaririo is naturally high in acidity and can
their wines. produce refreshing wines with citrus and stone fruit
flavours. It too can be made in a richer, fuller-bodied
Verdejo - Verdejo is a white grape variety that is highly style.
susceptible to oxidation and was used to make Sherry-
like wines. With protective winemaking it can be made Other White Spanish Grape Varieties
in a light -bodied, high-acid, melon and peach flavoured Airen is the most widely planted grape variety in Spain
KEY
style similar in style to Sauvignon Blanc, with which it and the vast majority of this is planted in La Mancha in
is often blended. It can also be made in a richer fuller- central Spain, as it is one of the few varieties that is able 2000 m+
bodied style when it has undergone skin contact and to cope with the extreme heat and drought conditions 1000-2000 m
barrel fermentation. of the Meseta Central. Although Airen can now be made
500- 1000 m
into acceptable dry white wine, much of the output
200- 500 m
Albariiio - Albaririo is grown in the north-west of continues to be used in the production of Brandy de
Spain and has become a particularly fashionable grape Jerez. Parellada, Xarel-lo and Macabeo are widely 0- 200m
44"N -
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e
1111111
Vinasde laTierrade Castillay Le6n
CavaVillages
__ ,,,,-'\.f ,oo ISOkm
100 m iles
t
134 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
e ~2-_,
I
oo:ri -
alcohol that comes from the addition of Garnacha, which
grows best in the Rioja Baja. Mazuelo and Graciano are
f----------L---c----'--------- ~ km
4tlm lle5
t
N
...._
________
X:, both less widely planted and provide a supporting role in
blends.
Rioja may be made in a range of different ways
depending on the style the winemaker wishes to
achieve. Red wines designed for early drinking may
KEY planted in Catalunya and are the main varieties used undergo semi-carbonic maceration to produce wines
in Cava production (for more details see Chapter 42 that have vibrant red fruit flavours and low levels of
2000m+
Sparkling Winesof the World).Of these, Macabeo, which smooth tannin. Wines designed for long-term
1000-2000m is also known as Viura in Rioja, is also often used for still maturation are usually destemmed and crushed and
500- l000m wine production. It can be made in an unoaked style undergo a traditional fermentation. Some producers use
with subtle herb and spice aromas. Traditionally it was vigorous cap management techniques and extended
200- 500 m
the mainstay of heavily oaked white Riojas. maceration to produce heavily extracted wines, deep in
100-200 m colour and full of fruit flavours, but many are making
0- l00m International Varieties more subtle, elegant styles. Oak maturation has a
In some parts of Spain the traditional local varieties have defining role in Rioja.Traditionally, the wines were aged
shown limited potential for quality wines, and better in American oak, and often had pronounced aromas of
wines can be made more easily from varieties such as vanilla. Many producers now use oak from France or
Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Sauvignon Blanc and other European countries for at least some of their wine,
Chardonnay. These and other international varieties giving more subtle spicy aromas.
are now established and widespread, especially in the Eight white varieties are currently approved for use in
north-east. They sometimes appear as blends with local white Rioja. The most widely planted variety is Viura.
varieties. Traditionally, the white wines were aged for extended
periods in American oak and developed a deep golden
REGIONS AND WINES colour and nutty flavours. These deliberately oxidised
The principal DO regions of Spain may be grouped wines have fallen out of favour with modern consumers.
together into six geographical regions, based on climate Modern white Riojas are often made with minimal
and grape varieties: the Upper Ebro, Catalunya, the contact with oxygen in order to preserve the maximum
Duero Valley, the North West, the Levante and Castilla-La amount of fruit. Some bodegas are now also producing
Mancha. There are also a number of regions designated barrel-fermented white wines, but in a less oxidative
for the production of Vino de JaTierra:Castilla y Leon, style than traditional white Riojas.
towards the north of the Meseta Central, is the most
extensive. Navarra
The vineyards of Navarra DO stretch from the northern
THE UPPER EBRO and eastern borders of Rioja into the foothills of the
Rioja Pyrenees.The climate is similar to that of Rioja, but it
Rioja is split into three distinct sub-regions, centred becomes cooler and wetter nearer the mountains.
around the region's principal city, Logrono. Rioja Alavesa Tempranillo is the most widely planted variety and
is situated to the west of Logrono, on the north bank of production is focused on red wine. It is either blended
the Ebro in the foothills of the Cantabrian Mountains. with the other Rioja varieties to make a wine in a similar
The wines are perhaps the lightest of Rioja, and often style or increasingly with Cabernet Sauvignon and
have the most finesse. The larger Rioja Alta area is also to Merlot. Wine styles range from good value Joven wines
the west of Logrono, but lies mainly to the south of the to top quality premium Gran Reservas.
Ebro. The vineyards of both sub-regions are planted at Garnacha grapes used for rose production are
a range of altitudes from SOOto 800 metres and their picked earlier when acid levels are higher and sugar
climates are moderated by the Atlantic Ocean, although levels lower. They are then handled protectively to
SPAIN 135
Awell-equipped
modern
winerywitha largenumber
of stainlesssteeltanks.
create refreshing, fruity wines with medium levels of plain where the climate is Mediterranean; inland, in the
alcohol. valleys, the climate is slightly cooler than that on the
White wine production accounts for a very small plain, but still warm; and further into the hills, where
proportion of the total output of the region and the vines are grown up to 800 metres above sea level, the
wines tend to be made from Viura, Chardonnay and climate is moderate. As a result, a wide variety of wine
Sauvignon Blanc. styles can be made using a range of grape varieties. The
most planted white grapes are those used for Cava
Carinena and Calatayud production, but there are also significant plantings of
Cariiiena and Calatayud are neighbouring DOs, located international varieties such as Chardonnay, Sauvignon
to the south of the Ebro. Overall both regions have warm Blanc and Gewurztraminer. Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, KEY
continental climates and low rainfall. Garnacha is the main Tempranillo (here called UII de Llebre) and Pinot Noir are
variety in both regions. Inexpensive wines are made in a the most planted red varieties. 2000 m+
CATALUNYA
Penedes 41"N
The vineyards of this large DO lie immediately to the
a 20 40 60 80 100km
south-west of Barcelona and stretch from the
Mediterranean coast up into the hills. There are three
distinct climatic zones. The hottest is on the coastal
136 UNDERSTANDINGWINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
Alargebarrelhallin
Navarra.
Theuseofoak
barriques
isveryimportant
in Spanish
redwinemaking.
ripening grape varieties. The best soils, known locally as metres. This altitude ensures the region experiences cool
1/icorella,consist of layers of red slate with small particles night-time temperatures throughout the year, which
of mica that sparkle in the sun. They help ripening by helps to retain acidity and fresh fruit flavours in the
reflecting and conserving heat and, because of their grapes .
depth, they are able to retain sufficient water throughout Ribera del Duero is a DO for red and rose wine only,
the growing season. Cool night-time temperatures although in reality the vast majority of production is red
provide some relief from the heat of the day. wine. Tempranillo is the dominant grape and is the only
Bush vines and steep slopes mean that mechanisation variety in most of the best red wines, which are typically
is almost impossible, and thus the vineyards are dark in colour with a high level of tannins. Cabernet
expensive and time consuming to manage. The low Sauvignon, Malbec and Merlot are also permitted but
nutrient soils and age of the vines produce very small rarely used. Some Garnacha is grown too and is mostly
yields of grapes, which undoubtedly contribute to the made into dry rose.
complexity and intensity of Priorat. All these factors Today, many winemakers are choosing to accentuate
mean that Priorat's wines are never cheap. the concentrated fruit flavours and tannins in their
Red Priorat is usually deeply coloured with high tannins, grapes by undertaking long macerations and ageing the
medium to high alcohol and concentrated black fruit wines for a relatively short period of time in new oak
often accompanied by toasty aromas from new French barrels, which are increasingly made from French rather
oak. Although Garnacha and Carinena remain the core of than American oak.
many blends some producers add some international
varieties, especially Cabernet Sauvignon. White and rose Toro
Priorat can also be made, although they are rarely seen. Toro DO has a similar climate to its neighbour Ribera del
Duero. Predominately made from Tempranillo, the reds are
THE DU EROVALLEY full-bodied with intense fruit flavours and high alcohol, a
The River Duero starts in the mountains south of Rioja result of the high daytime temperatures, sunny conditions
and flows through Spain into Portugal where it is called and often low-yielding bush vines. In the )oven wines
the Douro. there is generally a proportion of Garnacha; Reservasand
Gran Reservascan be exceptionally deeply coloured and
Ribera del Duero tannic when young and have the ability to age well. Rose
Ribera del Duero is cut off from any maritime influence and white wines are made in small quantities.
by a ring of mountains . It has short, hot and dry
summers and very cold winters. The vineyards of the Rueda
Ribera del Duero are situated on the highest part of the Situated in-between Toro and Ribera del Duero, Rueda
Meseta Central, with some vineyards planted at over 850 differs from these other two DOs as it focuses on white
SPAIN 137
THENORTHWEST
Due to the Atlantic influence, the north -west of Spain is
cooler and wetter than the rest of Spain and as a result
this is the home of many of Spain's best white wines. The
most celebrated of them all are the Albariiio wines from
Rias Baixas DO.
Rias Baixas
Situated on the Atlantic coast, Rias Baixas has a moderate,
damp climate. The humid conditions mean that vine
diseases such as mildew and rot are a common problem.
For this reason, vines are trained on pergolas to
encourage air circulation. Some producers are using
other training and trellising systems that are easier to
maintain.
Most Albariiio is made in a refreshing unoaked style
taking advantage ofthe grape's naturally high acidity
and ripe stone fruit flavours. Some wines are made in a
richer style, occasionally with a touch of oak or lees
stirring. Red wine is permitted too although it remains
a minority concern.
Bierzo
This predominately red wine DO lies in the mountains
that mark the boundary between Galicia and the Meseta
Central. The climate is moderate and benefits from a
cooling maritime influence . The key grape variety here is Jumilla and Yecla of
Theruggedheartland
Mencia, which can produce elegant red wines with Located further inland, Ju mi Ila and Yecla have hot, arid Priorat.
naturally high acidity and red fruit aromas. Many of the climates, perfect for the dominant local grape variety,
best wines come from old vines grown on the region's Monastrell. The majority of wines are youthful and fruity
steep stony slopes. Some producers make unoaked in style.
wines to retain the perfumed red fruit of the grape
variety, but many use new oak to add toasty aromas. CASTILLA-LA
MANCHA
Almost half of Spain's total wine production comes from
THELEVANTE this vast central area of the Meseta Central that lies to
The Levante is the region on the Mediterranean coast the south of Madrid.
south of Catalunya. Trade is centred round the port of
Valencia which is the distribution hub for wines from the La Mancha
Levante and La Mancha . This is the largest DO in Spain. The most widely planted
grape variety is Airen, which is used to produce neutral,
Valencia fresh white wines. Plantings of this variety are, however,
Valencia is a large spread-out DO that is a source of in decline as the authorities have encouraged producers
value-for-money wines. A large number of different to plantTempranillo, known locally as Cencibel, and
local and international grape varieties are planted here. other international grape varieties such as Cabernet
Monastrell is the most planted red grape . White plantings Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah and even Chardonnay and
are dominated by local grape variety Merseguera Sauvignon Blanc. Significant investment in technology
although there are also significant plantings of Muscat and expertise has ensured that La Mancha is now an
of Alexandria to produce the local Moscatel de Valencia, excellent source of inexpensive well-made reds and
a sweet fortified wine. whites for the export market. La Mancha was also where
138 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
the trend for top -quality pagos wines began and it is still built a reputation for quality that exceeds its larger
the home of the majority of the estates that have been neighbour. As in La Mancha, Airen is the most widely
awarded the appellation Vinasde Pago. planted grape but here too Tempranillo (Cencibel) is the
main grape variety for red wines, either as a varietal wine
Valdepenas or blended with international grape varieties. The wines
This DO lies immediately to the south of La Mancha. It range from fruity to more concentrated and oak
experiences an identical climate to La Mancha but it has matured.
PORTUGAL 139
Portugal has a wealth of local grape varieties, which produce wines in a range of
Portugalstyles. The reds can be supple and fruity or full-bodied and high in tannins, whereas 31
the whites are usually refreshing and best drunk young.
CLIMATE Portugal
isa majorsupplier
Despite the fact that it is only a small country, Portugal of corksforwinebottles.The
has a range of different climates. The single most corkybarkfromthesetrees
important influence is that of the Atlantic Ocean, and hasrecently
beenharvested.
much of the country has a maritime climate. However,
in many of the inland vineyards the climate is hot, dry
and continental. In some regions altitude can help to
mitigate the very high temperatures. The large
differences in annual average temperature partly
account for the diversity of wine styles found in Portugal.
VinhoVerde
Vinho Verde is in the north -west of Portugal ; its
nearness to the Atlantic Ocean means it has a moderate
maritime climate. The most significant feature of the
climate is the high annual rainfall. Without careful
canopy management in the vineyard, the high levels of
precipitation can lead to excessive canopy growth and style. If a grape variety, a sub-region or an authorised
encourage disease. The modernisation of the vineyards quality labelling term is mentioned on the label, the wine
in the Vinho Verde region has meant a move away from can have up to 14% abv. The white wines are made from
the traditional pergola trellising. Spur-pruned VSP,to local grape varieties such as Loureiro and Arinto.
create airflow in the humid environment, is now used to Traditionally, these wines have a slight sparkling
improve the health and quality of the grapes and to sensation that enhances their freshness. Vinho Verde
allow for mechanisation. Alvarinho is made entirely from Alvarinho grapes
The classic white Vinho Verde wines are pale lemon (Albaririo in Spain) grown in the small designated sub-
coloured , high in acidity and low in alcohol (8% to 11.5% region of Morn;:ao e Melga<;o.It has slightly higher alcohol
abv). The wines with lower alcohol are usually off-dry in (11.5% to 14% abv) and riper, more tropical aromas.
PORTUGUESEWINE LAWS
The Portuguese for PDQ is Denominac;iio de Origem Protegida (DOP) but the traditional term Denominac;iio
de Origem Controlada (DOC) is also widely used.
The Portuguese PGI is lndicac;iioGeografica Protegida (IGP) but the traditional term Vinho Regional is still
seen on wine labels.
Table wines without geographical indication are labelled as Vinho (Wine). Over the years, Portugal has had
considerable success with simple, fruity off-dry rose wines that fall into this category.
140 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
Dao
Dao is located in a mountainous area 80 kilometres
42 °N
.r~•-•l • ..._
__ .
r--•...:\...,
i
42 °N
south of the Douro region. The vines are planted on
the gentler hills and slopes. The vineyards lie between
,--. 200 and 400 metres above sea level. Cold, wet winters
and warm, dry summers combined with a significant
temperature variation between day and night, provide
excellent conditions for high-quality grapes .
The red wines from Dao often display delicate red
fruit aromas, soft tannins and high acidity. Vineyard
improvement schemes have seen new plantings of
high-quality varieties including Touriga Nacional,
SPAIN
ATLANTIC Tinta Roriz, Jaen (Mencia in Spain) and Alfrocheiro .
40 °N OCEAN Alfrocheiro makes wines that are deep in colour with
intense aromas of blackberry and strawberry. The best
Dao whites are made from the Encruzado variety and
range in style from light and fresh to richer, barrel-
fermented versions .
Bairrada
Bairrada lies between Dao and the Atlantic Ocean and
has a maritime climate, with rainy winters and warm
summers. Rain around harvest time can sometimes
be a problem for late ripening varieties. Baga is the
38 "N 38 °N dominant black variety . It is a late-ripening variety
with small, thick-skinned berries giving wines that are
deep in colour with high tannin levels. If underripe
PORTUGAL
the wines can have high acidity and astringent tannins
but later picking gives wines that are softer and
display rich , black fruit flavours . Gentler crushing and
maceration techniques, as well as blending with other
black varieties, have also given softer wines. Other
Portuguese black grapes such as Touriga Nacional and
KEY Black varieties are also grown for the production of Alfrocheiro are also important, as well as international
red and rose wines: the reds are deeply coloured and varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and
2000m+
tannic; the roses are fresh and fruity. Syrah.
1000- 2000 m
White wines are also made, predominantly from
500 - l000m Douro indigenous varieties Bical and Maria Gomes.
200 - S00m
The Douro, the oldest demarcated wine region in the
world, is located some 80 kilometres east of Porto and Alentejo
0- 200 m
stretches from the Marao Mountains to the frontier with Alentejo is spread over eight sub-regions in the south
Spain. More information on climate and viticulture can east of Portugal. Overall, Alentejo has a warm growing
be found in Chapter 44 Port. season, but small climatic differences among the sub-
Wine production in the Douro is dominated by Port, but regions allow a range of different styles to be produced;
unfortified wines have always been made. Both Port and those in the cooler, wetter north give more elegant
unfortified wines rely on the same five principal varieties: wines and those in the hotter, drier centre and south
Touriga Nacional, Touriga Franca,nnta Roriz (Tempranillo), provide richer examples .
Tinta Barreca and Tinta Cao.Of these, the Touriga Nacional The typical red blend is made with Aragones (another
is considered the highest-quality variety and is the most well name forTempranillo) and Trincadeira, a drought-
known . It gives low yields of grapes and produces wines that tolerant grape with spicy red berry flavours and high
have intense colour and flavours and high levels of tannin . levels of tannin . Alicante Bouschet, a grape variety high
The red wines of the Douro tend to be deeply coloured in colour and tannins, is also used in blends. The use of
and full-bodied with a high level of ripe tannins and rich Touriga Nacional and Syrah has been increasing in the
black fruit flavours. The best examples often display last few years. The wines are typically deep in colour,
subtle toasty aromas from maturation in new oak. with high yet soft tannins, a full body and expressive
The white wines, particularly those from high-altitude ripe fruit flavours .
vineyards, can show fresh varietal fruit and medium to Arinto, Antao Vaz and Roupeiro make fruity and floral
high acidity. white wines with medium to high levels of acidity . Some
PORTUGAL 141
Modern
trellised
vineyards
inAlentejo
allowfor
mechanisation.
wines are fermented or aged in oak to provide extra area. Winemaking regulations are more liberal for the
depth and complexity. Vinho Regional wines and a wider range of grape varieties
can be used, particularly international varieties. Lisboa
Vinho Regional (stretching north from Lisbon), Peninsula de Setubal
The largest Vinho Regional region in terms of production (directly to the south) and Tejo (north-east of Lisbon) are
is Vinho Regional Alentejano. This region is based also important areas for Vinho Regional wines.
around Alentejo DOC but covers a far more extensive
142 UNDERSTANDINGWINES: EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
Introduction
to the USAWine is produced throughoutthe length and breadth of the
32 USA but in the following two chapters we will focus on the
most important wine producing states; California, Washington, Oregon and New York. In this brief
introduction we cover the wine laws that apply throughout the USA and show how the different wine
regions relate to each other on the map.
0- 200 rn
60"N
Hudson Bay
SO"N
40"N
40"N
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
PACIFIC NORTHAMERICA
30"N OCEAN
SOO 1000km
MEXICO
500miles
"
CALIFORNIA 143
CaIiforniaCalifornia is home not only to the vast majority of wine made in the USA but also to
many of the country's most celebrated wines. Combinations of warmth, bright sun
and cooling influences from ocean and altitude mean that California's winemakers are able to deliver a
33
diverse range of premium styles from rich powerful Cabernets to elegant Pinot Noirs.
CLIMATE
AND GRAPEGROWING By comparison, where there is no exposure to the ocean,
The state of California extends for some 1100 kilometres such as in the Central Valley, the climate is hot.
from north to south, and there are vineyards throughout The other factor that links all of California's wine
most of its length. Despite this, latitude plays a relatively regions is a lack of rain during the ripening season.
small role in determining a vineyard's climate in much Water shortages are a real concern and drip irrigation is
of California . The influence of the exceptionally cold widely practised. The scarcity of autumn rain has always
California Ocean Current is much more crucial. North of allowed growers to leave the grapes on the vine long
Los Angeles (where most of the vineyards are located) into the season. This extra 'hang time' results in very ripe
the coast line of California is mountainous. These grapes with very concentrated flavours and very high
mountains shield much of the state from the cooling sugar levels. More recently, there has been a greater
effect of the ocean; however , in areas that are affected , appreciation of freshness, and many growers are now
the cooling effect can be marked. picking slightly earlier.
Cold air, often accompanied by fogs, is drawn in
from the ocean in the evening, lowering night-time GRAPEVARIETIESAND WINEMAKING
temperatures. In addition, the time it takes for the sun Black Varieties
to burn off the fog in the morning means that the Cabernet Sauvignon is the most widely planted black
cooling influence extends well into the day. The cooling grape in California. Prime sites can produce extremely
effect can be so dramatic in vineyards near the coast expressive wines that rival the quality of the best
that , in some years, grapes can struggle to fully ripen . produced anywhere . Many of the wines are full-bodied,
Where there are gaps in the mountains, the cooling with very concentrated ripe cassis flavours and
effect can reach well inland. Valleys that lie at right prominent spice aromas from new oak barrels. Some
angles to the ocean, such as those in Monterey and producers choose to make their Cabernet Sauvignon
Santa Barbara Counties, act as funnels for the cold air. in a less rich style, with fresher blackcurrant flavours.
Thefogthatcomesinfrom
the Pacific
Ocean
playsa vital
roleingrapegrowing
in
manyoftheAVAs
in
California.
144 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
NORTH COAST
California's North Coast comprises the vineyards to the
north of San Francisco Bay.The climate of the vineyards
here is strongly influenced by the ocean, bringing fog 38' 30'N
and cool breezes that flow through the gaps in the
coastal ranges and river valleys. This affects the average
temperatures and diurnal temperature ranges that
determine grape plantings.
NapaCounty
The Napa Valley AVA runs north to south for about
50 kilometres, but is only about 5 kilometres wide. It
has the most expensive vineyard land and some of the
·,_
most prestigious wineries of California. To the west, the ·,_-...._
__
Mayacamas Mountains form the boundary with Sonoma
"---.___,_.-......-~
County. On its eastern side, the Vaca Mountains separate
-(
the Napa Valley from the northern part of the Central
Valley. Vineyards are found on both the valley floor and
on each valley side and are divided into a number of
smaller AVAs. NAPAVALLEY
The county is subject to a number of cooling RELIEF
influences, providing a diverse range of climates and
leading to the production of a range of different wine
styles.
The most significant influences are the morning fogs
and cool afternoon breezes from San Pablo Bay (the
northern extension of the San Francisco Bay) that
moderate the temperatures of the vineyards to the
south of the valley. Los Carneros AVA is the most
southerly vineyard area on the valley floor and extends
into Sonoma County. It is cool enough to be a source 38'30'N
of high-quality Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, which are
used to make still wines as well as traditional method
sparkling wines. Moving north along the valley floor
the climate becomes warm enough to ripen Cabernet
SONOMA
Sauvignon and the AVAsof Stags Leap District,
Yountville, Oakville and Rutherford are all principally
renowned for making premium wines from this grape.
With the least influence from the San Pablo Bay,
Rutherford is the warmest during the day, and its red
·,
wines are often considered to have the most power ·-,_
·...._
__
and structure. Merlot is also widely planted throughout
"---.___,_ ........
-~
these AVAs,and Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc are -(
the main white varieties, showing ripe tropical fruit
flavours. In the north of the valley Saint Helena AVA
and Calistoga AVA often receive the warmest daytime
KEY 1000 m+ 500- 1000 m 200- S00m
temperatures and can produce some of the most
100- 200 m 0- 100 m
concentrated, full-bodied wines in the valley. Cool air
146 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Vineyards
inLosCarneros
overlooking
SanPabloBay.
through the Chalk Hill gap in the Mayacamas Mountains Valley are perceptibly warmer. Dry Creek Valley AVA
can provide some relief from oppressive afternoon is planted densely both on its hillsides and its floor.
temperatures and much cooler night-time temperatures The hillsides above the fog layer are home to high-
help to retain acidity in the grapes. Although Cabernet quality old vine Zinfandels, whereas the valley floor
Sauvignon is the focus here too, Zinfandel and Syrah are vineyards are better suited to Sauvignon Blanc. Rhone
also grown. varieties and Cabernet Sauvignon are also popular.
Many of the vineyards on the valley sides lie above the Alexander Valley AVA is warmer still and its wines
fog layer, and are instead cooled by their altitude. Aspect tend to be more fleshy and full-bodied than those of
also has an important effect on vineyard climate. West the other Sonoma AVAs. In particular, it has built a
facing vineyards such as those of Howell Mountain AVA reputation for soft-textured, full-bodied Cabernet
and Atlas Peak AVA get full exposure to the hot Sauvignons, but in addition a range of international
afternoon sun, and therefore tend to be warmer than varieties perform well.
those facing east (Diamond Mountain District AVA, To the west of these AVAs is the extensive Sonoma
Spring Mountain District AVA and Mount Veeder AVA), Coast AVA.The climate here is greatly influenced by the
giving fuller-bodied wines with higher alcohol levels. cold Pacific Ocean and the vineyards are often planted
Overall the red wines of the valley sides tend to have on south facing slopes to help maximise ripening.
greater levels of tannin, and less richness on the palate Towards the south of Sonoma County, Sonoma Valley
than those of the valley floor. Cabernet Sauvignon is AVA runs parallel to Napa Valley. Similar to Napa Valley,
the principal variety but Merlot, Cabernet Franc and it is cooled by the breezes and fogs from the San Pablo
Zinfandel are also grown depending on the location. Bay.The region produces high-quality Chardonnays, but
Chardonnay is the main white variety and displays citrus is also known for its old vine Zinfandels.
and stone fruit with higher levels of acidity than those North of Sonoma County the large and very diverse
of the valley floor. region of Mendocino County includes the very cool
Anderson Valley AVA,a source of grapes for aromatic
Sonoma and Mendocino Counties white wines such as Riesling and Gewurztraminer, as
Sonoma County is larger than Napa County, with a well as sparkling wines. In comparison, the larger
greater variety of climates. Due to a break in the coastal Mendocino AVA experiences much warmer, drier
ranges (known as the Petaluma Gap) the Russian River conditions, protected behind coastal hills that rise up
Valley AVA has very cool, foggy conditions and is to 900 metres. The wines here are full bodied with soft
best known for high-quality, elegant Pinot Noirs and tannins and are often made from Cabernet Sauvignon,
Chardonnays, as well as sparkling wines from the same Zinfandel and Syrah.
grape varieties. The AVAsto the north of Russian River
CALIFORNIA 147
Oregon Washington
andNewYorkAfter Califo~nia, the ne~t most important
34 1 states for wine production are Oregon,
Washington and New York. The first two lie directly to the north of California and occupy the north-west
corner of the country either side of the Cascade Mountains. New York is located on the Atlantic rather
than the Pacific seaboard and sits in the north east of the USA.
RIGHT:
Vineyards
plantedon OREGON
theundulating
hillsin Northern Oregon
Oregon. The Willamette Valley AVA lies to the west of the
Cascade Mountains and stretches south from Portland. It
has the largest concentration of wineries and vineyards
BELOW
RIGHT:
Vineyards
in in Oregon. The Willamette Valley has a moderate climate
theColumbia
Valley.
Thehills and experiences cooling breezes from the Pacific Ocean.
inthebackground
showhow The growing season is mostly dry with long sunny days
drythisareais. and cool nights. Pinot Noir is by far the most planted
grape variety producing wines with ripe red fruit
flavours, a hint of cinnamon spice and high levels of
acidity. Pinot Gris is also widely grown and tends to be
made in a fruity, dry style.
Southern Oregon
The Southern Oregon AVA lies directly to the south of
the Willamette Valley. It encompasses Umpqua Valley,
Rogue Valley and other AVAs.Although this region has
the warmest growing conditions in Oregon, there are
also cooler areas within its hillsides and valleys that
KEY
enable Southern Oregon to grow both cool and warm
- 4000m+ climate varieties such as Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon,
2000 - 4000 m Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Pinot Gris and Syrah successfully.
1000- 2000 m
WASHINGTON STATE
500- 1000 m
The majority of the vineyards are planted in the
200-500 m extensive Columbia Valley AVA that lies east of the
0-200 m Cascade Mountains in the valleys of the Columbia River
and its tributaries. Within this area are the smaller but
important Yakima Valley AVA and Walla Walla AVA.
The Columbia Valley AVA lies in the rain shadow of
the Cascade Mountains making irrigation with river
50"N water a necessity. Winemakers take advantage of long
daylight hours and consistent summer temperatures.
The fruit attains optimal ripeness due to the sunny
days; cool nights help the grapes to maintain natural
PACIFIC levels of acidity. A major problem of the region is
OCEAN winter freeze, which may reduce crop volumes by
-::>
I .,. half or more.
Plummy, full-bodied Merlot and elegant, age-worthy
45' N Cabernet Sauvignon are the most important red wines.
Full-bodied, intensely concentrated Syrah is also
produced. Chardonnay is the most planted white
variety making fruity wines often with some toasty
notes from oak. Riesling is also popular, typically made
in a dry style with ripe stone fruit flavours.
OREGON,WASHINGTONANO NEWYORK 149
CanadaCanada's most important vineyard regions are situated in the provinces of Ontario and
35 British Columbia. Its wine regions experience a harsh continental climate but with
moderating influences from large bodies of water. Canada produces some world-renowned lcewines,
along with steadily growing volumes of dry wines, both white and red.
WINE REGIONS slowly than the surrounding land. This extends the
The climate is continental throughout Canada's wine growing season in the autumn allowing grapes to ripen
regions, so although average annual temperatures are fully and delays bud burst in the spring, helping to
low, average daytime temperatures in July and August minimise frost damage. Air flow helps to reduce fungal
are often very high. Large lakes go some way to disease.
moderate temperature extremes, but the winters are Riesling does well here, making fresh, fruity dry and
cold and temperatures may drop far below zero for long off-dry whites, and the finest lcewines. Another grape
periods, creating suitable conditions for lcewine variety commonly used for lcewine is Vidal. This hybrid
production. is hardy, and while it has little character when made into
a dry white, it can make high-quality lcewines, although
Ontario without the acid structure and aromatic complexity of
Ontario has three DVAs of which the most important is those made from Riesling. Good quality dry Chardonnays
the Niagara Peninsula on the south-western corner of are also made, generally with pure fruit and restrained
Lake Ontario. The lake cools down and heats up more oak. Among black grape varieties, some producers are
KEY
4000 m+
2000- 4000 m
1000--2000 m
500- 1000 m
200- SOOm
0- 200 m
CANADA 151
British Columbia
British Columbia has five DVAs,the most important of
which is the Okanagan Valley. This huge DVA lies in a
rain shadow between two mountain ranges, which
results in very low annual average rainfall and a semi-
desert environment . Day lengths throughout the
growing season are extremely long due to the
northern latitude, and this prolongs the time in which
photosynthesis can take place, aiding grape ripening.
Large glacial lakes help to moderate temperatures and
extend the growing season, enabling successful ripening
of white grapes in the north and black grapes in the
south.
The most widely planted varieties are Merlot, Pinot
Gris, Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. lcewine is also
produced here, usually from Riesling or Vidal.
152 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
ChiIe Located between the Andes to the east and the Pacific to the west, Chile has an unusual
36 geography. However, it is this geography, which combines cooling influences from the Pacific
and Andes along with plentiful sunshine, that explains why Chile has found success making a wide
range of wine styles.
CLIMATE
AND GRAPEGROWING up from Antarctica along the Chilean coast and the
Chile's vineyards range over an area that covers more prevailing winds blow cool air inland along the river
than 900 kilometres from north to south but rarely more valleys. In areasvery close to the coast this can also include
than 100 kilometres from east to west. The area is fog. The cooling effect of these winds is strongest in the
broadly defined by four key geographical features. To areas where the coastal mountains are at their lowest, and
the west is the Pacific Ocean and just inland are the in the parts of the valleys that lie closest to the Pacific. In
coastal mountain ranges.To the east are the Andes, the vineyards in the foothills of the Andes there is another
which also mark Chile's border with Argentina. North of cooling effect caused by cold air that descends from the
Santiago the two ranges tend to merge, but south of mountains overnight and can cause a large diurnal
the capital there is a large depression between the two temperature range. Between the two mountain ranges,
mountain ranges that is commonly referred to as the the climate is more sheltered and the large expanses of flat
Central Valley. In many places there are gaps in the land are easier to cultivate. These two cooling influences
Coastal Range caused by river valleys that drain the are the reason for the new labelling terms introduced in
water from the Andes. 2012 (seesection Chilean WineLaws below).
Generally speaking the vineyards of Chile have a Sustainable and organic grape growing and
warm Mediterranean climate. The dry, sunny growing winemaking are widely practised by both large and
season ensures that the grapes reliably ripen and fungal small wine estates. A number of well-respected
diseases are kept to a minimum. In most places the winemakers as well as the authorities have done much
shortfall in rainwater can be made up for with irrigation. to promote this .
However, water for irrigation is in increasingly short
supply. Conditions become cooler and wetter in the GRAPEVARIETIESAND WINEMAKING
Southern Regions. El Nino and La Nina are weather Black Grape Varieties
patterns that can affect Chile's wine regions in some Black varieties have always accounted for the majority of
years. Rainfall levels can dramatically increase during the plantings in Chile. Cabernet Sauvignon is the most
El Nino years, whereas drought may occur in La Nina planted grape variety of either colour. The extent of the
years.This cyclical weather phenomenon is experienced plantings means that it is made in a variety of styles from
throughout the Pacific. simple and fruity to full-bodied premium examples. These
Along the north-south axis there are common features wines usually have very ripe black fruit aromas and
that moderate temperatures on the western and eastern flavours, often with a herbaceous character. It is frequently
edges of vineyard areas.The cold Humboldt Current flows blended with Merlot, Carmenere or Syrah. Inexpensive
CHILEANWINELAWS
VALLE
Elqui Valley, Limarf Valley and Choapa Valley. Vineyard
~ KEY
plantings are relatively small compared with the more \
36'S
southerly regions but quality tends to be high. All three ( 36' S - 6000m+
valleys have slightly different features but they all benefit l'! 4000 - 6000 m
from brilliant sunshine and marked cooling influences ,.;·~
2000- 4000 m
either from sea breezes or mountain air. Some vineyards ;- ARGENTINA
are now being planted at very high altitudes. The biggest 1000- 2000 m
;.
challenge here is the lack of water. Irrigation is essential I' S00- 1000m
but expensive because water is less plentiful here !
\
200- 500 m
compared with some other regions. Nevertheless, Elqui
0- 200m
Valley has already developed a reputation for Sauvignon
154 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Ahillsidevineyard
in
Aconcagua Valley,
withthe
Andesinthebackground.
Notethefruithasbeen
exposedto helpwith
ripening.
CHILE 155
Many of the more premium sites are located in the a useful ingredient when blending. There are increasing
Andean foothills, which are cooled by the descending efforts to exploit the wealth of dry-farmed, old vines
air, lending elegance and structure to the red wines. that exist w ithin the western hills of this region. Carignan
Mai po Valley has a reputation for Cabernet Sauvignon has become the star variety here, producing full-bodied ,
that can often have a particular minty character to it. intensely concentrated wines from these ancient low-
The Rapel sub-region is a large and varied area. The yielding bush vines.
more northerly Cachapoal Valley zone is a warm area
cut off from the ocean breezes. Carmenere ripens well Southern Region
on the valley floors and Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah This region has three sub-regions : ltata Valley, Bio Bfo
perform well in the cooler eastern end of the valley. The Valley and Malleco Valley. The climate in the vineyards of
Colchagua Valley zone is a larger and more varied area the Southern sub-regions becomes noticeably cooler
than Cachapoal Valley. The central part of this valley is and wetter the further south they are located.
warm and open to some ocean influence. It is well Plantings in the two larger sub-regions of ltata Valley
known for full-bodied reds, particularly Cabernet and Bio Bfo Valley are dominated by Paisand Muscat of
Sauvignon, but also Syrah and Carmenere. As the area Alexandria and the resulting output is mainly consumed
has expanded, vineyards have increasingly been planted locally, but Bio Bio Valley has started to show great
on the valley slopes and some areas, notably Apalta, promise for Pinot Noir, Chardonnay and aromatic
have gained a premium reputation. Further to the west varieties. There is increasing interest among producers
the cooling Pacific influence becomes greater and some for fruit from high-quality white and black varieties for
high-quality white wines can be produced. their acidity and aromatic qualities . The full potential of
The Curic6 Valley and Maule Valley sub-regions form these regions has yet to be explored .
the southern end of the Central Valley. The warmth and Malleco is the smallest and currently the most
fertile soils make these the most important sources of southerly sub-region . There are only a small number of
fruit for inexpensive blended red and white wines. The producers making Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, but it is
vineyards in Maule Valley are cooler than those of Curic6 increasingly attracting interest from premium producers .
Valley and the wines retain a higher acidity, which can be
156 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
ArgentinaCut off from the influences of the Pacific Ocean by the Andes, Argentina's wine
37 regions are defined by their altitude, with many of the best vineyard areas lying over
1000 metres above sea level. Within these regions two grape varieties have come to be recognised as
producing Argentina's signature wines: the black variety Malbec and the white variety Torrontes.
CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING Torrontes grape, many vineyards growing black grape
Most of Argentina's vineyards lie close to the Andes, in a varieties are now planted with vertical trellises. The
series of irrigated oases in what is otherwise desert. They canopies still need to be arranged so that grapes are
are spread over more than 1500 kilometres from the shaded from the intense sunshine .
province of Salta in the north to Rfo Negro and Neuquen In the rain shadow of the Andes, rainfall is extremely
in Patagonia . low, but water can be drawn from rivers flowing down
With the exception of those in Rfo Negro and Neuquen, from the mountains or from subterranean aquifers .
most of the vineyards lie 600 metres or more above sea Flood irrigation was widespread but drip irrigation
level, and in Salta, close to the town of Cafayate, they (which uses scarce water more efficiently) is more
regularly extend to 2000 metres or more, allowing common in newer vineyards.
suitably cool sites to be found close to the Equator. Spring frosts are an occasional problem, but summer
Historically, because of the heat, most vineyards were hail is a regular hazard, particularly in Mendoza. Despite
planted in the pergola system, known locally as parral. the expense, many producers use netting to protect
This lifted the grapes away from the searing heat close to their vines. The traditional method of risk management -
the ground, and, with grapes hanging down below the to own vineyards in several different areas - will always
leaf canopy, also provided some shade from the intense be widespread as th is also brings conside rable
sunshine. Although parral is still commonly used for the advantages at the blending stage. The dry climate means
that there are few problems with rot or mildew, and
Argentina is an important producer of wines made from
organically grown grapes.
25•s
I,
CHILE ,) GRAPE VARIETIES AND WINEMAKING
PACIFIC Black Varieties
OCEAN
Malbec is Argentina's flagship variety, and the country
has the largest plantings of this grape worldwide. It
tends to produce deeply coloured, full-bodied wines
30 S with notes of black fruit and often high levels of smooth
3o•s ")'I
tannins. However, a number of winemakers are now
j
F extracting more gently in the winery to create more
·~ elegant styles. Most high-quality Malbecs are matured
LUJAN ' - -
DEdJYO • in new oak, lending subtle spicy flavours . Argentine
\ o )I producers have grown Malbec extensively in every wine
Sant iago
region of the country, and regional differences can be
( 35 S noticed in the wines produced . Generally, the wines made
35•s
C:
} MEND5l~ __ _j from fruit ripened at lower altitudes are fuller-bodied,
~ . with richer black fruit . Those from higher altitude
f -, I
} '\__ : vineyards tend to be more elegant, displaying fresher,
KEY
\tUQ~[i : ·,-. more floral aromas. Malbec is mostly produced as a
(' - ---- .......t varietal, although it also plays a leading role in some
- 6000m + I , premium blends, generally with Cabernet Sauvignon,
40 °S ~ , NIA R[O NEGRO to S Merlot, Cabernet Franc and/or Petit Verdot.
-1 ---
4000 - 6000 m
Bonarda is the second most planted variety in
2000 -4 000 m
ARGENTINA Argentina. It is a late ripening variety that produces
1000- 2000m deeply coloured grapes with high acidity and tannin
500-1000 m levels. When grown at high yields Bonarda produces
600km
easy-drinking wines with medium to deep colour and
200- S00m
45 °S fruity raspberry and blackberry aromas. When yields are
0-200 m
controlled and the fruit is allowed to ripen fully, it can
ARGENTINA 157
1.Acomplex
seriesofchannelsandsluicegates
areusedto managethe waterusedforflood
irrigation.
2. Deepfurrowsare ploughedbetweenthe
rowsofvinesto channelthe floodwaters.
3. Dripirrigation
useswatermoreefficiently
thanfloodirrigation.
Waterisdripped
onto
thesoildirectly
abovethevines'roots.
produce wines of greater concentration and structure. with medium body and acidity and flavours of stone
It is mainly grown in Mendoza and San Juan. fruits and melon. The aromatic nature of this grape
International varieties Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah variety means that the wines are usually fermented in
and Merlot are also widely planted, as well as smaller inert, temperature-controlled vessels and released from
volumes ofTempranillo and Pinot Noir. Premium wines the winery in the year of harvest.
tend to show concentrated ripe fruit flavours, usually Chardonnay is also widely planted and made in a
with toasty notes from oak. range of styles. Premium wines tend to be matured in oak
barrels, a proportion of which is often new. Chen in Blanc,
White Varieties Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon and Viognier are also grown.
Torrontes is often seen as Argentina's white signature The traditional low -quality variety Pedro Gimenez (not
variety. It is widely planted in Salta, La Rioja, San Juan the same variety as Pedro Ximenez found in southern
and Mendoza . Many of the best examples come from Spain) is used in cheap wines for the domestic market
high-altitude vineyards in the Cafayate region of Salta and although in decline, it remains the white variety
Province. They have an intense fruity, floral perfume, with the greatest plantings.
158 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
very fine Malbec. This sub -region lies at around 900 to Tupungato to the west, a high altitude area increasingly
1100 metres in altitude, in the foothills of the Andes, recognised for the quality of its wines.
south-west of Mendoza city. It is notable for its old Southern Mendoza is home to the San Rafael
Malbec vines, which provide much of the soft, round department. Compared with much of Mendoza it has a
and sweet spice in Malbec blends. low altitude but its southerly location makes it one of
The Maipu department lies to the east of Lujan de the coolest areas in the province. It has the country's
Cuyo, with vineyards at lower altitudes. Syrah and most significant plantings of Chenin Blanc.
Cabernet Sauvignon perform particularly well here. The
eastern, lower part of Maipu provides much of the high Patagonia Region
volume, inexpensive wine for both domestic and export Patagonia is home to the Rio Negro Province, and the
markets but is also a valuable source of old vine Bonarda relatively new Neuquen Province. With vineyards situated
and Tempranillo . at around 200 to 250 metres, the cooling influence here
The Uco Valley lies to the south-west of Mendoza, is not the altitude, but the latitude. Strong desert winds
and is a source of high-quality fruit. The vineyards lie at provide a challenge for the grape growers here, but the
900 to 1500 metres, making them the highest vineyards low rainfall and wide diurnal range means the vines
in Mendoza . Cool nights help to retain acidity and fresh benefit from a low incidence of disease. Long daylight
fruit flavours in the grapes, and the wines sometimes hours and cool nights provide wines with concentrated
display floral notes. Chardonnay, Torrontes, Sauvignon but fresh fruit flavours, and medium to high acidity.
Blanc, Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Nair, Malbec and Merlot are all
Tempranillo all flourish here. Some sites are cool enough capable of making premium wines in Rfo Negro; the full
to grow Pinot Nair. This area includes the department of potential of Neuquen is still being explored.
160 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
SouthAf riea Most of South Africa's wine regions are found on and around the coastline of the
38 Cape where they can take advantage of the cooling influence of the Southern
Ocean. This, combined with the dramatic mountainous backdrop, provides a landscape that allows
South African winemakers to produce a broad range of wine styles.
CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING nearby vineyards, again, giving slightly cooler
With its vine growing regions located at between 27° temperatures during different parts of the day. Nearer
and 34° south of the Equator, South Africa should have a the coast the mountains can also help channel the winds
hot climate. However, although in certain inland areas through the vineyards.
the summer temperatures can become very hot
(regularly rising in excess of 30°C), many vineyard areas GRAPE VARIETIES AND WINEMAKING
are subject to cooling influences. The most important of Black Varieties
these come from the Southern Ocean.The cold Benguela Cabernet Sauvignon, which is the most widely planted
Current flows up from the Antarctic running past the tip black variety, is used for varietal wines and also blended
and up the west coast of Africa, cooling coastal areas. with Merlot and Cabernet Franc for Bordeaux-style
This is magnified by the regular strong south-easterly blends. On its own, Merlot is capable of producing full-
summer winds, known locally as the Cape Doctor. These bodied, plummy wines. Syrah is very widely planted
bring air cooled by the ocean further inland and can too. In hot climates it gives rich, full-bodied reds that are
reduce temperatures by a further couple of degrees in often high in alcohol and display ripe black fruit flavours,
some areas. sometimes with an earthy or meaty character. It is also
The other defining feature of the South African wine grown in some cooler areas giving less full-bodied,
lands is the prominent mountain ranges running peppery examples. Pinot Noir is less tolerant of the hot
throughout the wine regions. They offer producers a South African climate and is planted in small amounts in
dramatic range of different altitudes and aspects, as well the coolest coastal areas.The vast majority of premium
as a multitude of different soils, which result in a range red wines are matured in oak, with at least a proportion
of different site climates. Altitude has a marked influence of new barrels used, to give toasty aromas.
on vineyard climate, with those on valley floors generally Pinotage (Pinot Noir x Cinsault) is the only other
much warmer than those in the mountains . In common black variety with significant plantings. This crossing
with many other wine producing regions in the Southern was developed in South Africa and, as it is hardly grown
Hemisphere, vines may be planted on the southern anywhere else in the world, is often deemed a point of
slopes of mountains to benefit from cooler temperatures. difference . Pinotage is made in a range of styles. It is
This mountainous terrain can also cast shadows over sometimes blended with international varieties, to make
need to be picked early to retain such flavours, as well Coastal Region 200-500 m
as high levels of acidity . Chardonnay can make wines The Stellenbosch district stretches from just inland of
0-200 m
of exceptional quality, particularly in the cooler sites. the coast at Somerset West right up into the mountains
Burgundian techniques such as barrel fermentation and that surround the town of Stellenbosch itself, and has
lees-stirring contribute to the character of many long been the hub of fine wine production in South
premium examples. Africa. The climate here is moderate to warm depending
Muscat of Alexandria (here called Hanepoot) is not on location. There is sufficient rainfall in the winter and
as widely planted as the other varieties but is used to summers are rarely too hot, thanks to the cool winds
produce late-harvest dessert wines when the grapes from False Bay that are funnelled by the mountains
are left to shrivel on the vine. Noble rot can also be an into the valleys. However, above all, the success of
influence in these wines. Plantings ofViognier have Stellenbosch lies in the variety of altitude, aspect and
increased dramatically over the last couple of decades; soil that is available in such a relatively small area. The
it usually makes rich, perfumed wines that have a hint district is divided into a number of distinct wards, which
of toasty oak. High-qual ity white blends have also highlight this diversity. In recent years, Stellenbosch has
emerged, particularly from Swartland . These wines are built up a reputation for top class red wines, in particular
often made from Chen in Blanc blended with Rhone Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot (which are often made
varieties such as Marsanne, Roussanne, Grenache Blanc in Bordeaux-style blends), Syrah and Cape red blends.
and Viognier. The cooler sites can produce high-quality Sauvignon
Blanc and Chardonnay as well.
REGIONS AND WINES The Paarl district is a large district that lies to the north
Well over 90 per cent of the wine made in South Africa of Stellenbosch. It is less exposed to the cooling influences
comes from the Western Cape. The most important of the sea, being further inland, and temperatures tend
regions of the Western Cape are covered below . The to be hotter in the summer although this can be
majority of the remainder of the wine comes from the moderated by cooler night-time temperatures . Like
very hot and irrigated Orange River in the Northern Cape, Stellenbosch, the mountainous terrain offers a variety
which is known mostly for inexpensive whites that are of altitudes, aspects and soils. A range of grape varieties
rarely seen on export markets. is grown; Cabernet Sauvignon , Syrah and Pinotage are
Note that some wineries located in certain districts or the most important reds, whereas Chen in Blanc and
wards may source their fruit from a wider area than the Chardonnay are the most planted whites.
162 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Vineyards
lookingacrossto
the townofStellenbosch.
Themountainsherehelpto
channelthe coolocean
breezesthroughthe
vineyards.
source of well-made wines for high volume brands. Chardonnays and Pinot Noirs. Other varieties such as
However, thanks to the cooling influences and notable Sauvignon Blanc, Merlot and Syrah are grown with equal
outcrops of less fertile soils, this region can also produce success.
some excellent Syrahs and full -bodied Chardonnays. To the north -west of Walker Bay is the Elgin district,
where altitude is another important cooling influence.
Cape South Coast The area has a particular reputation for intense, fresh
This area, which is well exposed to the ocean, is a regular Sauvignon Blancs, and is showing promise for Pinot Noir,
source of some of the best fruit and wines. The most Chardonnay and Syrah. To the south-east of Walker Bay,
well-established vineyard area is the Walker Bay district, in the Cape Agulhas district, is the Elim ward. Elim also
which contains the various wards of Hemel-en-Aarde. has a particular reputation for pungent, herbaceous
This has long been home to some of South Africa's best Sauvignon Blanc, but Syrah is also showing promise.
164 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
Austra
Iia Australia has been incredibly successful at taking international grape varieties and
39 crafting them into unique and new styles. Among the most famous are full-bodied
Shirazs, lime flavoured Rieslings, elegant Cabernets and subtle Semillons that evolve for decades. This
diversity is set to grow as new regions, grape varieties and wine styles continue to be explored.
AUSTRALIANWINE LAWS
In Australia, there is a hierarchy of Gls incorporating zones, regions and sub-regions.
Zonesarelargeareaswithoutanyparticular
qualifying
attributes
. They Manyregionsaresplitintosub-regions,if therearenotable
areas
caneitherbestates(suchasSouthAustralia)orcoverseveral
states thathavedistinctanduniquequalities.
Although asub-regionmustfall
(suchasSouthEastern Australia).
Zones canalsomakeuppartofa withinoneregion,someregions arecoveredbyseveral zones.
For
state,butwiththepossibleexceptionof Barossa
thesezones
arerarely example, EdenValley
isa regionwithintheBarossa zone,whichis
seenonlabels. withinthezoneofSouthAustralia,which,inturn,iswithinSouth
Regions (suchasCoonawarra,ClareValleyandMargaretRiver)
can EasternAustralia
zone. Thisgivesproducers
avarietyof optionswhenit
varyinsizeandaresmaller thanzones.Theymusthaveconsistent
and comes to makinguptheirblends.
distinctqualities
fromneighbouringregions.
AUSTRALIA 165
unoaked versions are now increasingly being produced . mists and fogs in this region favour the development of 200- S00m
Riesling is also made in a style that is unique to noble rot.
0- 200 m
Australia . The wines typically have pronounced citrus
fruit aromas and flavours (lime, lemon, grapefruit) in SOUTH AUSTRALIA
youth that develop rapidly into toast, honey and petrol The majority of Australia's wine is produced in South Bigcompanies
inAustralia
notes as the wines age. The wines are unoaked with high Australia . The vineyards are concentrated in the south takeadvantageof
levels of acidity, and are usually dry or slightly off-dry, east of the state. With such a range of premium economies
of scaleand
although some sweet wines are also made. Classic vineyard locations offering diffe rent characteristics, oftentankerjuiceorgrapes
regions include the Eden and Clare Valleys in South some of Australia's most prestigious, and most to largecentralwineries.
Australia . Tasmania, and the Frankland River sub-region expensive, wines take advantage of the blending Thisis a commonpractice
of Western Australia, are also developing reputations for opportunities provided by this GI and are simply forlargeproducers
high-quality Rieslings. Here the wines are less citrusy labelled South Australia. throughout
theworld.
and more floral.
WINE REGIONS:
SOUTH EASTERNAUSTRALIAZONE
This 'super-zone' covers all the Gls within South Australia,
Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland, allowing
blending of grapes or wines from across most of
Australia's wine regions. The majority of wines that are
labelled with this indication are high volume brands and
take advantage of being able to source fruit from the
fertile, irrigated vineyards of Riverland in South Australia,
Murray-Darling in Victoria and Riverina in New South
Wales. These regions can produce high yields of healthy
grapes, but they lack the flavour concentration of those
from high-quality areas. Blending in components from
regions such as Barossa,Adelaide Hills or Mclaren Vale
166 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
,I
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.
)
~
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)
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rU
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,,,,
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DENVALLE RIVERINA
VICTORIA
' .·) .
I, (/
SOUTHERN
OCEAN
SOUTHEASTERN
AUSTRALIA G Tasman
Sea
100ml!es 1 D
D
Barossa
TheHillof Grace
vineyard
in
EdenValley,
whichis home
to exceptionally
oldShiraz
vines.
Coonawarra
The Coonawarra region is a narrow strip of land 1.5
kilometres wide by 1S kilometres long, with a distinctive
red, terrarossasoil over a limestone subsoil. It lies 400
kilometres south-east of Adelaide, towards the Victorian
border. Under the influence of cold currents from the
Antarctic, the maritime climate is moderate. Cloud cover a range of altitudes and aspects. High altitude sites such
moderates summer temperatures. as those in the regions of Macedon Ranges and Upper
Cabernet Sauvignon, which predominates, is made Gou Iburn make elegant Pinot Noir and Chardonnay as
into concentrated, structured wines with characteristic well as aromatic Riesling and Sauvignon Blanc. Regions
cassis and eucalyptus or menthol aromas. The best on lower slopes grow later-ripening black varieties such
examples age very well. Shiraz, Merlot and Chardonnay as Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon; these wines are often
are also widely planted. fresher and lighter in style than those from Australia's
hotter regions.
VICTORIA
Victoria offers some of the coolest vineyard locations Yarra Valley
on the Australian mainland. The wine regions around The Yarra Valley region is located to the north-east of
Melbourne and Port Phillip Bay benefit from ocean Melbourne. Broadly speaking the climate is cool to
breezes, giving conditions cool enough to grow high - moderate and maritime, but this is a very varied region
quality Pinot Noir, Chardonnay and grapes for sparkling with a wide range of altitude and aspects. Pinot Noir is
wine. Further inland, the Great Dividing Range provides the speciality. As well as producing high-quality table
168 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Heathcote
- 32 ·s Perth
,
., , .,
"'
"'
""
"'
WESTERN
AUSTRALIA
"' '""'"
IOOmllt~
•1 Heathcote is located in the centre of Victoria, much
further inland than the YarraValley, Mornington
Peninsula and Geelong. Cooling influences here come
from altitude rather than the ocean giving a moderate
climate, and helping to produce Shiraz wines that have a
firmer structure and fresher fruit flavours than those of
/ND/AN
OCEAN warmer regions. Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon
0
WESTERN are also widely planted and Mediterranean grapes such
AUSTRALIA
as Sangiovese and Tempranillo have shown promise.
,, Goulburn Valley
MARGARET To the east of Heathcote is the warm Gou Iburn Valley
FRANKLAND MOUNT
RIVER RIVER BARKER _,- 34°S region. Heat is mitigated slightly by the lakes and creeks
compared with other Australian regions, but falls mainly includes the sub-regions of Mount Barker and Frankland
in the winter. Cabernet Sauvignon is widely planted, and River, known for deeply coloured Cabernet Sauvignon,
often blended with Merlot in a Bordeaux-style blend. A elegant, peppery Shiraz and floral Riesling.
number of different styles are produced ranging from
elegant and restrained to fruity and powerful. TASMANIA
Chardonnays display concentrated stone-fruit aromas Tasmania has a cool maritime climate, cooled by
and retain high levels of natural acidity; a range of styles prevailing westerly winds off the Southern Ocean,
are produced using barrel ageing and MLF to add providing conditions that are generally free from
complexity. Sauvignon Blanc is also widely planted. Here, extremes. Although Tasmania started as a prime source
it is often blended with Semillon and the resultant of base wine for Australian sparkling wine, the region has
wines often have attractive gooseberry and tropical fruit since proved it can also make excellent still wines. The
aromas with high acidity. principal varieties are Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Sauvignon
Over time the area to the south has also been opened Blanc and Pinot Gris, but even Cabernet Sauvignon can
up for wine production. The Great Southern region ripen in the warmest, driest areas.
170 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
NewZealandNew Zealand is a wine -producing country that is best known for its fresh,
40 vibrant Sauvignon Blanc, a style that has inspired winemakers in many other
wine regions. However, its reputation for making premium-quality Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Syrah and
Bordeaux-style blends means that there is far more to New Zealand than one grape variety.
CLIMATE
AND GRAPEGROWING can be overly fertile, leading to excessive shoot and leaf
New Zealand's isolated location in the Pacific Ocean growth. Due to their problems with vine vigour New
(1900 kilometres from Australia, the nearest land mass) Zealand viticulturists have become experts in trellising
means that it experiences a maritime climate overall. and other canopy management techniques.
The South Island's climate is cool, whereas that of the The New Zealand wine industry is strongly committed
North Island is a little warmer . The combination of long to reducing the environmental impact of their vineyard
sunshine hours, nights cooled by sea breezes and a long management and winery practices. Sustainable
ripening period allows grapes to reach high levels of Winegrowing New Zealand is an initiative that sets
sugar and flavour ripeness while retaining acidity. The winery standards to help growers achieve these aims.
KEY
vineyards of the South Island tend to be located on the
2000m+ east side, protected from rain-bearing westerly winds GRAPEVARIETIES
AND WINEMAKING
1000- 2000 m by mountains in the centre of the island; however, many White Varieties
of the vineyard areas still experience plentiful rainfall, Since the early 1990s, Sauvignon Blanc has been firmly
500-lO00m
which can be problematic during ripening. Fortunately established as New Zealand's flagship grape and it
200-S00m
the soils tend to be free draining, and so do not accounts for the majority of wine production. Its pungent
0-200m experience waterlogging; however, those on flat land aromas, intense flavours of elderflower and passion fruit,
and high acidity have set a benchmark for Sauvignon
Blanc producers around the world. There are subtle
differences between the styles of the North and South
35•s 35°S Islands; the warmer North produces Sauvignon Blanc
with more tropical flavours and the South creates wines
with higher acidity and flavours of green bell pepper and
gooseberry. It is most frequently fermented in inert
vessels at cool temperatures to retain fruity flavours and
Tasman aromas, but some producers also make oak-matured
Sea
styles as a point of difference.
Chardonnay is also widely planted. Similar to many
other countries producing wines from this variety, a
number of different winemaking techniques may be
40°S 40°S explored and thus there can be great diversity between
wines. However, the general style tends to be led by
concentrated citrus and tropical fruits with subtle hints
of toast and sweet spice from new French oak.
SOUTH
Over recent years New Zealand's producers have been
ISLAND exploring the country's enormous potential for the
aromatic varieties Riesling and Gewurztraminer, and the
semi-aromatic Pinot Gris. Dry autumns and cool night
temperatures ensure aromatic compounds have plenty
PACIFIC of time to develop before the grapes are harvested. The
OCEAN
45•s 45' $ wines range from dry to sweet, however off-dry tends to
be the most prevalent style.
Vineyards
in Marlborough
plantedonthevalleyfloor.
north. The plain area is particularly exposed to the different valleys with different aspects, soils and
cooling influence of the Pacific although there is a slight altitudes . In contrast to the rest of New Zealand, the
warming effect from north-westerly winds. The impact climate here is continental and frost damage is a real risk
of these warm winds is more marked in Waipara, which both in spring and autumn . Summers can be warm but,
is less exposed to the ocean due to a range of hills. importantly for grape quality, the diurnal range in the
Sauvignon Blanc and Pinot Noir are the most planted growing season is large. The intensity of sunlight is very
varieties, but Waipara is also noted for the high quality high, which accounts for the high levels of alcohol that
of its Riesling. are often encountered in the wines from here. Pinot Noir
accounts for the vast majority of the plantings in Central
Central Otago Otago, and these wines tend to be full-bodied, juicy and
Central Otago is located inland in the foothills of the vibrant with concentrated ripe red fruit flavours. The
Southern New Zealand Alps. The vineyard area itself is other important varieties are Pinot Gris, Riesling and
spread over a wide area incorporating a number of Chardonnay.
SPARKLING WINE PRODUCTION 173
Sparkling
WineProduction
~ltho~ghtheyareallfizzy,sparklingwi~esaremade ,
m a wide range of styles. They can be wh ite, red or rose,
come in any level of sweetness, and range in flavour from fresh and fruity through to toasty and nutty.
41
In this chapter we will focus on white sparkling wine and the particular grape growing and winemaking
techniques that are used.
HANDLINGTHEGRAPESAND JUICE
To produce high-quality sparkling wines it is vital that
the grapes and their juice are treated with care.
Harvest
The grapes for the best sparkling wines are typically
hand-picked to retain whole bunches of unsplit grapes .
However, in warm regions where grapes are being
grown for the production of inexpensive sparkling
wines, machine harvesting may be the most efficient
way of picking all the grapes before they accumulate
too much sugar and lose their acidity.
Pressing
On arrival at the winery the grapes should be pressed as
soon as possible. Pressing will be gentle, to minimise the
extraction of any tannins and colour . This is especially
important when using black grapes for white sparkling
wines. The use of whole bunches helps with this. By
174 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
base wine is completely dry with neutral flavours and Riddling - After the period of maturation, the lees
high acidity. The winemaker will decide, based on the sediment is removed using the two processes of riddling
style of wine to be made, whether the wine will undergo and disgorgement. Riddling involves mov ing the bottle
MLF and/or a period of maturation in oak before the very slowly from a horizontal to an inverted vertical
second alcoholic fermentation. position. The yeast sediment is dislodged and gradually
Most base wines are used the year after the harvest. slides down the side of the bottle collecting in the plastic
However, some wines are stored for use in future years. cup insert in the crown cap. Traditionally, this was done
These 'reserve' wines have an important role to play in by hand. The bottles were placed horizontally in the
the blending process. holes of an A-frame rack called a pupitre and then each
day they were given a gentle shake and a twist and
Blending - The blending process is very important in raised slightly closer to vertical. This was a very labour
the making of sparkling wines and serves a number of intensive process and took up to eight weeks to
functions. First, many producers aim to make their complete.
sparkling wines in a particular house style, particularly Nowadays riddling is usually mechanised so that the
for non-vintage products. Blending wines from different work can be carried out faster and in bulk . The standard
vineyards, grape varieties and/or vintages can help to machine in use today is a gyropalette, a cage holding 500
achieve this house style year-on-year despite vintage bottles on a hydraulic arm, which is regularly rotated and
variation. inclined. This simulates hand riddling but completes the
Second, blending can be used to improve the balance job in a matter of days.
of the wine . For example, Chardonnay is widely
considered to bring citrus fruit, finesse and longevity to Disgorgement and corking - Once riddling is complete
a blend, whereas Pinot Nair brings aromas and flavours the neck of the upturned bottle is submerged in a very
of red fruit and more body. cold brine solution, which freezes the wine in the neck.
Third, blending can enhance the complexity of the The bottles are then inverted into a normal upright
wine. Old reserve wines can bring flavours of dried fruit position and the frozen wine holds the sediment in
to the fresh flavours of the young wine . Likewise, some place, keeping the wine clear. The crown cap seal is
producers may choose to blend in wines that have been removed and the pressure created by the dissolved CO2
matured in oak to bring a broader texture and spicy ejects the frozen wine taking the sediment and plastic
flavours to the wine. It is easier to achieve these aims if insert with it. The wine is topped up with liqueur
blenders have as many wines as possible at their disposal. d'expedition and sealed with a cork that is held secure by
For this reason grapes are often fermented in many a wire cage. This whole process is now fully mechanised
different small parcels, giving multiple blending options . and the time taken from opening to resealing the bottle
is a matter of seconds. This avoids a loss of pressure and
Second alcoholic fermentation - Once the blend is reduces the risk of oxidation.
made up, a small proportion of liqueur de tirage is added. Liqueurd'expedition is a mixture of wine and sugar.
This is a mixture of wine, sugar, yeast, yeast nutrients and The amount of sugar used will determine the final level
a clarifying agent. The bottle is closed with a crown cap of sweetness in the wine and is often known as the
that includes a plastic cup insert. The bottles are then dosage. It is used to balance the acidity and it helps with
stacked horizontally in the producer's cellars at a cool, flavour development. There are some wines that are
constant temperature . A slow fermentation takes place. made without the addition of sugar at this stage. These
The alcohol is raised by around 1.2-1.3% abv and the wines are typically labelled Brut nature or Zero dosage
CO2 generated by the yeast dissolves into the wine depending on the producer and wine region (for
creating the sparkle. This creates pressure in the bottle additional terms see Styles of Sparkling Wine on page
equivalent to five to six atmospheres. 177). A small proportion of wine will still be added to
top up the sparkling wine to the right level in the bottle.
Yeast autolysis - Once this second alcoholic The characteristics of the wine within the liqueur
fermentation is complete the yeast die and form a d'expedition are very important. For example, the wine
sediment of lees in the bottle. Over a period of months may be young and fresh, toasty from maturation in oak,
these dead yeast cells start to break down releasing or display dried fruit flavours from years in bottle . In
chemical compounds into the wine, a process known effect this is a second blending operation used to create
as yeast autolysis. These compounds contribute to the the house style.
flavour of the wine, typically giving bread, biscuit and The vast majority of sparkling wines (made by any
toasty notes. Autolysis usually lasts for between four and method) are sealed with a cork. In its original shape, a
five years, but has been known to continue as long as sparkling wine cork is a cylinder with an area on its round
ten years. Wines that spend longer on their lees normally face about three times that of the opening of the bottle.
develop a more pronounced yeast character. Once The familiar mushroom shape comes about after corking.
autolysis is complete, keeping the lees in contact with In order to maintain a perfect seal the cork has to be
the wine can maintain the wine's freshness for years. compressed considerably before it can be inserted into
SPARKLING WINE PRODUCTION 175
RIDDLING
1.Riddling
byhand.Itcantakeupto
eightweeksto movethebottlefrom
a horizontal
to a vertical
position.
The
A-frameholding thebottlesiscalled
apupltre.
usinggyropalettes.
2. Riddling Riddling
canbecompleted
ina matterof days.
3. BottlesofCava
afterriddling.
Theyeast
sedimentisclearly
visible.
the neck of the bottle. Even with this degree of disgorgement dates on their labels to provide greater
compression, a wire cage is added for complete security . clarity for everyone.
Bottle ageing - Once it has been corked the wine may Transfer Method
then be aged for a further few months to allow the The transfer method is an adaptation of the traditional
liqueurd'expeditionto integrate with the wine . Most method that avoids the costly and complex process of
sparkling wines are considered to be ready to drink riddling and disgorgement. The processes used in the
when released; however, some premium wines can transfer method are the same as those used in the
benefit from further ageing . traditional method up to the point of riddling but at
Knowing the precise age of a sparkling wine can be this stage the entire contents of the bottles are simply
problematic for retailers and consumers. This is because disgorged into a sealed tank under pressure. The wine
most sparkling wines are not vintage-dated and it is in the tank is filtered to remove the yeast lees, liqueur
nearly always impossible to know whether the wine d'expeditionis added and the wine is then rebottled into
inside the bottle is youthful and fresh or more mature. a fresh bottle. This can give good quality sparkling wines
A number of producers have now decided to include at a cheaper price than the traditional method, and with
176 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
MAKING
SPARKLING
WINE
process
input/output
pressthegrapes
andclarify
thejuice
basewine
blending
liqueur
detirage
partial
second
fermentation second
fermentation fermentation
inbottle intanks
storewineon
!
thelees
injectC0
2
riddle transferwine
intotanks
disgorge liqueur
d'expedition
liqueur
t d'expedition
Traditional Transfer
method Tankmethod Carbonated
method sparkling
wine sparkling
wine
sparkling
wine sparkling
wine
SPARKLING WINE PRODUCTION 177
large batches it is an easy way to ensure consistent Italy. It produces sweet fruity sparkling wines, but is
quality and style. somewhat unusual in that there is only one alcoholic
It is often possible to tell whether a wine has been fermentation involved .
made using the traditional or transfer method by looking The juice is chilled and stored until needed. When it is
at the labels. Transfer method wines will often state required, the ju ice is warmed and the fermentation takes
'bottle -fermented ' whereas the prestige that is associated place in pressurised tanks. Initially the CO2 is allowed to
with the traditional method means that many winemakers escape. Part way through fermentation the tank is
using this technique will print the term 'traditional sealed so that CO2 is retained. The ferment continues
method' or methode traditionnelleon their labels. until the alcohol has reached approximately 7% abv and
the pressure five to six atmospheres. The fermentation is
Tank Method stopped early by chilling the wine, which is then filtered
Whereas both the traditional method and the transfer under pressure to remove the yeast. The wine is bottled
method can produce wines that have flavours of bread for immediate sale.
and toast, the tank method allows the production of
sparkling wine that retains the flavours of the base wine. Carbonation
This method is ideal for making sparkling wines out of In this method CO2 is injected into a still wine, which is
grape varieties with strong flavours such as Muscat and then bottled under pressure. It is useful for producing
Riesling, as well as for making fruity styles of sparkling fruity sparkling wines that retain the flavours of the base
wines such as Prosecco. It is cheaper, faster and less wine. For this reason it is often used to make sparkling
labour intensive than bottle-fermenting and therefore is wines from grapes with strong varietal flavours , for
a popular method for the production of sparkling wines. example Sauvignon Blanc. It is the cheapest of all the
It has often been considered as an inferior method to the methods .
traditional method but with high-quality grapes and
care during production, high-quality sparkling wines STYLESOF SPARKLINGWINE
can be made in this way. Sparkling wines are made in a range of sweetness levels.
The first fermentation takes place in temperature Those made within the EU or made for sale within the EU
controlled stainless steel tanks to retain the pure fruit and must use certain labelling terms to denote the level of
floral flavours of the grapes. The resulting base wines do sweetness, as shown in the table below. It is important to
not usually undergo MLF or oak ageing. Yeast, sugar, yeast note that there is a range of sweetness levels allowed for
nutrients and clarifying agents are added to the wine and each description. Some producers will use the lower end
second fermentation takes place in a sealed tank able to of the range and some the higher end. This contributes
withstand the pressure as the CO2 dissolves in the w ine. to different producers' house styles.
The wine is filtered to remove the yeast lees before it is Many of these sweetness labelling terms are widely
bottled under pressure. The majority of tank method copied around the globe but only need to comply with
wines show no notes of yeast autolysis because they do these regulations if the wine is being sold in the EU.
not spend extended time on the lees. Autolytic character The following terms are used to describe styles of
can be created by using paddles to stir up the lees during sparkling wines:
second fermentation . However, most winemakers using
the tank method will want to retain primary fruit flavours. Non-vintage - This is not a labelling term, but it is used
to describe wines made from grapes harvested in more
AstiMethod than one vintage. These wines tend to represent the
This method is principally used for the production of standard offering from the producer and display the
sweet sparkling wines in the Asti region of Piemonte, house style.
EU LABELLINGTERMSFORSWEETNESSIN SPARKLINGWINES
Labelling
Term Level
ofResidual
Sugar
BrutNature/Bruto
Natural/Naturherb/Zero
Dosage 0-3 g/L*
ExtraBrut/Extra
Bruto/Extra
Herb 0-6g/L
Brut/Bruto/Herb 0-12g/L
Extra-Sec/Extra-Dry/Extra
Trocken 12-17g/L
Sec/Secco/Seco/Dry/Trocken 17-32g/L
Demi-Sec/Semi-Seco/Medium
Dry/Abboccato/Halbtrocken 32-50g/L
Doux/Dulce/Sweet/Mild 50+g/L
* Dosage
cannot
beadded;
anyslightresidual
sugarpresent
remains
naturally
afterfermentation.
Note:Fortheexamination
students
onlyneedtoknow
thetermsBrutNature,
BrutandDemi
-Sec,alongwiththeircorresponding
sweetness
levels
.
178 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
Vintage - In Champagne, this term means that the wine Blanc de Blancs - A white sparkling wine made only
must come from a single year. However, some appellations from white grape varieties.
in other regions may allow a small percentage of grapes
from other years to be included in the blend. In regions Blanc de Noirs - A white sparkling wine made only from
that experience considerable vintage variation, such as black grape varieties.
Champagne, vintage wines will only be made in the very
best years, and thus command a price premium. In other Prestige Cuvee - This is also not a labelling term but
regions, vintage wines may be made more frequently, generally describes the best wine(s) in a producer's
and may not be held in quite the same esteem. range. Although small in number, these wines are an
important part of the sparkling wine market. This is
Rose - Rose sparkling wines can either be made by particularly true of Champagne, where reputations
blending red and white base wines or by a short have been built based on an association with luxury as
maceration. Colour can also be adjusted with the liqueur well as celebration.
d'expedition. There are some sparkling wine appellations
that only permit their rose wines to be made by
maceration.
SPARKLING WINES OF THE WORLD 179
Sparkling
WinesoftheWorldC~ampagne remains th~ m~st prestigiou_ssparkling
wine and consequently 1twill be treated m the
greatest detail here. Such is its reputation that most premium sparkling wines are not only made in the
42
same way but also using the same grape varieties. Nevertheless, it is important to remember that
Champagne is not to everyone's taste and less acidic and sweeter sparkling wines are hugely popular.
CHAMPAGNE
There is only one appellation in the Champagne region:
Champagne AC. Certain villages within the region have
a cru status; 44 are rated premier cru and 17 grand cru,
but these are not separate appellations. Unlike in 49' 00' N
Thevineyards
ofChampagne
inautumn.
ambitious targets to reduce their use of man-made The weather in Champagne can vary significantly
fertilisers and pesticides. from year to year and therefore blending is incredibly
important. Wines may be fermented in small parcels to
Grape Varieties allow a greater number of blending options. Large
The three main grape varieties used in the making of Champagne producers will use dozens of wines in their
Champagne are Chardonnay, Pinot Nair and Meunier. blends to achieve their house style year on year.
Chardonnay is most widely planted in the Cote des Blancs The length of time that the wine is aged, including
and Cote de Sezanne. It gives much lighter-bodied wines its time on lees, is dependent on the style of wine being
than in Burgundy and has high acidity with a floral and made. Non-vintage wines must be aged for a minimum
citrus fruit character. Pinot Nair dominates in Montagne of 15 months, including at least 12 months on the lees.
de Reims and Cote des Bar.This variety produces wines Vintage wines must be matured for a minimum of 36
of greater body and provides the structural backbone to months (there is no extra requirement for lees ageing).
most blends. It can also give blends a red fruit character. In practice, however, the winemakers frequently mature
Meunier predominates in the Vallee de la Marne because their wines for considerably longer.
it buds late, protecting it from the spring frosts that occur Champagne comes in a range of quality levels and
more frequently in this area. It gives fruity flavours to a styles, but the wines all have high acidity and some
blend, and is especially important for wines that are autolytic flavours. Non-vintage wines are generally
made to be enjoyed while young. lighter in body, with more fresh fruit flavours than
vintage wines. The finest examples display some
Winemaking complexity from the use of reserve wines . Vintage
Champagne is made using the traditional method. wines are made in the best years.They are often more
Grapes must be hand-picked to allow selection in the concentrated than non-vintage wines, and display more
vineyard and retain whole, healthy bunches. The toasty and biscuity notes from longer lees ageing. Rose
pressing process is also highly controlled. The first liquid Champagne can be made in both non-vintage and
to come off the press is called the cuvee,which contains vintage styles. The best wines delicately balance aromas
the purest juice, and the remainder is called the taille. from autolysis with subtle fruity red berry notes. Blanc de
The best Champagnes will be made solely from the Blancs wines are typically light - to medium-bodied with
cuvee. citrus primary fruit, whereas Blanc de Noirs styles tend to
Primary fermentation can be carried out in stainless be fuller in body and have more red fruit flavours.
steel vats, oak barrels or a mixture of the two; MLF can Many Champagne houses now make a PrestigeCuvee
be encouraged or prevented and the base wines aged that represents the finest wine in their range. They are
briefly in oak or stored in inert vessels only. This all often, but not always, vintage wines and are made from
depends on house style. the best parcels of grapes. Many of these wines can be
SPARKLING WINES OF THE WORLD 181
Thehillylandscape
of
Conegliano-Valdobbiadene
DOCG
is heavilyplanted
with
Gieragrapesforthe
production
of Prosecco.
closed and austere in their youth and therefore can as much of a bready, biscuity character as Chardonnay
repay several years cellaring before drinking. They or Pinot Noir, and the autolytic character, when present,
command premium prices. tends to be more smoky and toasty. Sparkling Saumur
Champagne is made in a range of sweetness levels, and Vouvray are both made using the traditional
but Brut is by far the most popular style. A trend has method and must spend a minimum of nine months
been the rise of Brutnaturewines, but they still represent on the lees.
a very small proportion of the market .
CAVA
CREMANT Cava is an unusual DO as it covers a number of different,
The term cremant applies to a number of French non -contiguous, geographic areas across Spain.
sparkling wine ACs, of which the most important are However, the vast majority of Cava comes from the
Cremant d'Alsace, Cremant de Bourgogne and Cremant Catalan vineyards centred on the town of Sant Sadurnf
de Loire. The wines are made by the traditional method d'Anoia. Other notable areas where there are vineyards
and must spend a minimum of nine months on the lees. permitted to make Cava include Navarra, Rioja and
Generally speaking, each of these wines will be made Valencia. The wines are made by the traditional method
from the grapes used for making the still white wines of and must spend at least nine months on the lees.
the region, although aromatic grape varieties such as Traditional grape varieties include Macabeo (Viura),
Muscat and Gewurztraminer are not permitted for Xarel-lo and Parellada for the white wines and Garnacha
cremant wines in Alsace, while Chardonnay is allowed. and Monastrell for the roses. Most Cava is dry with
medium acidity and some character from yeast autolysis,
SAUMURAND VOUVRAY although these flavours can differ in nature from the
After Champagne, the Loire Valley is the next biggest bread and toast character found in Champagne.
centre of sparkling wine production in France. There are Chardonnay and Pinot Noir were more recently added
two other major appellations for sparkling wine as well to the permitted grape varieties of the appellation and
as Cremant de Loire. Sparkling Saumur can be made many producers have found that these varieties can
from a range of local varieties as well as Chardonnay add an extra level of both fruit and acidity to the wines.
which, with Chenin Blanc and Cabernet Franc, is an The use of these two varieties has caused controversy in
important ingredient in the best wines. Sparkling red the region as some producers believe it detracts from
wines are also made, using Cabernet Franc. Sparkling Cava's point of difference.
Vouvray is made in greater volume than still Vouvray, Most Cava is non-vintage and is ready to drink on
and the vast majority is made solely from Chenin Blanc. release from the winery. The wines are generally lower
Chen in Blanc has a naturally high acidity that is well in acidity than most Champagne, giving them an
suited to sparkling wine production. It does not take on approachable, easy-drinking style, which is extremely
182 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Tasmania's
coolclimate
provides
perfectconditions
forgrowing
grapesfor
sparkling
wines.
SPARKLING WINES OF THE WORLD 183
by carbonation or tank method, and better examples throughout the Western Cape and the best wines are made
are produced by transfer or the traditional method. using Chardonnay and Pinot Nair. Site selection is very
Generally the wines are full-bodied, with red berry fruit, important in South Africa's warm climate and the best sites
smooth tannins and some residual sugar. are found on hillside slopes with a south-eastern aspect,
or near the coast. Many premium producers belong to the
NEWZEALAND Cap Classique Producers Association, which recommends
New Zealand has an established reputation for high - that its members age their wines on lees for a minimum of
quality traditional method sparkling wines made from 12 months. It is not necessary to be a member of the
the classic Champagne grape varieties . Its relatively association to use the term Cap Classique,and producers
southerly position in the Southern Hemisphere and outside of this association only need age their wines for
maritime climate with cool sea breezes means that it nine months to call their wines Cap Classique.
can ripen Chardonnay and Pinot Noir slowly enough to There is also a large domestic market for sparkling
produce elegant sparkling wines. A range of styles is off-dry to sweet carbonated sparkling wines.
made including non-vintage, vintage, rose, Blanc de
Blancs and Blanc de Noirs. USA
Grapes for sparkling wine production are grown in California is responsible for the vast majority of
all the wine regions, with the exception of Auckland; sparkling wine production in the USA. The best wines
however, Marlborough produces the highest volumes. come from cooler locations, such as LosCarnerosAVA
The warmer regions in North Island produce a richer and Anderson Valley AVA.Premium wines are made
style compared with the wines from the South Island using the traditional method, generally using Pinot Noir
and producers often take advantage of this fact making and Chardonnay. These wines typically spend extended
cross regional blends. ageing on the lees (five years is not uncommon). Many
Sparkling Sauvignon Blanc is also produced, usually of the best wines display concentrated complex flavours
by carbonation or the tank method to retain the intense balanced by high acidity.
aromas and flavours of this grape variety. Large volumes of inexpensive wines are made by the
tank method or carbonation. These wines are typically
SOUTHAFRICA fruity and often medium-sweet to sweet in style. They
In South Africa, wines made by the traditional method are are made from a range of grape varieties, grown in
labelled Methode Cap Classique.Fruit is sourced from warmer, high-yielding regions such as Central Valley.
184 UNDERSTANDING
WINES: EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
SherryProbably more than any other wine, Sherry is a wine style that is defined by the processes
43 used during maturation. None of the key techniques, the so/era system, biological ageing
or oxidative ageing, are unique to this region, but it is in Jerez that they are exploited to their fullest
extent.
The vineyard area surrounds the southern Spanish town during the autumn and winter, rectangular pits are dug
of Jerez de la Frontera that gives the region its name. between the rows of vines to trap the water and reduce
Jerez is the centre of the Sherry industry and the wines run-off. This is done once the harvest has finished and
must be matured either within the city limits or in one of the soil is smoothed out again in the spring. Moisture
the two smaller seaside towns of Sanlucar de Barrameda retention is further enhanced during the summer when
and El Puerto de Santa Marfa. the albariza soil forms a hard crust that limits
evaporation from the soil.
IN THE VINEYARD
Climate and Soils Grape Varieties
Jerez has a hot, sunny Mediterranean climate although There are three grape varieties permitted in Jerez:
the vineyards that are nearer the coast are on average a
little cooler and benefit more from the prevailing cool Palomino - This grape accounts for the vast majority
humid westerly wind known as the poniente.On of the plantings in Jerez. It produces wines that are
occasions the temperature can be sent soaring by the hot naturally low in acid and lack obvious varietal aromas.
and drying Jevante,which blows from the east. This extra This makes it ideal for Sherry production where the
heat can seriously stress the vines and damage grapes. styles of wine are largely determined by either biological
Being a coastal region the annual rainfall is high or oxidative maturation.
compared with many other Spanish regions, but rainfall
in the growing season is limited and it is the albariza soil Pedro Ximenez (PX) - In common with Palomino, PX
in the region that ensures the vine can cope. has little varietal flavour. Its thin skin makes it ideally
Albariza has a very high chalk content. It provides suited to being sun dried and consequently it is used in
good drainage but vitally its depth and excellent water the production of sweet Sherries.There is very little
holding capacity mean that it can store enough water to planted in Jerez. Most of the grapes that are used come
sustain the vines during the hot dry summers. In order from the neighbouring region of Montilla-Moriles where
to maximise the amount of water retained by the soil it grows more successfully. It is an unusual feature of the
Thedistinctive
whitecolour
ofthechalky soilis
albariza
clearto seeinthisvineyard.
SHERRY 185
regulations that these grapes can be used in the Wines for oxidative ageing - These wines are fortified
production of Sherry. to 17% abv; at this strength the flor dies. The period of
sobretabla is not as critical for the quality of these wines
Muscat of Alexandria - Only very small amounts of this because there is no need to wait and see if f/or flavours
are grown and, like PX, it is used to make sweet wines. develop.
DIAGRAMMATIC
REPRESENTATIONOF THESOLERA SYSTEM
so/erasystems will have more than two criaderas.
Note: this is not to scale and most
•
theSolera
Stage1 - Emptying andCriadera
Sabretabla
Tankforblending
2ndcriadera winetakenfromthe
2ndcriadera
Tankforblending
1stcriadera winetakenfromthe
1stcriadera
Tankforblending
wine
Solera
takenfromtheso/era
Stage2 - RefillingtheSolera
andCriadera
Thewinethat isusedto refilleachleveltakesonthe characteristics
ofthe olderwineit isaddedto. usedto refill
Sobretabla
the2ndcriadera
Blendedwinefromthe
2ndcriadera 2ndcriaderausedto refill
the1stcriadera
Blendedwinefromthe
1stcriadera 1stcriadera
usedto refill
theso/era
Winetakenfromthe
Solera forfinalblending
so/era
andbottling
SHERRY 187
younger average age called the first criadera.There are The f/or is also constantly consuming alcohol and other
three steps involved in this replenishment. An equal nutrients and therefore regular additions of new wine
volume of wine is taken from each butt in the first is needed to keep the f/or supplied with these nutrients.
criadera. All of the wine taken from the first criadera is In order to maintain a ready flow of nutrients between
then mixed together. Finally this blended wine is used the criaderas,wine is drawn off the so/eraat frequent and
to top up each butt in the so/era. regular periods throughout the year. This also best serves
The first criadera is then replenished in exactly the the style of wine produced. Biologically aged Sherries,
same way with wine from the second criadera and so such as Finos,quickly lose their freshness and ideally
on, so that each criadera is being replenished in turn need to be consumed as soon as possible after bottling.
with younger wine. Although it is possible to keep the flor culture alive
The criadera containing the youngest wine is usually indefinitely, wine taken from these so/erasystems rarely
replenished with sobretabla wine . has an average age greater than three to four years. As
the average age of the wine increases the overall level of
The number of criaderascan vary from as few as three to nutrients in the oldest criadera and so/eradrops and by
as many as 14. the time the average age reaches seven years the levels
As a result of the systematic blending that happens are sufficiently low that the f/or can start to fail and
every time wine is moved between the levels of the oxidative characteristics develop.
system, it is only possible to talk about the average age
of wines that are taken out for bottling or blending. Oxidative Ageing
Although the so/era system is complex, the main O/oroso,PX and some Muscat Sherries are aged
advantage it offers is that wine taken out of it for oxidatively, without the presence off/or . Amontillado is
bottling or blending is the same every time. It is a feature aged oxidatively after a period of biological ageing. The
of the system that the wine introduced into a new level impact of oxygen on these wines is greatly enhanced
takes on the characteristics of the older wine it has been by the air present in the part-filled butts. In these so/era
blended with. However, this consistency cannot be systems the introduction of young wine helps to
maintained if wine of poor quality is fed into the system preserve the base character of the Sherry, which would
in the first place or too much wine is taken out each year. otherwise become overly oxidised.
Each criadera and so/era is fixed to one so/erasystem. It Sherries can be matured oxidatively for upwards of
is convenient to represent a so/era system 30 years although very few wines make it to this age.
diagrammatically as levels of butts one on top of the With age, the alcohol level of these wines rises to
other although this is not necessarily how they are 22% abv as the water content evaporates .
stacked in a bodega (warehouse). In order to reduce the
risk of losing an entire so/erasystem in one catastrophic BLENDING AND FINISHING
event, criaderasfrom the same so/erasystem are often The advantage of the so/era system is that it produces a
kept in different buildings. wine of consistent style and quality. Some Sherries are AbuttcontainingF/no.ltis
the product of only one so/erasystem but this is possibletoseetheflor
Flor and Biological Ageing relatively rare. Most Sherries, including many of the very coveringthesurfaceofthe
Biological ageing requires the presence of flor, which is best, are blends of wines from several so/erasystems. wine.
made up of a number of yeast strains. Together these
yeast form a thick layer on the surface of the wine. They
feed off the alcohol (and other nutrients) in the wine and
oxygen in the atmosphere to produce carbon dioxide
and acetaldehyde. It is acetaldehyde that gives
biologically aged Sherries their unique flavour.
In order to thrive, f/or needs precise levels of alcohol,
temperature and humidity. Its sensitivity to the ambient
conditions is such that the temperature and humidity of
an individual bodega and even a butt's position within it
can influence the style of the maturing Sherry. Flor
cannot thrive in a wine with an abv above 15.5%, and it
favours cool to moderate temperatures and high levels
of humidity. Consequently, f/or grows more vigorously in
the spring and autumn and dies back in winter and
summer.
The so/erasystem is able to sustain a permanent
culture of florin every butt. The butts are only part filled
so that the f/or has easy access to oxygen. Importantly,
this layer of flor also protects the wine from oxidation.
188 UNDERSTANDING WINES : EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
MAKING
SHERRY
Palomino
grapes
sun-dried
PXgrapes
process
input/output
alcoholic
fermentation
partial drywhitewine
fermentation
fortification
to first fortification
to
17%abv classification 15%abv
oxidative
ageing oxidative
ageing refortification
to
inso/era
system addPX inso/era
system 17%abv
Fino/
Cream PaleCream
Manzanilla
Oxidatively
agedwines Wines
agedbiologically
andoxidatively Biologically
agedwines
For example, in the case of very old O/oroso this blending Wines that are matured in the coastal town of Sanlucar
can bring together the intense flavours of very old wines, de Barrameda qualify as Manzanilla de Sanlucar de
which would be unbalanced on their own, with the Barrameda, which is a separate DO to that of Jerez. The
freshness of younger wines. The large producers own wines are made in exactly the same way as Finos from
many different so/era systems, giving them wines of Jerez but the cooler more humid conditions on the coast
different ages and styles that they can use to make up guarantee a thick layer of f/orthroughout the year. This
their various blends. results in wines that have a more intensely tangy aroma.
Most Sherry will undergo fining and filtration prior Manzanilla is most famous for the Fino style wine that is
to bottling. However, in recent years, there has been a called Manzanilla fina .
growing trend towards keeping these interventions to a Wines that have undergone minimal fining and
minimum. This is particularly true of biologically aged filtering are commonly labelled en rama.
wines because the vibrancy of their flavours can be
dulled by high levels of intervention . Oloroso - These wines have only undergone oxidative
ageing. They are brown in colour, full-bodied and
STYLESOF SHERRY dominated by oxidative aromas such as toffee, leather,
Dry Styles spice and walnut. Very old O/orosos can become very
Fino and Manzanilla - These wines have only concentrated, and develop an astringency that is
undergone biological ageing. They are pale lemon in balanced when blended with younger wines in the
colour and usually have aromas of citrus fruit, almonds so/era system.
and herbs, together with bready notes derived from the
action off/or . The flavours are sometimes referred to as Amontillado - These are wines that have undergone
tangy or salty. They do not improve in bottle and should a period of biological ageing followed by a period of
be consumed as fresh as possible. oxidative ageing. Once their biological ageing is
SHERRY 189
complete they are refortified to 17% abv, to kill the flor, Sweetened Styles
and fed into an Amontillado so/era system. These wines Pale Cream - These wines must have undergone a short
are amber or brown in colour, less full -bodied than period of biological ageing prior to sweetening, typically
0/orosos and combine yeast derived aromas with with RCGM.They are similar in appearance to Fino but
oxidative aromas; although the yeast aromas slowly rarely have a pronounced flor character.
fade as the wine ages, they remain recognisable.
Amontillados can be matured for as long as 0/oroso. Medium and Cream - This is a very diverse category
that includes both inexpensive and super premium
Palo Cortado - This is a rare style of Sherry. It is defined wines. A Medium Sherry must show characteristics from
as one that has the aroma character of an Amontillado but both biological and oxidative ageing whereas a Cream
the body and richness of an 0/oroso. Some producers Sherry only has oxidative characteristics. These wines,
identify Palo Cortado at the second classification although in particular the premium wines, will be sweetened
this is not universally the case. Producers use a variety of with PX wine . The best wines seamlessly balance the
different methods to make Palo Cortado . Palo Cortado toffee, leather and walnut flavours of the dry wine with
Sherries can be very difficult to tell apart from both the dried fruit notes of the sweet wine. Inexpensive
Amontillado and 0/oroso Sherries with which they share versions can taste cloying and lack complexity.
similar characteristics . Nevertheless they are nearly
always wines of very high quality. As a result of recent changes to the law the terms
Amontillado, 0/oroso and Palo Cortado can only be used
Naturally Sweet Styles for dry styles of wines. Historically, a sweet O/oroso/PX
These wines have all undergone oxidative ageing. They blend could be labelled as 0/oroso du/ce but this is no
are rare and are more regularly used as a component in longer the case.
sweetened Sherries.
Sherries with an Indication of Age
Pedro Ximenez (PX) - These wines are deep brown and There are four categories of age-indicated Sherries. The
lusciously sweet, often reaching SOOg/L residual sugar. top categories are VORS(Vinum Optimum Rare Signatum/
They have pronounced aromas of dried fruit, coffee and Very Old Rare Sherry) and VOS (Vinum Optimum Signatum/
liquorice. Very Old Sherry). These indicate that the average age of
the blend is at least 30 years old and 20 years old
Muscat- These wines take on similar characteristics to PX respectively, and each batch must be tested to see
although they retain a varietal dried citrus peel character . whether it complies . The lesser categories, 12 years old
and 15 years old, apply to a whole so/era system, so can
be used more flexibly. Only Amontillado, Palo Cortado,
0/oroso and PX can qualify for age indicated status.
190 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
PortPorts are made by adding grape spirit to a fermenting juice to create an alcoholic sweet wine.
44 This is a technique that has been used in this region since the eighteenth century and it is now
used to make wines of a similar style throughout the world. Port is made in red, white and rose styles but
in this chapter we will focus on red Port.
VINEYARD
DESIGN
INTHE
DOURO
1.Socalcos.
Theretaining
wallsandthelackofeasyaccessaredeartosee.
2. Patamares.
Therearenoretaining
wallsandeachindividual
terracecanbe
accessed
byroad.
3. Vlnhaaoalto.Thevinesareplantedinlinewiththe slope.Thiscannotbe
usedonthesteepestslopes.Onlythevineyards
atthebottomofthisphoto
areplantedinthisway.
II
PORT 191
IN THE WINERY
Fermentation 41 OO'N
Port fermentation is stopped by fortification once the
alcohol level reaches 5-9% abv, to create a sweet wine. PORTVINEYARD
This means the fermentation typically only lasts for AREAS
around 24 to 36 hours. Given the time restraints, the 20 30km
shallow granite troughs, or Jagares.Once fermentation wine and the skins is much higher because, when the 0- l00m
is underway, foot treading stops and the cap is then fermentation is very active, a cycle will complete every
regularly punched down to extract more colour and 15 to 20 minutes. In this system pre-fermentation
tannin. This method is not widely used now because it is extraction is limited and many newer autovinifiers now
so labour intensive but it is still used for some premium include mechanical paddles to help with this.
wines.
Piston plungers and robotic lagares - These systems
Autovinifiers - This was one of the earliest methods are designed to imitate foot treading as closely as
used to automate extraction and autovinifers are still possible. Piston-plungers are round shallow open
widely used. Crushed grapes are put into sealed vats topped, stainless steel vats where the cap is pressed
and the rising pressure of the (0 2 given off by the down with robotic pistons. The robotic /agarinvolves the
fermentation pushes the juice up through pipes into a use of a shallow and rectangular stainless steel tank of
192 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
EXTRACTING
COLOUR
ANDTANNIN
INPORT
PRODUCTION
1.Arobotic/agar.
2. Pistonplungers.
3. Ateamofworkers
foottreading
grapesina traditional
/agar.
the approximate size of the traditional /agar, which is well suited to the slow maturation of Port wines. Some
adapted to carry a self-propelled gantry with robotic wines, notably wines destined for Tawny Port, have
'feet'. The gantry moves up and down the /agar with the always been stored up the Douro, where the higher
feet copying the action of foot treading by actually temperatures result in faster ageing and a loss in colour.
squashing the grapes against the floor of the tank. Once The advent of fully air-conditioned warehouses has
the 'foot treading' phase is over, these machines carry resulted in more wine being aged in the vineyard area.
out regular punch downs. Many consider these systems Port maturation has traditionally always taken place in
as good as foot treading and they are widely employed old oak vessels, both small and very large (stainless steel
in the production of premium wines. is now used too). New oak flavours are not a characteristic
that is desired in any Port. There are two broad styles
Fortification among red Ports that are a direct consequence of the
Fortification kills the yeast to create a stable sweet wine type of vessel used: ruby styles and tawny styles.
with between 19% and 22% abv. However, although all When bottled, ruby styles of Port have a predominant
Port is sweet, some are sweeter than others. Each primary fruit character. Producers look to minimise the
producer has a particular style and the timing of the effect of oxygen on the flavour of these wines and
fortification will depend on the initial must weight and therefore they will only age these wines for a relatively
the required level of sweetness. short period of time in very large oak vessels or stainless
The spirit, or aguardente, that is used can be no steel tanks. This is how Ruby, Reserve Ruby, Late Bottled
stronger than 77% abv. This, combined with the fact Vintage (LBV) and Vintage Ports are aged.
that alcohol levels are low prior to fortification, means Although quality and concentration will vary, these
that significant volumes of spirit have to be used. As an wines will all be deeply coloured and have intense
average 20 per cent of the total volume of a bottle of primary fruit flavours when bottled. Ruby, Reserve Ruby
Port is spirit. By way of comparison, the amount of spirit and some styles of LBV will be fined and filtered before
in a bottle of Fino Sherry is approximately 3.5 per cent bottling and typically do not benefit from bottle ageing.
of the tota I volume. Some LBVsand all Vintage Ports are not filtered and can
benefit from long bottle ageing. After this extra period of
Maturation bottle maturation the wines have a garnet colour and
Ports are generally transported downstream to Vila Nova tertiary cooked fruit and vegetal (prune, leather, wet
de Gaia for maturation. The cooler coastal climate here is leaves) flavours.
PORT 193
True Tawny Ports, on the other hand, undergo long Ruby Ports and have not undergone a long period of
oxidative maturation in barrels called pipes. The wines oxidative ageing. Producers have a number of different
are made in exactly the same way as the ruby styles and options to achieve this colour, including use of less
the differences in colour and flavour are entirely down to heavily extracted or lighter wines from the Baixo Cargo,
the difference in maturation. The wines turn garnet and blending in White Port, a period of hot maturation in the
finally tawny, although only the very oldest become Douro and/or heavy fining to remove colour.
fully brown. With age the primary fruit fades, becoming
raisiny and is accompanied by flavours of walnuts, coffee, Special Categories of Port
chocolate and caramel. These wines throw their deposit Reserve/Reserva - This is a labelling term that can be
during wood ageing and require little extra treatment in applied to both Ruby and Tawny Ports that are of higher
preparation for bottling. These are fully developed on quality than the most basic expressions. A wine's
release and do not benefit from any extra bottle ageing. suitability for this category is determined by an official
The vast majority of Ports, even vintage styles, are tasting panel. Importantly, a ReserveTawny must be
complex blends of different varieties grown in different wood aged for a minimum of six years.
sites and typically blending is an ongoing process that
happens throughout the period of pre-bottle maturation. Late Bottled Vintage (LBV) - These are vintage wines
that have been aged for between four and six years
TYPES OF PORT before they are bottled. This extra ageing, which
The vast majority of Port is red. Small amounts of white typically takes place in large oak vessels, helps to make
and rose Ports are also made but these are not discussed these wines more approachable on release, compared
here. All of the wines below are non-vintage with the with Vintage Ports. The vast majority of LBVsare fined
obvious exception of LBV and Vintage Ports which must and filtered. These wines, which are similar in style to a
be made from a single vintage. high-quality Reserve Ruby Port, are ready to drink on
release and rarely benefit from extra bottle ageing. A
Inexpensive Ports relatively small number of LBVsare unfiltered. These
Ruby - These are blends of wines that are typically wines are more similar in style to Vintage Port and they
between one and three years old. They lack the can often benefit from bottle ageing. Similar to Vintage
concentration, complexity or tannins of more premium Port, unfiltered LBVsform a sediment in the bottle and
ruby styles. often need decanting before serving.
Tawny- Although these wines show a browning in Tawny with an Indication of Age - These wines
common with otherTawnies they are no older than undergo a long period of oxidative maturation in pipes.
AviewofthePortshippers'
warehouses
inVilaNovade
Gaia.Themilderdamper
climatehereis idealforthe
maturation
of Port.
194 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
They can be labelled 10, 20, 30 or 40 years old. To qualify, a decade. They are typically a blend of the finest wines
the wine must be consistent with the characteristics from a producer's best vineyards. It is up to an individual
typical of a wine of that age. The age stated on the label producer whether or not they'declare' a particular
is therefore an average age, rather than the age of the vintage; there is not always a consensus. For example,
youngest component of the blend. The label must state some houses declared 1991 as a vintage year, others
the year of bottling, which is important as these wines declared 1992 and some declared both. However, there
lose their freshness after bottling. They are the finest of was general agreement that 2000, 2003, 2007 and 2011
all Tawny Ports and the best are exceptionally complex should be declared.
and concentrated. Some producers specialise in Tawny Single Quinta Vintage Ports are the product of a single
Port and for them these are their flagship wines. estate, or quinta. The name of the quinta appears on the
label. Some small producers who only own one quinta
Vintage - Producers must register their intention to will only declare a vintage in the great years. The large
release a Vintage Port in the second year after the producers who own several quintas have a different
harvest and the wine must be bottled no later than the approach. In the best years they will use the pick of all
third year. All ageing prior to bottling will take place of their quintas' wines to make a Vintage Port. In years
in either large oak vessels or stainless steel tanks and that are not considered good enough for a vintage to
the wines are unfined and unfiltered. On release these be declared they will release their best wines as Single
are the most concentrated and tannic Ports. Some Quinta Vintage Ports. These are considered to be less
consumers choose to enjoy them young but these prestigious than their Vintage Port, but they are still
wines are capable of ageing in bottle for decades and high-quality wines. It is quite common for these
as they age they will throw a heavy sediment. producers to age their single quinta wines once they
For most producers, a Vintage Port is their flagship have been bottled and release them when they are
wine. They are only produced on average three times ready to drink.
FORTIFIEDMUSCATS 195
Fortified
Muscats
45
Fortified wines are made throughout the w~rld_-Classic sty~essue~ as
Port and Sherry have been successfully copied m many regions. It 1snot
possible to cover all of these and in this chapter we will only focus on fortified Muscats, which are
produced in many of the major wine-producing countries.
Muscat is widely used to make fort ified wine throughout in inert vessels prior to bottling and protected from any
the world. There are a number of different grape varieties contact with oxygen.
that are called Muscat but they all have low to medium
acidity and display perfumed aromas of orange blossom, Fully Developed, Aged Muscats
rose and grape. These varieties can thrive in warm and These w ines range in colour from amber to brown,
hot climates but the best vineyards typically benefit from and can be sweet or luscious. Aged Muscats are also
some cooling influences, which help to preserve the made in many countries. Some of the most celebrated
grapes' acidity levels and aromas. examples made in the luscious style come from
Muscats are made in two broad styles: youthful and Rutherglen in Australia . The style of these wines will
unaged or fully developed after an extended period of be determined by the timing of the harvest , when the
ageing. wines are fortified and the length and type of ageing
that they undergo.
Youthful, Unaged Muscats In order to make a sweet aged wine the grapes will be
These wines are medium gold in colour, floral and picked when they are ripe and healthy. However, in order
aromatic. The aim of the grape growing and winemaking to make the more luscious style, the producer may want
is to make sure that the varietal character is as pure as to allow some raisining to happen prior to picking, but
possible. They are typically sweet but are rarely luscious. care has to be taken . Raisining does add extra complexity
This type of wine is made in a number of wine regions to the aromas, but excessive raisining will mean that the
throughout the world; one notable example is Muscat grapes lose too much of their varietal aromas and the
de Beaumes-de-Venise that comes from the Southern resulting wines can lack an expressive Muscat character.
Rhone. Fermentation will nearly always take place on the skins.
The grapes will be picked when they are ripe and If a luscious style of wine is being made, the fortification
healthy. Raisining or drying the grapes after picking in may take place when the fermentation has only reached
order to concentrate grape sugars is not typically 20/oabv.
practised for this style. These techniques add extra dried These wines will then undergo a period of oxidative
fruit characteristics that mask the pure varietal ageing that can last for decades. Old wood is essential
characteristics. (new oak aromas would clash with the grape aromas)
Once crushed, the juice may be separated from the and large oak vessels are widely used. These wines are,
skins but some skin contact is widely used to help on occasion, aged in warm conditions. As they age, these
increase aromatic intensity and add some richness to wines become amber and finally brown, and develop
the palate. This can be further enhanced if the skin pronounced oxidative aromas. Even when they are very
contact continues during part or all of the fermentation. old these wines can still retain their Muscat aromas.
Fermentation is cool and it is stopped by fortification However, it is common for the oldest wines to be given
with 96% abv grape spirit to give a sweet wine. In order an aromatic lift by blending in a small amount of mo re
to preserve the primary fruit aromas, the wines are stored youthful wine prior to bottling.
196 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Acknowledgements
The production of this fully revised edition of this book has been a significant team effort, and
would not have been possible without the help of the following people.
Within the WSETthere are a number of staff who have helped to write, edit and/or design
this book, most notably Nicholas King, Victoria Burt MW, Harriet Furze, Sara Hobday, Jaycee
Chan, Karen Douglas, Matthew Forster and Jeremy Wilkinson.
External to WSET,there are many people who have helped with the content of the book.
In alphabetical order they are: Adam Chase, Cathy Marston, Charles Mount, Chloe Delane,
Chris Kissack, Chris Stroud, Flavia Rizzuto, Gareth Lawrence, Dr. Gregory Jones, Jamie Saint,
Janet Dorozynski, John Atkinson MW,John Townley, Konstantinos Lazarakis MW, Lindsay Oram,
Marianne Rodriguez Marty, Mark Davidson, Michael Cooperman, Michelle Cherutti-Kowal MW,
Norrel Robertson MW, Philip Rowles, Raul Riba D'Ave, Richard Bampfield MW, and Tim Hanni MW.
There is also a team of people who were instrumental in the design of this book. They
include Debbie Wayment, Ros Horton, Pete Dolton, Robert Calow, and Ruth Coombs.
INDEX 197
Index
Numbers in bold type indicates images, diagrams and illustrations.
Corvina 123 malolactic fermentation (MLF) 49, SS,60, 61- 2, gyropa/ettes 174, 175
Costa, Chilean classification 152 63,174
costs 71-2 temperature 48, SS,63 hail 30,30
packaging 72 whole bunch 64 hand harvesting 41, 41
production 71- 2 Fiano 129 Harslevelu 116
Cote Chalonnaise 88- 9 Fiano di Avellino 129 harvest 38, 38, 41, 173
Cote d'Or60, 61, 68, 85, 86, 87- 8 filtration 50-1, 51 harvesting 41- 2, 41
Cote de Beaune 87- 8 Finger Lakes 59, 149 Haut-Medoc 67, 78, 80
Cote de Beaune-Villages 88 fining SO,51 Hawke's Bay 67, 171
Cote de Nuits 87- 8 finish 9 hazards
Cote de Nuits-Villages 88 Fino 187,188 sunlight 27
Cote Rotie 69, 99, 100 Fitou 107 temperature 26
Coteaux du Layon 97 flavour compounds 43, 49, 63, 64 water 27-30
Cotes de Bordeaux 81-2 flavours 7, 8 head grafting 23, 23
Cotes de Gascogne 83 Fleurie 91 heat 24-6, 25
Cotes de Provence 107 f/or187, 187,188 Heathcote 168
Cotes du Rhone 103 flowering 39, 39 Hemel-en-Aarde 163
Cotes du Rhone Villages 103 flowers 20, 39 Hermitage 69, 99, 100
Cotes du Roussillon 106, 107 fog 25, 143, 143 high-volume, inexpensive wines 56, 66
Cotes du Roussillon Villages 107 food pairing 11-14 Howell Mountain 146
cou/ure39 foot treading 191,192 HunterValley 168
cremanr181 Forst 111 hybrids 22
criadera 185-7, 186 fortification 58, 185, 192
Crianza 132 fortified Muscat 195 ice buckets 16
crossings 22 France 77-107 lcewine 58, 59, 150, 151, 151 (see also Eiswein)
Crazes-Hermitage 101 French wine laws 77 Indication geographique protegee (IGP) 77
cru bourgeois 79 Franken 112 lndicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT) 120
cruc/ass,!79 Frascati 127 inert vessels 45, 46, 56, 135, 173
crushed fruit fermentation 63- 4 free run juice 46 inflorescence 39, 39
crushing 46, 47 free run wine 64 insects 37
cultivars 19 freezing grapes 58, 59 intensity 9
Curic6 Valley 155 Friuli Grave 122 of aromas4
cutting(s) 19 Friuli-Venezia Giulia 60- 1, 122 of colour 2- 3
frost 26, 26, 28 offiavours 8
Dao 140 fruit set 39, 39 irrigation 27, 27, 157
deacidification 48 Fume Blanc 60, 144 ISO glass 1, 2
decanting 17 fungal diseases 37- 40 Italy 120-30
Deidesheim 111 fungicides 40 Italian wine laws 120
depth filtration 51, 51 Furmint 116 ltata Valley 155
density of planting 36-7
destemming 46, 47 Gamay 86, 89, 90, 90 Jaen 140
diseases 37-40 Garganega 123 Jerez de la Frontera 184
bacterial 40 Garnacha 66, 132, 134, 135, 136 (see also Johannisberg 111
fungal 37-40 Grenache) )oven 132
disgorgement 174 Gavi 125 Jumilla 137
distribution 72 Geelong 168 Juran~on 84
district 160 geographical indication (GI) 74-5
Districtus Austriae Control/atus (DAC) 113 Germany 59, 60, 108-12, 182 Kabinett 58, 108-9
diurnal range 25, 26 German wine laws and labels 109
Denominaci6 d'Origen Qualificada (DOQ) 132 Gevrey-Chambertin 88 La Mancha 137-8
Denominaci6n de Origen (DO) 132, 152 Gewurztraminer 93-4, 153 La Rioja, Argentina 158
Denominaci6n de Origen Calificada (DOCa) 132 Gigondas 104 label integrity 74-5
Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC) Gimblett Gravels 171 lactic acid 49
120 Gisborne 171 lagares 191-2, 192
Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita Givry89 lakes 27
(DOCG) 120 glassware 2, 16, 16 Languedoc 69, 70, 106-7
Dolcetto (grape variety) 124 glucose 20, 25 Late Bottled Vintage (LBV) Port 193
Dolcetto d'Alba 124 gobelet 34, 90 late harvest 58, 92, 117
domaine (estate) 72 Goulburn Valley 168 latitude 24, 27, 29
Dordogne 83 Graciano 132, 134 law (see wine laws)
Dornfelder 110 grafting 22-3, 22-3 layering 19
Douro 140, 190, 190 Gran Reserva 132 Lazio 127
downy mildew 37-40 grandcru87 leaves 20
drought 27 grape lees 49, SO,55, 61
Dry Creek Valley 146 berries 20 ageing 174, 180, 183
drying grapes 58, 59 constituent parts of 43 stirring 61, 62
Duero Valley 136-7 processing 46- 7, 47 legs (tears) 3
Durbanville 162 reception 46, 47 length 9
varieties19 Levante 137
Eden Valley 166 Graves 79, 80- 1, 82 Leyda Valley 154
Eiswein 58, 59, 110 (see also lcewine) Great Southern 169 LimariValley 153
Elgin 163 Grechetto 127 liqueurd'expedition 174,175
Elim 163 Greco 129 liqueur de tirage 174
Elqui Valley 153 Greco di Tufo 129 Lirac 103-4
enrichment 47 Greece 118-19 Lodi 147
Entre Cordilleras, Chilean classification 152 Greek wine laws 119 Loire Valley 57, 95-8, 181
Entre-Deux-Mers 79, 82 green harvesting 37, 39 Los Cameras 145, 146, 183
estate (domaine) 72, 160 Grenache 66, 69- 70, 102,105, 164 (see also Loureiro 139
Estate Wines 160 Garnacha) Lujan de Cuyo 158
Eszencia 116, 117 grey rot 40
ethanol 49 Grolleau 98 Macabeo 181 (see also Viura)
Etna 130 GrossesGew<'ichs(GG) 108, 109 maceration 63, 64, 67
extraction growing environment 24-32, 25 machine harvesting 41, 41
Port 191-2, 192 climate 28-9, 30-1 Macon 89
post-fermentation64 heat 24-6, 25 Macon Villages 89
pre-fermentation 63 nutrients 24, 25, 32, 36-7 Maconnais 60, 89
fatty foods 12 soil 25, 31-2 Madiran 83
faults 3 sunlight 24, 25, 26-7 Maipo Valley 154
fermentation 43, 44, 48-9, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, water 24, 25, 27-30, 31, 36-7 Maipu 159
63-4, 173-4, 177,180,185,191 weather 30 Malbec 83, 156
alcoholic 48 growth cycle 24, 38-9, 38-9 malic acid 43, 49
crushed fruit 63-4 GrunerVeltliner 113 malolactic fermentation (MLF) 49, SS,60, 61- 2,
INDEX 199
63, 174 vessels 44-6, 45, 56, 59, 61, 64- 6, 94 protective winemaking 44
Malvasia 127 Oakville 145 pruning 21, 21, 34, 35,38-9, 38-9
mammals 37 ocean currents 24-5, 29 replacement cane 21, 34, 35
Manzanilla 188 Okanagan Valley 151 spur 21, 34, 35
Marche 128 Oloroso 188, 189 summer 34, 39, 171
Margaret River 168- 9 one-year-old wood 21, 21, 35 winter 34, 35, 38, 38
Mar9aux80 Ontario 150 Puglia 129
maritime climate 31 opening wine 16- 17 Puligny-Montrachet 88
market forces 72 ordering wine 17 pumping over 63, 68
Marlborough 57,171,172 Oregon 148 punching down 63, 69
Marsanne 100 organic agriculture 40 pupitre174, 175
Martinborough 171 Orvieto 127 puttonyos 116
maturation 43, 44, 49- 50, 53-4, SS,64, 185, 187 out of condition 4
192-3 oxidation 4, 15, 17-18, 43-4, 52, 53 Quafitiitswein 108, 109, 113
Maule Valley 155 oxidative ageing, Sherry 185, 187 quality
Mazuelo 132, 134 (see also Carignan, Cariiiena) oxygen 24, 25, 43-4, 46, 52 level9
McLaren Vale 70, 167 stability 52 quality and style indications 75
Mediterranean climate 31
Medoc79,80 Paarl 161 rack and return 63
Melon Blanc 97 packaging 52- 3, 52 racking 50
Mencia 132, 137 costs 72 rainfall 27, 30, 36- 7
Mendocino County 146 palate 5-9 readiness for drinking 9- 10
Mendoza 156, 158- 9 Palo Cortado 189 Recioto della Valpolicella 58, 123
Menetou-Salon 95 Palomino 184 Rectified Concentrated Grape Must (RCGM)47,
merchant (negociant) 72 Parellada 181 56, 58
Mercurey89 Paso Robles 147 red winemaking 63- 70, 65
Merlot66,67-8, 7B, 106,134,135,144,148,153, passerilfage 58, 59 high-volume, inexpensive wines 66
160,164,171 passito 58, 123 premium wines 66 - 70
Methode Cap Classique 183 Patagonia 159 reduction 4
Meunier 180 patamares 190, 191 region (GI) 160, 164
Meursault 88 Pauillac 80 replacement cane pruning 21, 34, 35
microbiological stability 52 Pays d'Oc 107 Reserva,Spain 132
mildew 37-40 Pedro Ximenez (PX) 184, 189 Reserve Ports 193
mil/erandage 39 Penedes 135 retailers 72
Minervois 107 permanent wood 21, 21, 35 Rheingau 111
MLF (see malolactic fermentation) Pessac-Leognan 60, 79, 80-1, 82 Rheinhessen 711
Monastrell 132, 137 (see also Mourvedre) pests and diseases 37-40 Rias Baixas 137
Monbazillac 83 bacterial diseases 40 Ribera del Duero 136
Montagny89 birds and mammals 37 riddling 174, 175
Montepulciano d'Abruzzo 128 fungal diseases 37-40 Riesling 56- 60, 93, 108, 113, 149, 150, 153, 165,
Monterey 147 insects 37 170, 182
Morgon 91 nematodes 37 Rioja 69, 131, 132, 134
Mornington Peninsula 168 Phylfoxera 22, 3 7 ripening 39, 39, 41
Mosel 71, 110, 112 viruses40 Riserva 120
Moulin-a-Vent 97 petillance 3 Riverina 165
Mount Veeder 146 Petit Manseng 84 Riverland 165
Mourvedre 102, 105-6 Petit Verdot 78 Robertson 162- 3
mousses Pfalz 111 roots 21
Muller-Thurgau 110 Phyf/oxera 22, 37 rootstocks 22- 3
Murray-Darling 165 Picpoul (grape variety) 106 Rose d'Anjou 98
Muscadelle 79 Picpoul de Pinet 107 Rose de Loire 98
Muscadet 97 piece46 rose winemaking 65, 67
Muscat (grape varieties) 94, 195 Piemonte 123-5 rotary fermenters 63
Muscat Blanc a Petits Grains 182 Piesport 11o Roussanne 100
Muscat of Alexandria 185 Pinot Blanc 94 Roussillon 69, 70, 106-7
Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise 195 Pinot Gris/Grigio 56, 60-2, 94, 121, 122, 170 Ruby Port 193
Muscat (wines) PinotNoir64,66,68,85,87, 110,144,148,153, RGdesheim 111
Sherry 189 160,164, 170- 2, 174,180,182,183 Rueda 136-7
fortified 195 Pinotage 160 Rully89
must (juice) 47 piston plungers 191-2, 192 Russian River Valley 146
must weight 47, 109 planting/replanting 33 Rutherford 145
Pomerol 78, 79, 81 Rutherglen Muscat 195
Nahe 110-11 Pommard88
Naoussa 118 Port 190-4 safe consumption 75-6
Napa County 142, 145-6 fortification 192 Saint-~milion 67, 78, 79, 81
Napa Valley 67, 145 extraction 191-2, 192 Saint-~milion Grand Cru 79
natural wines 43 maturation 192-3 Saint-Estephe 80
Navarra 69, 134-5 types of 193- 4 Saint-Joseph 100
Nebbiolo 124 Portugal 139-41 Saint-Julien 80
negociant (merchant) 72 post-bottling maturation 53-4 Saint-Veran 89
Negroamaro 129 Pouilly-Fuisse 88, 89 sales 72
Nelson 171 Pouilly Fume 57, 95 Salice Salentino 129
nematodes 37 powdery mildew 37-40 salt in food 12, 13
Nemea 118 Priidikat/Priidikatswein 108, 109, 113 Salta 158
Nero d'Avola 130 pre-bottling maturation 49-50, 55, 64 San Antonio Valley 154
New South Wales 168 premier cru 87 San Juan 158
New York 59, 149 premium wines 56-62 , 66-70 San Luis Obispo County 147
New Zealand 61, 170- 2, 183 preserving wine 17-18 Sancerre 57, 95, 95
Niagara Peninsula 1SO press Sangiovese 67, 126-7
Nieder6sterreich (Lower Austria ) 114 basket 46, 48 Santa Barbara County 147
Nierstein 111 fractions 47, 64, 66 Santa Cruz Mountains 147
noble rot 40, 41-2, 58, 59, 82 pneumatic 46- 7, 48 Santa Maria Valley 147
North Island, New Zealand 171 presswine 47, 64 Santorini 118-19
North-west Spain 137 pressing 46- 7, 48, 67, 173- 4 Sarga Muskotaly 116 (see also Muscat Blanc a
Northern Italy 121-5 price of wine 71- 3 Petits Grains)
Northern Rhone 69, 99-101 Primitivo 129 (see also Zinfandel ) Saumur 96, 181
nose 3-5 Priorat 24, 69, 132, 135-6, 137 Saumur-Champigny 97-8
Nuits-Saint-Georges 88 producers, types of 72 Sauternes 58, 79, 82, 82
nutrients 24, 25, 32, 36- 7 production costs 71-2 Sauvignon Blanc 56, 57, 59-60, 79, 95-6, 106, 133,
Prosecco 181, 182 134,136,144,153,161,165,170
oak Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) 74- 5 Savennieres 97, 97
alternatives 45, 46 Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) 74-5 SAT(see Systematic Approach to Tasting Wine)
200 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Schlossbockelheim 110- 11 tannin 8, 13, 43, 44, 49, 63, 64, 67 cycle 38-9, 38-9
screw caps 15, 53, 53 tartaric acid 43, 48 management 33-42
seas 27 tartrate stability 51 vinha ao alto 190, 191
sedimentation SO Tasmania 60, 68, 169, 182, 182 Vinho Verde 139-40
Sekt 182 Taurasi 129 Vino de fa Tierra (VdlT) 132
Selection de Grains Nobles (SGN)92 Tave! 103-4 Vino Nobile di Montepulciano 127
semi-carbonicmaceration64 Tawny Port 193-4 Vinasde Pago (VP) 132
Semillon/Semillon 79, 82,165 TCA (trichloroanisole) 4, 53 vintage, Champagne 178
serviceof wine 15-18 temperature Vintage Port 194
servicetemperatures 15- 16 fermentation 48, 55, 63 Vintners Quality Alliance (VOA) 150
Sherry 184-9 hazards 26 Viognier99, 100,106,153
fortification 185 service 15- 16 viruses40
maturation 185-7, 186 Tempranillo 131-2 viticultural practices 40-1
styles of 188-9 tendrils 20 Vitisvinifera 19, 21, 22-3, 22
Shiraz 66, 68-9, 164, 167 (see also Syrah) Terre di Sicilia/TerreSiciliane130 Viura 134 (see also Macabeo)
shoots 20, 34, 35, 38-9 Tinta Barroca 140,191 volatile acidity (VA) 4
Sicily/Sicilia, 130 nnta Roriz 140, 191 (see also Tempranillo) Volnay 88
Silvaner 1 10 (see also Sylvaner) Tinto Cao 191 Vosne-Romanee 88
site selection 33 toasting of barrels 46 Vougeot88
skin contact 55, 63, 191 Tokaj (region) 116- 17 Vouvray 96,181
SO, (see sulfur dioxide) Tokaji sweet wine laws 1 16
Soave 122- 3 Tokaji (wine) 58, 116-17, 117 Wachau 114, 114
Soave Classico 123 Toro 136 Wairarapa 171
sobretab/a 185, 186, 187 Torrontes 157 Walker Bay 68, 163
soca/cos190, 191 Toscana IGT 127 ward 160
soil 25, 31-2 Touraine 95, 96, 97 Washington 59, 69, 148
so/era 185- 7, 186 Touriga Franca 191 water 25, 43, 49
so/erasystem 185-7, 186 Touriga Nacional 140, 191 availability 31, 36-7
Sonoma Coast 146 traditional method 173-5 bodies of 24, 27, 29
Sonoma County 68,146 , training 33-4, 35 hazards 27- 30
sorting 46, 47, 81 transfer method 175-7 irrigation 27, 27, 157
South Africa 57,69, 160-3, 162,183 transport 72 weather30
South African wine laws 160 Trebbiano 127 Wehlen 110
South Australia 165-7 trellising 34, 35 Weinviertel 114
South Eastern Australia 165 Trentino60-1, 121-2 Welschriesling 113
South Island, New Zealand 171-2 Trincadeira 140 Western Australia 168-9
South West France 83- 4 Trockenbeerenausfese (TBA), Germany 58, 109 Western Cape 161
Southern France 105-7 Tuscany 126-7 white winemaking 55-7, 57
Southern Italy 129-30 high-volume, inexpensivewines 56
Southern Region, Chile 155 UcoValley 158,159 premium wines 56-62
Southern Rhone 102-4, 102, 195 Ugni Blanc 83 White Zinfandel (see Zinfandel)
Spain 69, 131-8 umami 11, 12-13 whole bunch fermentation 64
Spanish wine laws 132 Umbria 127 Willamette Valley 148
sparkling wines 173-83 unfermented grape juice 58 wine laws
EU labelling terms 177 USA 142-9 Australian wine laws 164
production methods 173- 7, 176 United States' wine laws 142 Canadianwine laws 1SO
regions 179-183 Upper Ebro 134-5 Chilean wine laws 152
styles 177-8 French wine laws 77
Spatburgunder 11o Vacqueyras 104 German wine laws and labels 109
Spat/ese58, 109 Valdepeiias 138 Greek wine laws 119
spraying 38, 39, 40 Valencia 137 Italian wine laws 120
spur 21, 21 Valpolicella 123, 123 Portuguese wine laws 139
spur pruning 21, 34, 35 Classico 123 Spanish wine laws 132
St Laurent 113 Ripasso 123 South African wine laws 160
stabilisation 51- 2, 55- 6, 66 VendangesTardives(VT) 92 Tokaji sweet wine laws 116
Stags Leap District 145 Veneto 122-3 United States' wine laws 142
stainless steel vessels 45, 46, 56, 135, 173 Veneto IGT 122 wine and the law 74-6
Stellenbosch 67,161 veraison 24, 35, 38-9, 39, 41 Wine of Origin (W.O.) 160
sterile filtration 51 Verdejo 133 wine service15- 18
storage of wine 15 Verdicchio (grape variety) 128 Wine-Lexicon4, 7
sub-region (GI) 164 Verdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi 128 winemaking 43-54
sugar 12, 20, 41, 47, 48, 49 Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP)34, 35, 85 adjustments 47-8
in food 11, 12 vessels 44-6, 45 anaerobic 44
sulfur dioxide (SO,) 4, 44, 46, 49, 52, 56, 58, 59, 60, inert 45, 46, 56, 135, 173 fortified wines 784-8, 186,188, 191-3, 192,
61,74 oak 44- 6, 45, 56, 59, 61, 64-6, 94 195
summer pruning 34, 39, 171 Victoria 167-8 protective 44
sunlight 24, 25, 26-7 Vidal 150 red wines 63-70, 65
hazards 27 Vin de France77 rose wines 65, 67
surfie 97 Vin de Pays77 sparkling wines 173-7, 175,176
surface filtration 51, 51 vines 19-23 sweet wines 58-9
SOssreserve 58, 109 anatomy of 20- 1 white wines 55-7, 57
sustainable agriculture 40 bush 34, 36, 97, 103, 162 winter dormancy 38, 38
Swartland 162, 162 canopy 34, 35 winter freeze 26, 38
sweet winemaking 58- 9 clones 19 winter pruning 34, 35, 38, 38
sweetness 5-6, 11 crossings 22 Worcester 162
infoodll,12 density 36-7
Sylvaner 94 (see also Silvaner) grafting 22-3, 22-3 Xarel-lo 181
Syrah 64, 66, 68-9, 99, 102, 105, 130, 144, 153, growth cycle 24, 38-9, 38-9 Xinomavro 118
160, 171 (see also Shiraz) hybrids 22
Systematic Approach to Tasting Wine (SAT) 1-10 pests and diseases 37-40 Yakima Valley, 148
appearance 2-3 planting/replanting 33 Yarra Valley 167-8
conclusions9 pruning of 21, 21, 34, 35, 38-9, 38- 9 yeast 48, 51, 52
nose 3-5 rootstocks 22-3 yeast autolysis 174, 180, 183
palate 5-9 species 19 Yecla 137
preparation 2 training of 33-4, 35 yields 37
scales 2 trellising 34, 35
Wine-Lexicon 4, 7 varieties 19 Zinfandel 144 (see also Primitivo)
veraison24, 35, 38-9, 39, 41 zone 764
tank method 173, 177 yields 37 Zweigelt 1 13
Tannat 84 vineyard
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