Test topics for acoustics A:

1) What is meant by the term acoustics. Short characteristics: music, speech, Noise, noise.

2) Areas of acoustics

3) Sound
The physical properties of sound. The speed of sound, Sound pressure, pitch, volume

4) Waves
Waveforms, vibration - Waves, wavelength

5) Sound perception
Refraction,
Diffraction (wave diffraction),
Reflection,
Absorption,
Interference,
beatings ( beat frequency)

6) Volume and volume measurement

Amplitude, energy, intensity
Sound level
Interference

7) The human ear:

Anatomy of the ear, hearing ability, audibility limit
Different types of pitch perception
Pitch perception mechanisms
The modern theory of pitch perception
Volume
Tepidity and masking
Tone colour

9) Intervals and tuning systems

Interval Perception
Intervals and the harmonic series
Musical scales (scales and modes)
Pytagorean, Natural (Just scala), Tempered Systems

10) The human voice

1. music acoustics, sub-areas of acoustics, historical information

2nd sound

1. the physical properties of sound: sound generation - how sound is generated

2. the speed of sound, sound pressure

3. sound transmission and propagation, how is it transmitted from one place to another

4. sound perception (how does sound influence the senses and emotions of a listener)

outdoor music

3rd waves

Waveforms

4. structures in music:

melody, harmony, metre, rhythm, intervals, etc.

5. human ear

Pitch perception,

Pitch perception mechanisms

The modern theory of pitch perception

6. human voice, tone generation

Every musical process, in general also every sound process, represents an event, which is

Time's up. We use a staff to represent musical processes. For the physicist such a notation nothing else
than a diagram, where time is shown on the horizontal axis and the pitch on the vertical axis. The
division on the axes need not be linear. For example, it can be logarithmic.
Rule: A logarithmic scale allows to display a larger area on the same length segment, but the accuracy
decreases towards larger values. It is common practice, when investigating sound processes, to convert
them into electrical processes and displayed on a cathode ray oscillograph. Such an oscilloscope allows,
in time to record electrical processes as a "living diagram", so to speak. This method we will often use in
further explanations. From time to time, mathematical formulas are used, since acoustics are, after all,
over a wide range with physical terms can be treated. In music, as is well known, sounds are designated
by letters, the sequence of which can be found in every Octave repeated. Various methods are used to
distinguish between the octave positions. We will use the system known in the german speaking area , like it is
demonstrated on the first line Up to the earliest evidence of human confirmation, manifestations of
phonetic formations of record. These are phenomena that fall within the scope of what is happening to
our acoustic considerations in the narrower or broader sense. The pictorial representations in former
advanced civilizations with instruments are legion and are mentioned here only in passing, they are for
Instrumentology of particular interest.
Of greater importance for acoustics is the understanding of the laws of the realm of tones and thus what
is addressed here with musical acoustics. The oldest messages about acoustic laws come from the
Egyptians in the assignment of the tones to the revelations of the deities and their connection to the
relations to annual and times of day, the directions of the heavens etc., in which they already know the
mathematical basics of the simplest Interval relationships were detected. Something similar is known
from the Mesopotamians and the Babylonians.

Acoustics and music

Acoustics refers to the physical science of sound waves, it is one of the Main areas in classical physics
besides mechanics, thermodynamics, optics and Electricity. Although acoustics still remains a major field
of physics, its subject area has considerably expanded. You can hear the lectures on psychology and
psychoacoustics, on the experiments, in that the human ear cannot hear. Today, acoustics encompasses
various other areas that are directly or indirectly related to what we call "audible sound". By music we
mean those intended combinations of sound events that we use for our aesthetic pleasure. Language
has a lot in common with music, but differs in its purpose: it conveys the whole cosmos of human ideas
through word symbols and less through direct transmission of emotions. By sound we usually refer to
something vaguely all the others sound events, but mostly we mean those that are considered
disorderly or also unpleasant or appear undesirable, loud noises are called noise.
Part of acoustics:
1. ultrasound - vibrations that oscillate so fast that our hearing can no longer perceive them.
2. infrasound - vibrations that occur too slowly for our hearing
3. underwater sound - it is used by sonar to search for underwater objects.
4. physiological acoustics deals with the functioning of hearing and brain nerves, and their diseases
5. Physioacoustics has the human perception and processing of sound, the assessment, Comparison of
and reaction to different sound events to the object
6. speech and hearing
7. noise measurement and control
8. room acoustics: design and use of materials for the acoustic properties of homes, offices, Concert
halls etc.
9. musical acoustics deals with the mechanisms of sound generation by
musical instruments, the effects of sound reproduction and/or reproduction spaces on the sound;
finally, the human perception of sound/noise as music.

However, the boundary between music and noise cannot be precisely defined. Every new generation of
teenagers seems to get excited about music that only causes their parents headaches. And many
Composers, who today belong to the standard classical repertoire, have been described at their
premiere as outrageous and despicable. The riots at the first performance of Stravinsky's Sacre di
Printemps were an extreme case, but hostile reactions to new musical ideas, such as those in electronic
music created in the 50s is quite common.

Sound:

You can distinguish..:

1. airborne sound
2.waterborne sound
3. structure-borne sound
The ear receives sound through the medium of air transmitted. Measured at a static air pressure of
approx. 100,000 Pascal (= 1 bar) the alternating pressure component (= sound pressure) is extremely
low. Already at 100 Pa (=134 dB SPL) is the pain threshold of human hearing achieved.

Physical basics
1. sound and sound propagation
Every acoustic process winds itself between one (or more) sound transmitters (e.g. speaking person) and
a sound receiver (e.g. hearing, microphone). The transmission path lies between the transmitter and
receiver. Any fixed transmission path can be used, liquid or gaseous matter. No sound propagation takes
place in a vacuum.
What is sound? Sound can be defined as momentary and local changes in pressure and thus the density
of matter. Each materia is build by single small particles (atoms, molecules etc.), which a certain distance
from each other. This distance is given by prevailing pressure (e.g. air pressure) or the density. If the
pressure changes, the distance between the particles changes. e.g. if a external force is applied to the
molecules (e.g. you hit a piece of wood with a hammer), they will all pushed in one direction. This results
in a movement that is related to the thermal movement and consequently a direction of movement is
created. If the force acts on a certain location, the Molecules move in a preferred direction. This creates
a mechanical vibration that is called sound.
In other words, sound is a disturbance of the air through which it propagates. Air as a transmission path.
Air, the sound carrier we all know, is made up of molecules. The distance of these molecules is given by
the air pressure. Sound now exists by local change the distance between these particles. The particle
returns to its resting position afterwards. It can also be reciprocate Sound is a periodic pressure
fluctuation (caused by speech, a musical instrument, etc.) that propagates in an elastic medium (e.g. air,
water, solids, etc.) Sound is transmitted in the air by waves, which transfer the energy from the source
of origin to Transport outside. In gases or liquids, sound is only ever transmitted in the form of
longitudinal waves (longitudinal oscillations: local compressions and dilutions). With repeated
application of force a sequence of maxima and minima is formed. These can be occur regularly or
irregularly over time, depending on the temporal behaviour of the force. Single or few such pressure
changes we perceive as bang, blow. The continuous changes we hear as persistent noise, it is a SILENCE.
For our ears the two most important characteristics of musical sound are its pitch and Volume.

•Pitch is the perception of how "high" or "low" a sound is. (corresponding to left or right on the piano
keyboard). We often also call the sounds with high pitch simply "Trebles" and the lower ones
correspondingly "Basses".
• Volume is the perception of the strength or weakness of a sound. For the perception of a sound 2
parameters are of importance:
•The frequency of the wave.
•The amplitude of the pressure fluctuation The frequency is defined by us as the perceived pitch, and
the amplitude corresponds to Perception of the volume.

The sound propagation in the air can be described by a particularly simple type of equations which
mathematicians describe as linear. The physical meaning of the Linearity is the fact that many different
sound waves travel through the same room at the same without one affecting the other.

Frequency ranges and pitch

The range of audible frequencies is about 10 octaves and generally lies between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz.
We as listeners talk about low and high pitches, acousticians and physicists distinguish the following
frequency ranges: Acoustics 1 - short version WS

This classification is subjective and varies according to the peculiarity of the instrument or voice. It is
important to note that our auditory system perceives multiples of frequencies as equal steps in pitch
feels. If we double the frequencies more often, it always appears to our ear as an equal Increase the
pitch.

Sound with higher frequencies is called ultrasound. A sound with lower frequencies is called infrasound.

The speed of the sound

In wavelengths the audible range corresponds to values from λ= 2cm for the highest still audible, up to
λ= 10m for the lowest notes. You can thus calculate the sound propagation in air. The Sound velocity is
the product of wavelength and frequency (v - sound velocity, λ - wavelength, f - frequency): In an
ordinary conversation, the sound waves seem to be in our ears at the same moment to arrive where
they are spoken. But from distances of 20 meters or more. find that the sound waves need some time to
travel after all. The speed of sound waves depends on the temperature and density of the air. So for
example in dry air at room temperature of approx. 20 °C and normal pressure of 1bar (or 105 Pascal) is
the Speed of the sound: 344 m per second, i.e. the sound needs about three seconds to reach to cover
kilometers. v20 = 344 m/s Acoustics 1 - short version WS 6 For us musicians, it is important that all
sound waves, no matter what frequency they have, are spread at the same speed. Imagine the back of a
concert hall if this were not the case. High and low tones that are played at the same time by the
musicians played on stage would reach our ears at different times, so that each chordal music would be
perceived as hopelessly chaotic.

Sound pressure and sound pressure amplitude

Pressure is measured with Pascal. Pressure is the perpendicular amount of a pressure applied to a
surface force due to the size of this area:
(equation)
The change in pressure is crucial to our perception of sound events. The highest value that the pressure
during such an event can reach within a range appropriate to the dynamics of the period of time is
called sound amplitude. Example: a short oscillation nd the slowvibration would be played for several
seconds. We do not hear the slow changes, we notice but that the amplitude of the faster signal has
begun to fluctuate with time. The distance that each air particle reaches from its normal resting point to
both sides, while it vibrates. This is what we call the displacement amplitude. As with frequencies, there
are also so-called limit ranges of our hearing with pressure. We do not hear absolute pressures. Since we
are talking about pressure variations in a sound, we can say that perceive the resulting pressure
differences. The smallest pressure difference that we can still perceive is dependent on the frequency
and complexity of the signal. For a sine wave of 200 Hz is the pressure 2-105 Pa. This value is higher for
very low and very high frequencies. So required a tone of 30 Hz can be heard 1000 times the sound
pressure m. The pressure amplitude is used more often. This is defined as the maximum increase in air
pressure in a Sound wave compression defined. Sound pressure amplitudes are also very small, but they
can easily be measured because micromembranes react very sensitively to pressure fluctuations. They
do not describe the absolute pressure, but the maximum deviation of the pressure at a location from
the normal pressure of the environment. One should explain what words like strength and pressure
mean in the physical sense: Whenever you push or shove any object, you exert a force (called F) on it
out. The unit of measurement for force is the Newton (N), approximately 9.8 N corresponds to 1 kp
(kilopond).

Waves and vibrations

Waves are thus oscillations that propagate in space. To do this, the vibrating particles be coupled with
each other (connected chain links, etc.) or by impacts kinetic energy exchange (liquids).
One should distinguish between vibrations and waves.
1) Vibration is the rapid back and forth movement of a single object or a small part of a larger object,
such as the tip of a tine of the tuning fork.
2) The wave, on the other hand, is supposed to denote a disturbance that propagates from a vibrating
source to all directions.

Sound propagates in the form of waves. All waves have certain common characteristics. Sometimes we
can explain and understand sound better by other wave types. Some waves can be classified according
to whether the local interference is transverse or longitudinal to the direction of propagation of the
interference pattern.
• If a horizontally tensioned rope is swung to and fro, a transverse wave is generated (transverse wave).
Transverse waves are only possible in solid bodies, e.g. string vibration, Rods, membranes.
• If the oscillatory movement occurs along the direction of propagation of the wave these as
longitudinal or longitudinal wave.

The sound waves are not visible and difficult to show in graphics. Pure longitudinal and Transversal
waves occur only in such bodies whose extension in all directions is considered to be infinite may be
considered large or at least very large relative to the wavelength. These two Wave types can therefore
practically only be realized in the ultrasonic range.

A particle moves, passes on its motion to neighbouring particles: sound spreads ..you know. Speed of
this spreading or so called sound speed is separated from materia at transmission path and its status. In
air this propagation speed is about 340 m per second. For comparison: light propagates about one
million times faster. In free air space, sound propagates in all directions. This is called a spherical...
Spread. The same type of propagation has, for example, the heat radiated by the sun. The energy per
area (cm2 ) decreases with increasing distance from the sound transmitter.

Two movements can be distinguished in a sound process:

1) the movement of the individual particle of the transmission medium, measured as velocity
2) the propagation of the sound event, measured as sound velocity.

The distance from one wave hill to the next along the propagation direction is called wavelength. Note
that wavelength is not measured in the direction of wave height. The Greek letter λ (Lambda) is used as
a symbol for wavelength. The wavelength of the Sound ranges from approximately λ = 2 cm for the
highest still audible sounds to λ = 20 m for the lowest sounds.

With strings, for example, one could speak of transversal vibrations when one looks at the string
infinitely thin. Even a cork dancing on a wavy water surface makes almost

Transversal oscillation.
l=c/f
f=1/T
l Wavelength (m) c

Sound velocity
(m/s)
f Frequency (Hz)
T Period duration (s)
Sound waves develop and change in time, they are dynamic. In contrast to a picture the music won't
stop. There are several characteristic time scales for musical events. The largest is the total time of a
work from the beginning to the end, in which its structure unfolds, it can range between a minutes and
several hours. Individual tones typically last about one second, although there are also tones lasting of
several seconds as well as fractions of a second; we want to cover this range of sound duration is called
the middle time scale. Every sounding tone of a piece of music contains many individual sound
vibrations, whose sequence is so fast that we can no longer distinguish them individually. The small time
scale is in the order of thousandths of a second. In the early 17th century, Galileo Galilei produced
sounds by playing a card against the jagged edge of a coin.

Sometimes we also speak of the period (P) of an oscillation to determine the time for a single complete
oscillation cycle. One speaks about the period (T) in the second, thus the zeta span that elapses during
an alternation of maximum and minimum. At of the image is the distance between the rise and the
return to the original point.

Period duration can remain the same, can change with time. One speaks of period when it are repetitive
patterns where the duration can be measured. This is called periodic Vibration. The oscillations, where
there is no repetition of the pattern, are called aperiodic Vibrations.

Frequency (f), unit of measurement - heart (Hz)

In the 19th century, several researchers carried out precise measurements of the vibration rates of
different pitches with the aid of siren discs or gears which, at a known speed rotated. The results are
usually expressed in terms of the frequency of the respective oscillation specified.

Frequency is the frequency with which a change between minimum and maximum happens in the
second. Frequency is therefore the reciprocal of the period duration. Frequency shows how much
seconds such a change takes. We will use the symbol "f" for the frequency, which is given in oscillations
per second is called Hertz (Hz, named after the physicist Heinrich Hertz, 1857-1894). Thus

is the tuning frequency according to which most orchestras tune f=440 Hz, the so-called concert pitch.
This Frequency means that the eardrums of the ear vibrate 440 times per second The range of audible
frequencies is about 10 octaves and is generally considered to be between about 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz
lying known. We refer to low frequencies as low, high frequencies as high pitches.

The carrier frequencies in broadcasting technology are much higher. AM broadcasting (medium wave)
used a transmission range around 1 MHz (1 million oscillations per second) and Fm broadcasting (ultra-
short wave), FM a range around 100 MHz; the television stations use even several hundred MHz higher
frequencies. areas).

Deflection: this is the change in the magnitude of the observed variable (e.g. pressure) to a Time in
relation to the initial situation.
Amplitude: is the largest value of the deflection.
Phases (φ), unit of measurement: rad (radian / ° degrees): Phase system shows how far an oscillation is
relation to another oscillation (whose start is exactly at time t=0) is shifted.
We describe the oscillations with the angular function sine and cosine, because their course leads to
matches what you observe in the vibrations. The phase is an angular displacement of

Vibrations to each other. We draw this oscillation as a reference.

LOOK AT PG 12 FOR REFERENCE PHOTOS

LOOK AT PG 13 FOR REFERENCE PHOTOS

To get vibrations (which are not endless) you need other functions that define which frequencies are
included for the sum with which amplitudes

Waveforms

Modern technology makes it even easier for us to obtain appropriate information. A The oscilloscope
plays a key role here.

Oscilloscope A device for visualizing the changes of an electrical signal over time can. All we need now is
a microphone that can convert acoustic signals into electrical signals, and can immediately see every
little detail of a complex vibration as soon as we connect the microphone to the Connect the
oscilloscope. The number of possible waveforms of acoustic oscillations is practically infinite. Sound
waves that propagate evenly in all directions are therefore called spherical waves.

The frequency of a simple oscillation is always determined by the magnitude of the resistance force and
the magnitude of the mass inertia. The stiffer e.g. a spring is, the faster the oscillations will be. And the
slower, the greater the mass. However, the frequency does not depend on the size of the amplitude.
Energy is an unavoidable property of any body on which we perform work. Energydoesn't disappear
anywhere. Energy can be transferred from one body to another, or change from one form to another,
but changes the total within the system under consideration never each other.

Sound waves also transport energy.

A particularly effective method of supplying energy evenly to an oscillator is the Resonance1 which
occurs when the excitation force has approximately the same number of oscillations as the one the
oscillator would naturally prefer.

Sound sources

One can distinguish between natural and artificial sound sources.

We are interested both in the degree of perfection with which the reproduction reproduces the original
and the technical processes of recording, storing and reproducing sound waves. There are fundamental
differences between short, abrupt and uniform sounds and sounds.

***

SOUND PROPAGATION

Sound waves can change their direction of propagation for several reasons. One of them is reflection on
hard surfaces, which is familiar to us in the form of an echo. Far less We are familiar with the refraction
and diffraction of the sound waves, which are deflected by or dispersing effects. Diffraction plays an
extremely important role in the musical Acoustics.

Reflection and refraction

In the real world, sound waves can never travel indefinitely in the same direction spread out. When
sound encounters an obstacle, we expect it to be reflected. Sound is emitted from any 1 If an elastic
body is not caused to vibrate by direct contact, but by another vibrating body is brought, one speaks of
resonance. This resonance plays a particularly important role with string instruments, because with
them the vibrations of the string are very much amplified by the 'resonance body'.

Surface with any shape and size reflected. If the surface is smooth, the reflection regular and well-
ordered. A rough surface on the other hand leads to irregular or diffuse Reflection.

Reflection and absorption therefore have a great influence on whether a room is suitable for is suitable
or not for musical performances

Sound reflection on a plane Area The following applies: a =a '

Refraction refers to the change in direction of a wave due to a local change in its Propagation velocity
described by the refractive index n. While refraction is the change of direction of a shaft due to changed
speed in different media means Diffraction the deflection at an obstacle (slit, grating, lens edge, etc).
refraction at water drops, which act like a converging lens (motif: Golden Gate Bridge) Refraction refers
to the change in direction of a wave due to a local change in its propagation speed, Refraction with
elementary waves. The yellow points show imaginary starting points of new waves.

Wave diffraction at openings

Sound can also propagate around corners, which we think of as being caused by multiple reflections
causes explain. Diffraction is the "deflection" of waves like light and other electromagnetic waves, water
or surging waves) on an obstacle. At Can the wave bend in the geometric shadow space of the obstacle
(such as slit, grid, etc.) propagate. Diffraction is caused by the generation of new waves along a wave
front according to the Huygens-Fresnel's principle. These can lead to the appearance of interference
through superposition.

Diffraction at single-slit: the so-called minimum occurs, at which the upper and lower beams cancel each
other out.

Diffraction at a rectangular opening Diffraction at a circular opening Light waves can also bend, but not
strongly enough. However, if light is passed through a hair-thin slit into a darkened room one can
observe a nice diffraction pattern.
Sound waves are much longer. Therefore we can see sound waves at normal sized objects expect strong
diffraction phenomena.

Sound reflection at a right-angled

Corner: When a beam of sound hits a right-angled corner, so he'll be twice as reflects that it is parallel to
the incident Beam back. Between parallel, reflecting walls, it can lead to so-called "standing waves"
come. Standing wave (standing wave) is the Interference of two waves of the same wavelength, but with
opposite Direction of propagation.a vertical impinging sound wave is always again overlaid with their
own reflection. Thus, at certain points the Sound waves totally or partially mutual extinguish, amplify on
others. On In contrast to the advancing wave there is i.e. stationary extinctions, which in recordings (e.g.
low organ sounds) and with Interrupt measurements.

Interference and beatings

What happens if similar sound waves from different directions are emitted at one point to the same
Time clash? The way in which sound waves amplify or cancel each other out is called interference is
called.
Interference describes the superposition of two or more waves according to the so-called superposition
principle (i.e. by adding the amplitudes, not the intensities). It occurs with all types of waves, such as
sound, light, matter waves, etc. Rainbow colours in a thin oil film on water are caused by interference at
thin layers.

Destructive interference means that the waves cancel each other out.
Constructive interference is the amplification of the amplitudes of the waves. The pattern of spots
constructive and destructive interference is called interference pattern. The surface waves of different
directions penetrate each other unhindered. Interference occurs in the crossing area.

e.g. two sound sources producing identical sounds - two loudspeakers, both connected to one amplifier
connected with a monaural (not stereo) signal: Every time a wave bump from the first loudspeaker
reaches the wave crest point, a wave crest from the second Speaker on: in this case we say that the two
signals are in phase at point A. The entire So disturbance resp. interference at A has double amplitude
like a wave alone. What happens if waves from two sound sources have the same frequency, but not
exactly? In this case, one speaks of so-called beatings. If two tones sound with only a slight frequency
difference at the same time, you hear a sound with changing volume - beat. Superimposed If two waves
with unequal but closely spaced wavelengths λ1 and λ2, thus results the beat creates a pattern.

In this example, one of two closely spaced tones approaches the others except for one frequency
difference of 2 %.

The result of this approximation is as follows:

The closer the two frequencies get, the slower the beat will be. To determine the relationship between a
beat frequency and the two original frequencies a 1-second interval is considered and it will start exactly
at the time of in which the two waves are exactly in phase. Beats are often used by musicians to tune
their instruments. The faster beats you hear when you play your instrument and another one at the
same time, the greater the Difference in the two frequencies. If after tuning, they have no beats at all
then the two instruments are in tune.

Outdoor music
Music is mostly performed in closed rooms. Every sound source outdoors sounds weaker than in a room,
any sound wave that does not hit ears as it propagates is lost forever, while being trapped in a closed
space and repeatedly tossed back and forth. Outdoor music sounds "dry". The reason is the same: the
first sound wave that reaches the ear, has hardly any overlapping reflections, thus lacking the
characteristic reverberation and warmth of a Space sound.
One can try to get a grip on these problems with different strategies and to direct sound to where it is
needed. The most important goal is to create a reflective structure behind the performing musicians,
that the part of the sound energy that would otherwise be directed in would be wasted where there are
no listeners to reflect in their direction. If the audience is on all sides of the performer, at least that part
of the sounds that would otherwise be lost to the top can be diverted. All these aids together with
electronic amplification can ensure sufficient acoustic quality of open-air events, but also of make sure.

Volume and volume measurement

Some sounds are hardly audible and others are so loud that they hurt. People talk about physical
measurement of volume. The human perception of loudness is not identical, so we use the term
loudness for this physiological perception. When describing the strength of sound waves, a distinction
must be made between amplitude, intensity and loudness can be distinguished. The first two are
physical terms, the third a psychological one. Intensity means the amount of energy flow (amount of
energy per unit area and unit of time, W/m2) and is proportional to the square of the amplitude.

Amplitude, energy, intensity

What is the appropriate level for the volume?

A measure could give us the amplitude of the sound wave. One should distinguish between the
deflection amplitude (the greatest distance that an air particle can travel from its resting point to both
sides) and the velocity amplitude (the greatest velocity that an air particle reaches during of its
deflection, also known as sound velocity). However, both of them are only possible with difficulties can
be measured directly, it is much easier to measure the pressure amplitude. A second measurement
possibility is to measure directly and primarily with the energy contained in a sound wave work.

The rule tells us: The vibration energy is proportional to the square of the amplitude.

The tone intensity (volume) is mainly determined by the amplitude of the vibration, the width of the
deflection dependent. The sound intensity is measured in phon or decibel.

Each intensity ratio corresponds to a difference in sound level in decibels. Each additional decibel means
the multiplication of the intensity by the factor 1.26 (rounded 1, 3) For example, a sound level of l1=0dB
corresponds to an intensity Io=10-12 W/m2.

All tones, regardless of their frequency, with the same volume level, are considered to be equally loud
(isophone) felt. One talks about the volume levels: it is that dB level, because a sinusoidal signal with of
a frequency 1000 Hz, so that we feel it to be as loud as the sound event under consideration. A noise,
sound with the same phon level is always the same volume for us. However, sound pressure can ever be
can be different according to the characteristics of the sound. For a sine tone of 1kHz, the volume level
in phon and the sound pressure level in Db the same size.

The sound pressure level is entered on the vertical axis and the horizontal frequency is entered on the
horizontal frequency. logarithmic scale, all multiples of 10 are plotted at equal intervals. You can see
that the frequency values always pile up in the direction of the next multiple. The red curve is called
isophone, which means curves of equal loudness. They trace the combination of sound pressure and
frequency at which we always have the same loudness perception. For example, 90DB at about 30 Hz is
just as loud for us as 50dB at about 200 Hz and 40dB at about 5 kHz.
The disadvantage of volume defined in this way is that we cannot say exactly how loud or is something
quiet. She just says: something is as loud as a signal with this or that characteristic. Twice as loud a lot of
phon doesn't mean it's twice as loud.

Another term has been introduced: loudness. Loudness indicates how loud a sound is subjectively
heard. The loudness "doubles" when the sound is perceived as "twice as loud", one thus compares two
sound events.
Loudness is a Psychoacoustic term that describes how people judge the perceived loudness of sound.
These psychoacoustic results can be compared with physical and medical conditions in relationship
The unit of measurement for loudness is 1 sone: it corresponds to a volume level of 40 phon, i.e. a any
sound that is perceived as loud as a sine tone with a sound pressure level of 40 dB at a frequency of 1
kHz. Then 2 sone correspond to a signal perceived to be twice as loud.

A lot depends on the frequency of the Tones off. For a sine tone of the frequency 1 kHz, an increase in
volume by 10 phon will result in Doubling the lukewarmness, but only at medium and high volumes
from 40 phon upwards. At the lower volume levels, a lower volume increase (less than 10 dB) leads to
the feeling of doubling the Loudness.

Two sound sources with the same sound pressure level (for example 60 decibels) do not sound twice as
loud as one alone. In fact, the total sound pressure level is 20 log (2 – 103 ) = 60 dB + 20 log 2 = 60 dB + 6
dB = 66 dB.

The sound pressure level therefore increases by only 6 decibels and not by 10, which is twice the volume
of the original would correspond. The sound intensity, which is proportional to the square of the sound
pressure, increases at double Volume even by only 3 decibel - it is proportional to the sound energy and
sound power.

The relationship between loudness and loudness is not linear. At low volumes the loudness sensation
faster than higher ones. Above 40 phon corresponds to an increase in Volume of 10 phon the doubling
of the loudness.
For example, a violin alone produces a volume of 60 phon, which corresponds to 4 sone (40 phon = 1
sone, every 10 phon boost - twice as many sone i.e. 2 sone = 50 dB, 4 sone = 60 dB).

To double the loudness to 8 sone, the volume must be increased by 10 phon (i.e. from 60 to 70 phon)
can be increased. This is done by 10 violins, because 60 Phon + (10 log10 10) Phon = 60 Phon + 10 Phon
= 70 Phon. 100 violins would produce 16 sone and 1000 violins would produce 32S. Now it becomes
clear why a symphony orchestra would produce 16 first, 14 second violins, 12 violas, 10 Violoncellos and
8 double basses busy when playing in full instrumentation.

The volume perceived by humans depends on the sound pressure level, frequency spectrum and time
response of the sound. Why we perceive a sound volume in this or another way depends on the way the
sound is processed in the inner ear. There the sound vibrations are converted into nerve impulses.
Depending on the strength of the excitation of the nerve cells, a noise is judged louder or softer. This
means that despite equal levels. (sound pressure), the human ear does not perceive tones of different
pitch (frequency) as equal loud.
A sine tone of 50 Hz is perceived as loud at a sound pressure level of 50 dB SPL, like a 4 kHz tone with 12
dB SPL. At about 4 kHz the highest sensitivity of the human Hearing.

When reproducing sounds via loudspeakers or headphones, a plausible balanced hearing impressions
can be conveyed. Because of the almost free choice of the reproduction level, the following results are
easily achieved an unpleasant impression, if the change compared to the original level results in a
changed sound coloration is created or even individual sound components due to the level-dependent
masking disappear.

In order to achieve a reproduction of all the sounds of the original sound, both when the amplifier is
loud and when it is turned down, the frequencies, many amplifiers are equipped with different circuits,
which ensure aurally correct volume equalization. The frequency response of the sound presented shall
be adapted to the reproduction level can be adjusted. Pressing a key labeled loudness or contour turns
this function on. This

However, this function provides only limited benefit, as the adaptation is usually too simple and the
applicability of the of curves of equal loudness (isophones) to complex signals is at least controversial.
Moreover, an adaptation to the the type of sound and the listening location. The assumption that highs
and lows have to be raised equally is not correct. The isophones run at Frequencies higher than 1 kHz so
good like all in parallel, so with quiet playback only the level of the low frequencies would ...to lift the
car. The psychoacoustic "curves of equal volume levels" are described in ISO Recommendation R226
(R454) and DIN 45630 sheet 2 (DIN1318).

Sound levels and the decibel scale

Even the loudest sounds and noises hardly exceed an intensity of 1 W/m2yet can whose energy is a
trillion times greater than that of the quietest sounds still audible. It has become standard practice to
use the sound level scale, the unit of which is the decibel (dB), one carries out sound measurements
with level meters that provide readings in dB. One decibel means: one tenth of a Bel, the Bel is defined
as the ratio of 10:1 between two intensities. This should be well remembered: a Bel is not the amount of
sound, it is a relationship between two sound events.

Example: if the sound Y - has 10 times as much energy as the sound X, then we say the level of Y is 1 Bel
or 10 dB higher. Iy/Ix=10

If we now take a sequence of sounds, each of which has 10 times more energy than the preceding, we
see that the last sound level must be n-Bel or 10n dB higher than the first. The intensity ratios are always
multiplied, but the sound level values (dB) are always added.

Figure: Sound level for different sound sources

The distance or distance law.

The more we move away from a stationary sound source, the quieter the audible sound level becomes
will be. In a closed room the answer is likely to be complicated, in a very In a reverberant room the
echoes can actually be so strong that the sound level is almost the same everywhere. But if we position
the sound source in the middle of a large, flat meadow, we have a situation in the sound propagates
uniformly in all directions and is not reflected, and in this case we can apply the law of conservation of
energy.

Composite sound levels and interference

Each sound source continuously generates energy: you can simply compare the individual intensities of
the two sound sources add and obtain the total intensity of the composite or superimposed Sound
levels.

What happens with 10 carefully tuned violins whose players play exactly the same note? It is obvious,
but wrong, to assume that we could add the amplitudes and get a total sound with 10 times the
amplitude and thus 100 times the intensity as when a violin played alone. In reality, however, the 10
violinists can never produce exactly the same frequency, no matter how much also make an effort. Each
pair of slightly different frequencies produces a slow beat; the Interference is alternately constructive
(overlapping amplitudes) and destructive (mutual extinguishing the waves). 10 violins together
therefore produce many different beat rates at the same time, some faster and some slower, because
even for a single player it is impossible to keep the frequency exactly constant.

Basic components of the music

Music has certain structures and our brain enables us to perceive such structures and patterns as
something to perceive and recognize the individual sounds as superordinate. The temporal organization
of musical events. In music, too, the similar limits of movement and perception must be observed. If you
beat with your whole arm, you can hardly do much more than one drum beat per second play. When
you play a passage on the piano you can play a maximum of 3-4 notes per Execute second.

Another question is: what is then the natural time unit for a listener? One can claim it is one second. We
can perceive two passages of 20 notes per second, but we can do not track tone by tone, but we record
a larger unit of several tone groups per Just a second. Fast passages usually have the character of filler
and decoration. Tempo refers to the pulse of the music, and is often left to the decision of the
performer.

A metronome is used to produce audible clicks or light pulses at arbitrary rates and so that the even
original tempo can be preset. The metre indicates how the underlying time units of a piece are arranged
in groups are organized between two vertical lines of the score, these groups are called Bars.

The rhythm creates patterns of stressed and unstressed beats or cycle times. Such rhythmic patterns
occur in a piece in various varied combinations. You primarily determine which mood is conveyed by the
music.

Rhythm and metre are often confused, because both denote temporal structures; metre is but the
superior time measure, into which different rhythms can fit. No musician plays with absolute regularity.

The rhythmic patterns in classical European music and popular music are rather relative simple and
straightforward. The special rhythm groups used, such as hemiolas, syncopations, triplets are limited by
metre. The music of some non-Western cultures, for example in Africa, has a lot of develops more
complex rhythmic patterns, with different instruments intertwined.
Melody and harmony

Each time beat in a rhythmic pattern represents a new choice situation for what is then comes: a new
sound or a pause, a group of tones, etc. Melody is a temporal sequence of different pitches, which are
perceived as a continuous line a horizontal wave-like structure, is organized temporally and
rhythmically. Harmony is the combination of different pitches at the same time and gives the music a
vertical structure. While harmony is an additional characteristic of music, melody is almost always
available. Simple vocal melodies rarely exceed the range of an octave.

Scales (scales) and intervals

Which of the possible pitches do you use when composing a melody? If the just noticeable difference in
frequency perception is just 1 Hz, then in the octave alone (from 262 to 523 Hz) we have several
hundred distinguishable Pitches are available. In numerous cultures musicians also make use of these
microtones. With our instruments, on the other hand, we have only 12 selected pitches per octave
limited: any deviation from these is considered an error or wrong tuning. Such a Group of selected tone
pitch steps is called a scale. European classical music is limited to the chromatic scale, which consists of
the 12 tone steps. The step from one key to the next, as known, is called a semitone or Semiton. The
standardized orchestra instruments are tuned so that they are at least produce approximately the tones
of an equally tempered scale. We call the perceived distance between two pitches an interval: harmonic
or melodic.

The partial series (harmonic series)

You can do an experiment: there is a group of electronic oscillators that can be easily set to sine waves
of any frequency can be set. This is a special case where all frequencies are simple multiples of a single
output frequency. Such a group is called a partial tone series (or partial tone series or harmonic series).

Partial tones (also known as natural tones) are overtones that are produced, for example, by wind
instruments by overblowing the eigentone will be. These are therefore the tones played on a wind
instrument without the operation of a valve or the like. can be. The frequency of the partial tones
results from the integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.

Example: The first partial tone (= fundamental) is c. The first integer multiple is double the frequency
(2:1). So it results as second partial tone the octave c1. The frequency of the third partial tone is in a
ratio of 3:1 to the frequency of the fundamental tone. This gives the fifth above the octave, i.e. the tone
g1. Further partial tones follow c2 (4:1, second octave), e2 (5:1), g2 (6:1), b2 (7:1), c3 (8:1, third
octave) etc.

The overtone series: The red curve shows the logarithmic character. The numbers in the lower row
indicate the deviation of the respective partial tone from the "equal temperament" in cent units.

For example the sequence. f = 110Hz, f2 = 220Hz, f3 = 330Hz etc., up to fn = n110Hz. All these
Frequencies have the same distance of 110 Hz to the previous one.

Example: Overtones of one side

Already before the experiment we know that these distances are not equal distances in pitch. You can
see that the ratios f2:f1 etc. each respond to one octave. The other tones in this series, however, are
mathematically as well as hearing related from of a special kind. At first it seems that most of them fit
into our normal scale would. Secondly, a comparison of the above mentioned frequencies shows that
many, but not all oscillator tones are very close to the frequencies of the equilibrium temperature, close
enough to to be permitted to use the same note names: f3 = 330Hz ≈ 329.6 Hz= e1. A partial tone series
can be reached at any frequency, which is then used as its fundamental (1. partial tone). The other tones
in the series are called the second, third, etc. Partial tone is called. Some partial tones simply do not fit
into our usual musical framework, they fall so to speak "between the keys" of the piano. Nevertheless
these notes belong to the partial tone series and must be observed acoustically. They are missing in the
chromatic scale and in the traditional western Music culture.

Even though the third and fifth partial tones can still be musically classified in a scale, they do not
correspond exactly to the notes of the equally tempered scale. The answer to the Question "which
frequency" is the right one for one or another interval, depends on for which Purpose the interval
should determine which requirements it should meet. Fortunately, ignore our ears usually have a
relatively wide range of values for this frequency ratio. This experiment also gives us an indication of an
even more important aspect of the partial tone series. When you hear the simultaneous sound of all
oscillators, they sound so well together that can believe to hear a single sound.

Structures in music

Melodies and keys

A melody alone, even without harmony, is already a great contribution to the development of the
musical form and organization. Tempo and rhythm of a melody stabilize a emotional impression, they
divide a piece with phrases and sections, give information about Beginning, middle and end. Equally
important is the choice of a scale for the melody-forming notes and roles assigned to the individual
notes. Often the latter form an enhanced harmony, even if a does not actually sound such.

In the scale we have a bass tone which we call tonic, and that is why we call this type of Scale use also as
key or tone gender. For European musical culture major and minor are Sound sexes dominate. Another
important role is that of the dominant, which serves as a second centre. The interval between Dominant
and tonic was not the same in the different church keys of the Middle Ages. For these keys, the acoustic
relationship between the dominant and the tonic is very close – the most consonant interval after
octave is the fifth - and they therefore sound as if they have each other in a way that becomes even
more evident with the introduction of harmony.

Another role is played by the leading note, e.g. VII step, which should be resolved to the tonic. This is
such a powerful method for amplifying the tonic function that is in the harmonic and melodic minor
keys, this VII tone is increased by a semitone, the stronger the leading tone function to exercise. In
addition, the leading note is often sung or played a little too high, so that it is even less than is 100 cent
below the target tone. The term atonality refers to the intentional avoidance of any impression of tonal
center, in that all notes of the scale are treated equally. Atonality cannot be treated with the seven
notes of the diatonic scale are realized, since their unequal spacing inevitably different values; however,
the 12 notes of the chromatic scale have no such values. inner structure and can therefore be used to
compose atonal.
Chords and harmonic progression

The elementary components of harmony are formed by chords. One should not call a chord simply as a
collection of tones, but as a combination of intervals. Just like the musical role of a simple two-tone
interval depends on its characteristic sound (determined by the frequency ratio), in particular by the
degree of consonance or dissonance this also for chords. But this shows that listing the intervals in a
chord is not enough, because major and minor triads contain exactly the same intervals, but still sound
clearly different.

The frequency ratios of the intervals also occur in the harmonic series, which give our pattern
recognition brain a way to make the partials all interval tones in a common pattern to unite. For our
brain, there is an implicit fundamental tone of 100 Hz, although this frequency cannot actually be
maintained. Can we find the corresponding implied keynotes for chords with three notes or more?

Let us first try it out on a simple major triad. If tuned correctly, its Tone the frequency ratio 4 : 5 : 6. This
alone is enough for our brain to recognize the pattern harmonic series. And the more complex the
associated waveforms of the are single tones. The frequencies 400, 800, 1200 Hz from the first tone,
500. 1000. 15000 Hz from the second, 600, 1200, 1800 from the third one give a matching series of
frequencies: 400, 500, 600, 800, 1200, 1500...HZ, which very strongly indicates a missing, i.e. implied
fundamental at 100 Hz, We conclude that the 3 tones cooperate in the sense that they have a common
implied fundamental tone, which we call the root of the 3-tone, which plays an important role in
harmonic analysis of classical music.

Example: a minor sound in pure tuning: if the lower third has a 5:4 ratio, the upper one has such a ratio
of 4:5, the smallest ratios that express this together are 10:12:15. the 3 tones to 1000, 1200, 1500 Hz,
the list of matching Partial tone frequencies of 100, 1200, 1500, 2000, 2400 etc. Hz. The largest number
is 100, so that we again can say that there is an implied fundamental at 100 Hz.

The human ear and how it works

Our ear system can be divided into 2 main parts: the so-called peripheral ear system and higher organs.
One can make further comparisons with the technical devices, so our outer ears resemble an antenna
with microphones that picks up a vibration, filters, amplifies and transmits it to the ear. There is a
transducer there which converts this acoustic vibration into an electro-mechanical one. We also have
various filters, preamplifiers, and we are able to perform spectral analysis to be carried out. After further
changes the vibration is converted into a nerve impulse and directed to the higher organs, which can be
compared to a processor: here a decoding takes place, one can recognize the frequencies, the
amplitudes etc.

The peripheral systems are called the ear system. Our ears are an instrument whose moving parts are
extremely small. The parts are invisible and protected from damage in depressions of the temporal
bone. The task of the ear is to incoming air pressure fluctuations into electrical nerve impulses, which
are then transmitted through the brain can be further processed.

The outer ear consists of the auricles (pinna) and the auditory canal (meatus), it ends at Eardrum. The
inner part of the auricle with a diameter of approx. 3 cm creates a funnel effect for short wave sound
waves in the direction of the eardrum. The auditory canal has a diameter of about 1 cm and about 2, 5
cm to 3 cm in length: it acts as an extension to transport the sensitive eardrum to the inside of the head
where it is better protected against dust and sharp objects. The eardrum is a thin Disc made of fibrous
tissue, which moves to and fro in accordance with the sound pressure vibrations in the ear canal swings.

The middle ear is the closed chamber immediately behind the eardrum. It is connected to the oral cavity
is connected by the Eustachian tube, through which the pressure is equalized in order to be able to to
create equal air pressure on the sides of the eardrum. The connection between the middle and inner ear
is based on two small openings, called the oval and the round window, are limited, they close the
openings called perilymph denotes fluid of the inner ear. The middle ear consists essentially of the 3
ossicles, which are called the hammer (malleus), anvil (incus) and stirrups (stapes). They act as a lever
system, which controls the mechanical vibrations of the eardrum to the inner ear. The handle of the
hammer is on the eardrum the foot of the stirrup is attached to the oval window. With moderate
vibrations the stirrup moves Hammer about 1.3 times stronger than the stirrup.

The middle ear contains two small muscles: the hammer muscle (tensor tympani) and stapes muscle
(Stapedius). The hammer muscle is attached to the hammer and increases the tension of the eardrum.
The Stirrup muscle pulls the stirrup sideways, thereby reducing the mobility of the 3 Ankles. Both
muscles can reduce the transmission of sound through the middle ear and the inner ear from damage.

The inner ear is a tangle of corridors in the petrous bone, which also form the archways of vestibular
apparatus, which serves the sense of balance. The cochlea is an organ that tapered tube, which is wound
round 3 times in a spiral shape. Inside the snail there is a complex structure. It divides the snail into two
passages filled with perilymph. Between them lies a another channel the helical channel, which is filled
with a viscous fluid, the endolymph. The upper The limitation of the screw channel is the vestibular
membrane.

The basilar membrane determines what we hear through its vibrations! The Cortiche organ sits on the
inner part of this membrane, it contains more than 20,000 so-called hair cells. Through the movement of
different parts of the basilar membrane different groups of hair cells are stimulated and start sending
signals to the adjacent cells of the auditory nerves.

None of the auditory nerve cords go directly from the inner ear to the brain, rather the signals are mixed
several times before they reach the auditory cortex (primary auditory cortex), where the signals are
consciously interpreted. Our auditory perception depends just as much on these processes in Brain as
from the physiology of the inner ear. Knowing how the brain processes this information edited is not yet
that big.

Limits of hearing and discrimination

Human ears react to noises and sounds only within certain limits of volume and the frequency range.
We are most sensitive to sound waves with frequencies between 2-5 kHz. A sound level of 0 dB
(intensity 10= 10 -12 W/m2) is often referred to as an easily remembered sound value for the softest
volume we can still hear. An average value for young people with good Health is about 17 - 18 kHz.
Lower frequencies than 30 Hz can only be perceived with difficulty. At suitable conditions (high intensity,
isolation, etc.) it may well be possible to generate sine waves down to 20 Hz and even 15 Hz. Now,
among the sounds we can hear, how big must be the difference between two of them so that we
perceive them as different sounds? The question also applies to others Sensory perception. All these
questions are answered by psychophysics, the determination of just noticeable difference (JND - Just
Noticeable Difference2), also as distance sensitivity is called. We are interested in the JND both in the
volume (sound level) and in the frequency (pitch) of sine waves.

Properties of continuous tones

The duration of a sound is an essential characteristic of a musical event. In order to describe a constant
sound completely physically, we need information:

Amplitude (or equivalently intensity), frequency and waveform. To describe our psychological
perception of this sound, we use the following Data: Volume, pitch, also tone colour (sound quality,
timbre).

The definition of timbre implies that it is essentially different from the other two categories is different:
Volume and pitch are simply one-dimensional, continuous variables, while timbre is complex.

Volume and intensity perception

Larger fluctuations in air pressure cause larger oscillation amplitudes in the transmission chain, first of all
of the eardrum, then of the middle ear ossicles, the oval window, the perilymph and finally the basilar
membrane. More violent movement of the basilar membrane means stronger irritation of hair cells and
thus more nerve impulses sent to the brain.

The nerve cells do not send weaker or stronger impulses to the brain depending on the strength of the
received stimulation, they are rather on-off switches, they terminate an impulse or not. The impulses
have the same strength. The perception of volume in the brain is an interpretation of the brain for the
average number of impulses arriving on the auditory nerve channel.

There is a scale for the perception of volume that many people can agree with, they but still remains
different from individual to individual. We give the lukewarmness with the sone unit.

Pitch and frequency

Some sounds have a clear and distinct pitch, others are difficult to judge. We claim: our ears order every
periodic waveform (which repeats itself unchanged) almost exactly the same pitch perception as a sine
wave with the same frequency. There are fundamental differences between what we said about the
relationship loudness-intensity and the relationship pitch-frequency.

Loudness is a matter of strong or weak, more or less, including the value Zero.

Pitch, on the other hand, is there or here, high or low, left or right, and the idea of a zero pitch is
pointless.

In technical terminology, this difference is expressed by the fact that volume is measured at a so-called
prophetic scale, whereas pitch is measured on a mathematical scale. For our purposes the judgement of
well-trained musicians with sharp ears is important. The natural

The unit for this judgment is without question the octave. Each octave is represented as the same unit of
change by the whole pitch range, which is at all reasonable and therefore musically can be meaningfully
assessed. Within the octave further musical intervals serve as unchangeable units of pitch
discrimination.
Tone pitch and volume

One should consider the dependence of the pitch perception on the intensity or the waveform as well as
the of the loudness of the frequency.

1. large changes in intensity can cause a change in pitch perception by a maximum of will produce a
semitone, even if the frequency remains unchanged. Low tones have a tendency, to be perceived
slightly lower and high tones slightly higher when played at high volume sound. Middle tones are hardly
influenced. This effect is especially true for sine waves or other simple waveforms. The complex
Waveforms, which are predominant in music, become independent in their pitch from the loudness
perceived.

2. it has been observed that sounds with the same intensity but different frequency are very cause
different loudness perceptions. One seeks the way to represent how the loudness perception depends
on both intensity and frequency.

We determine the loudness in two steps:

1) we read from the Fletcher-Munson diagram the loudness on the characteristic curve that a certain
frequency and intensity, and then
2) we go from this volume level in phon to the corresponding loudness value in sone.

The hearing threshold (also called stimulus threshold) is the sound pressure or sound pressure level at
which our Hearing Sounds or noises just perceived. The hearing threshold can be determined quite
accurately by subjective "yes-no" statement, usually for binaural hearing of a frontal sound source.
These quantities are highly dependent on frequencies. The lowest sound pressure just perceptible in this
range is 20 µPa. This value was set as a reference for the absolute sound pressure level at 2 kHz. This
curve limits the lower listening area. The upper limit of the listening area is called the pain threshold
called. Before that there is a larger area called the threshold of discomfort.

If the hearing ability is impaired, this is always recognizable by the course of the individual hearing
threshold. The measurement of the hearing threshold is performed with pure sine tones by means of a
"tone audiogram", which is usually used in I can get an ear doctor. There, the hearing test is usually
performed with headphones. Such a diagram is for the Diagnosis of a hearing impairment is of great
importance. From the frequency response of the hearing loss, that is the sound level distance between
measured hearing threshold and a "normal" hearing threshold with several frequencies, can be more
precisely hearing damage can be closed.

With increasing age, the hearing threshold curve provides a good indication of normal age-related
hearing loss at higher frequencies to determine.

Our hearing cannot perceive all vibrations (frequencies): those smaller than 16 Hz are outside the
audible range, they are below the hearing threshold. The hearing threshold therefore includes the
sound pressure level and the frequency. For high frequencies this limit depends on the age (and health
status of the hearing) and ranges for young people to about 19000Hz.

The audiogram describes the subjective hearing ability of a person. It is the most important Diagnostic
tool of audiology and is a technique of audiometry. With an audiogram Statements about the symptoms
and sometimes also about the causes of hearing disorders will be hit. Deviations from the norm in the
audiogram indicate a disease of the ear close.

An audiogram is created with the assistance of the person being examined. An examiner - today also a
computer – plays certain tones at a precisely defined volume via loudspeakers. The person to be
examined informs the examiner when she hears the sound. This can be done by pressing a button, for
example. The tones are played both in their pitch and varies in its volume. This creates a kind of
rasterized map in which each point has a pitch-volume combination which may or may not be heard by
the person under investigation. The card can always be divided into two contiguous areas. The
borderline is called the hearing threshold.

Different types of pitch perception

We have 3 different types of pitch perception to distinguish.

•The most complex is that of absolute pitch perception. It is ability to determine the pitch of a single
note to identify them or to meet them exactly by singing them according to the mere note name
without to have a reference tone. This ability is only present in a small percentage of the population ...to
meet. It may be congenital, but it will be lost if it is not practiced, it certainly plays a big role that she is
trained at a very early age.
•The next type is the difference in the distance between two pitches, i.e. the Interval size. This ability of
relative hearing is also bad for many people developed, but trained musicians can.
• It is the simplest form of comparative or comparative pitch perception. The listener only judges
whether 2 tones are equal or which of two tones is higher, without to determine by how much higher.

It is actually amazing that we can compare two pitches even when one of which one is a pure sine wave,
while the other originates from an acoustic instrument, and has numerous strongly represented partials
in its spectrum. Nevertheless, the ear can hear longer lasting instrumental sounds can easily be
compared with sine waves, whereby the fundamental frequency of the natural sound is called reference
point is detected.

Pitch perception mechanisms

Different types of theory of perception: telephone theory, location theory, periodicity theory and
Pattern recognition theory.
1). The so-called telephone theory of auditory perception (Rutherford 1886) is a natural analogy, which
was created after Graham Bell invented the telephone. In its most extreme form, the theory states that
the ear functions as a microphone and converts sound waves into corresponding electrical signals
convert. The ear would therefore not pass on any analytical function.
2). The theory of locus was proposed by Helmholz (1863) and tested by Békésy and further developed. It
takes its name from the idea that every pitch of the excitation of a corresponds to a specific location in
the basilar membrane. The simplicity and clarity of this theory explains its

Popularity: different frequencies always excite preferably different parts of the basilar membrane and
therefore different nerve endings. Heimholz's original theory was based on his resonance theory. If one
and the same excitation signal to different oscillating circuits shows the strongest amplitude, the
frequency of the pathogen. The hairs of the basilar membrane differ from each other in length and
stiffness to distinguish, so that near the oval window easier to high frequencies and further away from it
increasingly easier to react to lower frequencies or to vibrate. One must so assume that the brain
derives its pitch perception simply from which nerve endings are most strongly stimulated. In favour of
the theory of location, measurements taken on human auditory canals about one hour after death and a
kind of measurement map of the membrane resonance. This theory agrees well with Ohm's law of
resistance. Different partials of a sound excite different parts of the membrane preferentially. Only their
relative Resonance strength then plays a role, but not the phase.

3). The competing theory of periodicity was developed in a long series of psycho-physical Experiments
developed by Dutch scientists, beginning around 1940 with J.F. Schouten. This theory assumes that the
nerve impulses sent to the brain by the snail have already been more than just the information about
the relative strength of the harmonic partials. Rather, it also contains a Part of the information is
transmitted via the original waveform. The simplest method to transfer this information to consists of
each nerve cell preferably only during a partial oscillation of the

Basilar membrane firing. However, this only works at the lower frequencies up to about 1 kHz up good.
The prerequisite is that the brain is somehow able to determine successive bundles of nerve impulses
(i.e. the oscillation period of the incoming sound wave) can be measured fairly accurately.

A particular advantage of the periodicity theory is that it allows the perception of a pitch despite can
explain the missing fundamental by the presence of a residual tone. Instead of a problem now becomes
an advantage of the species because the excitation curves of the basilar membrane are strongly excited.
The combination of several high partials results in a resulting waveform with protruding amplitude
peaks whose time interval is exactly equal to the period length of the fundamental of this harmonic
series so that a period measuring circuit of the brain will receive the same message as if a fundamental
would actually be present, and therefore also reports its pitch as present.

The greatest strengths of periodicity theory lie in its ability to detect pitch perceptions even at to explain
unusual sounds that never occur in traditional music. Such soundsconsist of a series of partial tones,
which are shifted electronically so that they still have the same distance to each other, but are no longer
complete multiples of the fundamental.
For example, you take the 9th, 10th and 11th partial of a fundamental of 200 Hz and shift them a little
bit to 1830, 2030 and 2230 Hz or even more to 1860, 2060, 2260 Hz The perceived pitch shifts then also
moves upwards in a way for which location theory has no explanation. There remain also to explain
ambiguities where the assignment of the test signal between 2 different pitches wavers back and forth.
The detailed waveform of this non-harmonic series is not repeated exact, but has an envelope curve
whose shape is repeated The repetition frequency of this envelope curve but remains unchanged at 200
Hz, so that they obviously do not form the basis of the pitch perception can be. The experimental data
are obtained in such a way that we can Time span from one peak of the detailed waveform to the next
peak above the sink in the envelope measure. The theory of periodicity also leads to the assumption
that pitches and timbre perception of complex sounds are very dependent on the relative phases of the
individual partials, so that it would then be possible to but not explain the validity of Ohm's law.

4). The modern theory of pitch perception A combined theory has been developed which is called
pattern recognition theory. Several and significant variants of it were developed independently of each
other around 1973 by Wightman, Goldstein and Terhardt . All emphasize further processing in the brain
as opposed to in your ear.
The ears therefore primarily transmit information about the sound spectrum, and the Identification of
periodicity by the ear is reduced to a smaller role, but not completely out of the question. Scientists
today are convinced that it is the brain that is trying to to recognise signs of order - i.e. patterns - in the
signals transmitted by the ears. If there are something similar to a harmonic series, it assigns this pattern
a pitch with the corresponding basic frequency.
Perhaps the strongest evidence of pattern recognition processes in the central brain is the fact that
information coming from both ears is combined for the final assessment. Miscellaneous Experiments
with dichotic signals (different sound information for each ear, transmitted via headphones) have shown
this, whereby the ones by Houtsma and Goldstein (1972) are particularly are elegant and musically
expressive. Assuming that frequencies of 1200 and 1600 Hz are assigned to right ear, one at 1400 Hz to
the left. If the pitch perception through each ear separately, one would expect to hear two different
pitches, namely 400 Hz on the right and 14000 Hz left. However, the test subjects heard only one pitch
for the combined sound, although this dichotic pitch is extremely weak and difficult to hear.

The brain tries with all possibilities to discover ordered patterns even if such patterns are not present in
the original sound stimulus are not present at all.

The theory of pattern search and pattern recognition fits perfectly with our Pitch perception for piano
sounds, bells or timpani. The sound spectrum of the piano is easy disharmonious, but the brain simply
ignores the small deviations. But bells and timpani have quite irregular spectra, which differ
considerably from harmonic series. But as long as the brain finds even a few components that at least
unguidedly form a harmonic series it clings to it, so to speak, and ignores the rest, in order to achieve a
certain pitch to be able to report.

Goldstein's theory of an "optimization processor" in the brain also Explanation for the fact that we
perceive a sound as dirty or pure. That is, how much we perceive... sense whether a sound contains a
certain pitch or just noise. The brain does this because of the correspondence between the actually
reported sound spectrum and the spectrum of harmonic series for the perceived pitch according to
special mathematical criteria.

One may ask why the brain wants to recognize harmonic series. The optical Pattern recognition clearly
serves survival purposes; and although this is not so obvious, this could also apply to sound perception.
Terhard claims that the central nervous system "learns by doing": every time we hear a continuous tone
with a harmonic spectrum it becomes easier for the brain to recognize this sound if it sounds again. We
learn early on that speech sounds are very important. If this is true, this theory means that extended
Listening to music in early childhood leads to the development of a greater ability to create harmonic
series identify and thus carry out a sharper determination of pitch and interval size to be able to do that.

Frequency groups (critical frequency bandwidth)

Many psychoacoustic experiments show a difference in perception that depends on the frequencies of
two test signals are close together or far apart When they are together, the two signals... they are more
or less in the same region of the basilar membrane; if they are far apart, they simulate two separate
regions, i.e. there is little or no overlap in the two reaction curves The frequency range for which the
basilar membrane response curves effectively overlap is referred to as
Frequency group or critical frequency bandwidth.

Plural critical bands in the human ear are Frequency ranges that are evaluated together. An evaluation
in critical bands is carried out, for example, when determining the loudness, the sound or the direction
of the sound. An exception is the evaluation of the pitch: here is the frequency resolution much bigger.

The human ear divides the 'audible frequencies into about 24 frequency groups. An critical band covers
a frequency range of about 100 Hz for frequencies below 500 Hz Hz for frequencies above 500 Hz the
frequency range of a minor third. This is a Frequency ratio of 1.19.

The formation of critical bands is based on the conversion of sound into nerve impulses in the inner ear.
The different frequencies of sound are converted by the basilar membrane in the inner ear into
deflection maxima are implemented at different spatial positions and excite the here located nerve cells.
Each of these nerve cells is responsible for a different pitch sensation responsible.

Combination tones

In 1714 the famous violinist Tartini observed that when he played a double stop strongly with two notes
at the same time could sometimes hear a third note. This difference tone DT has the Frequency: fdt= fh-
ft, where fh = frequency of the high tone and ft = the frequency of the low stimulating Tons.

These are phenomena from the so-called non-linearity. A nonlinear distortion should be both difference
tone as well as a sum tone (Fst= Fh+Ft) with comparable amplitude. The Sum tone is difficult to hear
because it is in the octave range above Fh (high tones) and the two output tones are thereby strongly
masked. The difference tone is difficult to hear when it lies between ft and fh, it is clearly visible when it
lies below ft.

If two oscillations of different frequency are superimposed, an amplitude-modulated oscillation, where

the modulation frequency corresponds to the frequency of the differential tone. The auditory system is
able to evaluate the envelope of a signal. The result of this evaluation would then be an oscillation with
the frequency of the difference tone.

Especially at frequencies above 1600 Hz, the human ear can determine the exact time function of the
signals no longer detect. The only information that can be obtained about the time course of the sound
signals is nor the envelope curve can be evaluated. And this evaluation results in an oscillation with the
frequency of the difference tone.

In the past, it was sometimes thought that this phenomenon was related to our ability to might have to
do with perceiving a missing fundamental tone. Recent research has shown that here there is still much
in the dark concerning these combination tones.

Loudness and masking

Rule: what you hear as loudness is exclusively from the energy received in this band dependent. Two
sufficiently well separated bandwidths each make an independent contribution to the total -Loud.
That means: Within a critical band the intensity is additive, but outside of it the perceived loudness is
additive.

Closely related to the perception of loudness differences is the phenomenon of Masking: we hear two
tones, e.g., a very loud one with a certain frequency, and when a second weak sound with a different
frequency, what happens? The weaker the sound, the easier it is to hear, the more its frequency differs
from that of the stronger sound. and the more the two frequencies are close together, the more the
second tone is masked, that is, masked. The masking effect is an everyday phenomenon. A whisper,
which in a quiet is completely inaudible in a noisy crowd; a car radio is not heard in a fast drive louder to
drown out the driving noise than during a break or slow drive. In the everyday practice, it can all too
easily happen to a sound-weak soloist that he or she can be noisy company is covered up. Good
composers know, however, that they have to mask the soloist's voice well audible, that they are clearly
distinguishable from the original in terms of either pitch or timbre accompanying ensemble and thus
excites frequency groups of the listener which have not yet been of the latter generated sounds are
"occupied".

Tone colour

In fact, various experiments show that the partials up to the sixth or seventh each make an independent
contribution to the timbre, while the contributions of higher partials are linked to each other merge.

The number of independent information that determines the timbre, 6 or 7 plus a few more for the
additional critical bands, which are excited by several partials, is maybe 10 to 15 in all. One often asks
oneself the question whether the brain even uses so much detailed information? Maybe it only pays
attention to certain combinations of excitation of critical bands and not to the excitation of each
individual independent of the others?

There is indeed experimental evidence that recognition of vowels and timbres can only be 3 or 4
independent parameters. So it would be possible, at least in theory, that we could have a day with 4
indications could describe a timbre, each indication being a number that could be position along the
connecting line between two extreme points. So e.g. a sound are described by the number 7 on a scale
from 0 for "hollow" to 10 for "full", the number 4 on a second scale between the extremes "dull" and
"sharp", etc., with 4 such figures would describe almost any possible timbre with sufficient accuracy.

Intervals and tuning systems

Interval Perception

How do we measure our perception of the distance between two tones along the pitch axis or Intervals
between them?

When the frequency of one tone becomes more and more distant from that of another, its pitch not just
more and more different from the latter. One even has the impression that he's back to the beginning
sounds when the distance of an octave is reached. When the tone moves through the next octave, it
sounds so similar to the first octave that we use the same tonal designations.

For many musical purposes an octave equivalence applies, i.e. there is no or hardly any Roll when we
replace a note with its namesake from another octave.
We say that the pitch has 2 aspects:
1. tonality or tone color, tone character, which indicates where the note is located in relation to the
others within the octave stands
2. pitch class refers to the same characteristics if we form only a limited scale, e.g. all notes with the
designation "c" of a pitch class.

This raises the question whether it is possible to change the chroma while the pitch remains the same. A
fascinating demonstration of this was given by R. Shepard in 1964. He created with the help of a
Computer sounds that contained many members of a pitch class at the same time (with partial tones
number 1, 2, 4, 8, 16) at low fundamental frequencies. Always the partial tone that leads to the middle
of the audible range was given the strongest amplitude. A continuous sequence of such Shepards tones
circles forever the chroma spiral and conveys the acoustic illusion of a constantly rising pitch without
would ever reach the limit of the audible range.

This is the phenomenon of categorical perception.

Let's assume an experiment in which we not only see ordinary neighboring musical intervals (two
successive tones: thirds, fourth). Are all these intervals generated in random sequence, most test
listeners will classify each of them as one of the three standard intervals; i.e. we will "listen" to all small
and large intervals and the different large deviations in between practically ignore.

For harmonic intervals (two tones simultaneously) consisting of non-sinusoidal sounds, the following
applies but give a special claim to be something like a natural category. We can now determine the size
of a composite interval by multiplying the individual

Define interval-frequency ratios. You need a more practical unit of measurement (less than one octave)
by the size of our intervals to describe precisely. An international unit of measurement, the cent, has
been introduced.

The cent scale has two defining characteristics:

1. the frequency ratio 2:1 should correspond exactly to the number 1200 cents, i.e. a pure octave st
1200 cents, so that one cent corresponds exactly to a 100th of a well-tempered semitone.
2. The multiplication of frequency ratios is always replaced by the addition of the corresponding Penny
figures. The relationship between frequency ratios and cents of those between sound intensity level and
decibel is analogue.

We always have the choice between 2 possibilities to change the size of a composite interval to
calculate:
1. multiplying (x) the frequency ratios; or
2. addition (+) of the cent amounts.
3. if an interval is given downwards instead of upwards, a subtraction (-) is used.

It remains a remarkable property of our hearing in interval perception that we perceive two pitches at
all and not just one. Our sense of hearing collects clues about formant ranges, transient processes, pitch
progressions and achieves the amazing masterpiece of sorting out the Fourier components in two or
more rows and then assigning a basic tone.
Here is a good acoustic justification for some traditional rules of instrumentation and Counterpoint. In
order to keep 2 melody lines distinguishable, they should be distinguished with two different timbral or
transient response instruments. It is even easier if the lines are more and more often counter
movement. Smooth and similar timbres (especially on electronic organs) or parallel movements (octave,
fifth) make the voices easily blend together, and they are no longer or very difficult to identify
individually.

Intervals and the harmonic series

One of the oldest traditions of music theory is that of the Greek philosopher and mathematician
Pythagoras (ca. 500 B.C.). There are no preserved own writings of Pythagoras, one has later reports that
he found out that the two sections of a divided page on a monochord sound in unison if the sections are
of equal length, in octave intervals with a ratio of String length of 2:1 and in fifths spacing at a ratio of
3:2.

Partly on the basis of this observation, partly also because Pythagoras' head of a mystical number cult,
his successors learned what is today called Pythagorean music theory will. They claim that a special
relationship between the ratios of the string sections and certain intervals, which are the basis of all
music, and which serve, the smaller the numbers, the more consonant and important the interval.

If you emphasize frequency relations with small numbers, you mean the same intervals asmoccur in the
harmonic series. Physically, the spectra of complex continuous tones form harmonic series. The overlap
or concordance of such series is particularly noticeable when their fundamental tones have a ratio
smaller numbers and therefore make the assumption: Just the assumption that they could somehow
sound as if they fit together or belong together.

Physiologically, the imprinting of harmonic series in our pattern recognition processor may cause the
brain to search eagerly for similar patterns, even on two tones, whose formants or transients they
identify as separate units.

Psychologically, this would not be surprising, because it is only one of many indications of Preference for
trust, simplicity, orderliness and smoothness by man. The word "smooth" is an important clue. Because
audible beats give us a convenient criterion the hand, when we want to establish a pure Pythagorean
interval in front of us.

One instrument or string can be tuned with another to a desired consonant interval can be tuned by
making the beats disappear. This is extremely easy for primes, relatively easy for octaves, somewhat
more difficult already for fifths and for the other intervals requires considerable effort. The construction
of this procedure and the practical basis for tuning of our scales we now want to examine.
Musical scales (scales and modes)

The construction of our wind and keyboard instruments together with the limitations of our traditional
musical notations are limited to a few pitches and the intervals, all other pitches and intervals are
"official" so to speak. not recognised'.

We refer to this group of pitches as scales, modes or scales. A Scale or Scale is simply a sequence of
pitches, a list of possible tones, while a key is also the structure of their use, the key sets different
musical functions for its individual levels fixed, the scale not.

You can put together any number of different pitches, either randomly or according to any scheme, and
call the result a scale. Many of such scales sound exotic to our ears. Part of the reason for this is because
we have... Use continuous tones or relatively long sounding tones.
You can combine several different scales by certain restrictions.
1. the octave interval should be present and tuned exactly to 2:1 and
2. the tone intervals in the scale should be equal.
3. then you have to determine how many steps should be possible in an octave: for N steps we call the
scale N-tone equal tempered scale.

For the distance between the single steps we only need to divide 1200 cents by the number N: N=12
each step results in 100 Cent and thus the well-tempered mood of the chromatic scale.
For N=6 we get the whole tone scale, which Claude Debussy, for example, used in many pieces.

Most important for western music are the diatonic scales, which consist of a sequence of whole notes
(G) and semitones (B) per octave. Our major scale is often referred to as diatonic. The diatonic scale can
be derived in various ways. The easiest way is as a subset from the chromatic scale.

The impossibility of perfect pitch.

There is basically a mathematical problem with the tuning of tones of a diatonic scale.
1. example: we start with a middle C and try to add more notes. Since we often use C major triads we
first demand that e' should be exactly 386 cents over c' (as an exact 5:4 ratio). To also be good To be
able to play E major triads, g sharp' must be tuned exactly 386 cents above e'. What do? A singer or
trombonist can produce one or the other without any problems, also other wind players can influence
the pitch sufficiently. After tuning, the keyboard instruments have once and for all Pitches, and no
possibility to change them during the game. Today, piano students learn to play the same black key, no
matter whether g sharp or as is in the notes, although you can calculate that g sharp and as are not the
may have the same frequency. This was due to the fact that 3 major thirds on top of each other were
not a pure octave but are 41 cents "too short". The same expressed in frequency ratios: 5/4-5/4-
5/4=125/64, although one octave should result in 128/64, the difference of 41 cents corresponds to the
ratio of 128:125.

1) You can build keyboards with more than 12 keys per octave, so we can use more than 12 tone classes.
Many old organs and small grand pianos have split black keys, so you can play either G-sharp or A-flat
with two associated pipes or sides.
2) You can tune one key and avoid playing another. This was practice in the baroque era.
3) We could tune G-sharp, but still play pieces in A-flat, consciously realizing that the considerable upset,
our listeners will be in real pain.
4) It is possible to do without our perfectly tuned thirds and tune them a little larger than 386 cents.

When we equate G-sharp and A-sharp we create a circle of great thirds. Let's insist on the rule that
octave in 2:1 and fifths must be tuned in 5:4, then there will inevitably be a 41 cent error somewhere in
this circle. Similarly it in the circle of thirds and fifths. It's impossible to tune 12-note scales so that all
consonant intervals are pure are.

Tone (tuning) and temperature

Over time, theorists have developed dozens of tuning systems for keyboard instruments and developed.
The first approach or initial theory is the Pythagorean Tuning.

The Pythagorean tuning is formed by the construction of pure fifths (2:3). 12 pure fifths in a ratio of 2:3
cover the tonal space of 7 octaves and result in all tones of the chromatic scale.

The last tone His should actually be identical with the tone C, but if you calculate this series, there is a
difference between the His and the C. This difference is called "Pythagorean comma". Most of the pure
fifths are tuned to an exact 702 cents and the tuning of the thirds is neglected in comparison. In its pure
form the Pythagorean tuning achieves 11 perfect fifths, with the full diatonic comma then appearing in
the twelfth remaining fifth must be balanced.

The second approach is called 14-point mid-tone tuning and touches on the circle of major thirds. Here,
a maximum of 8 major thirds can be tuned to 386 cents without floating whereas the mood of the fifths
is neglected. Despite the disadvantage, the numerous perfect thirds of this mood or temperature, the
spread of triad-based music and the during the Renaissance.

The third approach is called pure tuning. Here, an attempt is made both to thirds as well as a few fifths.

The pure(perfect) tuning is derived from the overtone series.

Difficulties arose however from the different frequency ratios of the whole tone (8:9 c - d and 9:10 d - e,
see overtone series). As long as If you only played in one key, this disproportion did not bother you. But
the increasing Changing keys and the inclusion of keys with more and more accidentals gave the impetus
for a solution which eliminated these differences.

As a price for 6 perfect triads obtained in this way, one must assume that all other triads are thirds
which sound just as bad as in Pythagorean tuning, and in addition that an extremely the dissonant fifth
sits right in the middle of the most important triads. Textbooks often show a scheme for diatonic scales.
But these schemes are in the first place Line mathematical exercises. They are completely useless for
actual performance practice.
In the fourth approach we now try to find a compromise by deliberately making some or all intervals are
detuned to precise proportions, "tempered". These schemes are therefore called tempering or
temperature.
After 1700 the tempered tuning became generally accepted, in which the octave is divided into exactly
12 equal halftone steps is divided. In this equal temperament there is no interval except the octave
really pure, but the differences are so small that one does not notice the difference.
J.S. Bach took advantage of this new tuning and wrote his "Well-Tempered Clavier", a Collection of
preludes and fugues in all major and minor keys.

It is possible to combine the different methods with each other, for example by first creating a
phytagorean tuning and then temper three notes, the other 9 unchanged be left in place.

The number of different possibilities in which the deviations of a tempered tuning can be can be
allocated to the individual intervals is practically unlimited. There is a group of important regular
temperatures, in which as many intervals as possible on the same distance (e.g. 11 of 12 fifths, 8 of 12
major thirds, etc.), no matter how large may be that distance. These tempered tunings are usually
named according to how strong the fifths are tempered towards the smaller side.

J.S. Bach wrote his famous preludes and fugues ("The Well-Tempered Clavier") for the Temperature
based on the 1/6 decimal point scheme. I wonder what he was doing with his pieces through all the keys
was the musical use of a "good" temperature, which was by no means necessarily meant an equilibrium
temperature.

The widespread acceptance of the equilibrium temperature in the 19th century means the intentional
Task of a useful musical material.

Tuning - comparison

Here once again the different moods for comparison:

Summary:

Each musical interval size corresponds to a frequency ratio, which is expressed as a corresponding
number of cents can be described as equivalent. The designation in cents is particularly convenient
because the cent scale is handled additively. Unless we are asked to carefully adjust a mood we have the
tendency to listen to intervals, i.e. to classify them into categories.

The Categories according to which we listen to the intervals are determined by musical training and the
tradition; in our essential culture they correspond to the intervals of the 12-tone chromatic scale.

For music with long-lasting chords and complex sound spectra, intervals whose frequency ratio
corresponds to small-numbered fractions, sound considerably clearer than those with large-numbered
breaks in the frequency ratios and are therefore particularly important for every mood. For our ears, the
most important clue to judge is given by the beats, or the sound roughness, which arises between such
overtones of the two fundamental tones of the interval, which onlyapproximate, but not exactly the
same frequency.

Pure fifths, to a lesser extent major and minor thirds, play a special role in the Structure of the 7-tone
diatonic scale and its chromatic expansion to 12 tones. It is it is mathematically impossible to perfectly
tune all intervals in such a scale simultaneously. The unavoidable deviations are presented in numerous
variants and different mood systems and temperatures are regulated by compromises. The equal
floating temperature is only one of many possibilities, and for many music styles and pieces of music by
no means the best.
The human voice

The upper airways (pharynx, mouth and nose) are called the attachment tube or Vocal tract. In the vocal
tract, the primary laryngeal sound that is produced in the larynx changes. At many men the larynx is
clearly recognizable as "Adam's apple". It consists of cartilage and is hollow (breathing air flows through
it). In the larynx there are two vocal folds of muscle and tissue layers, they are tensed and can be
adjusted by muscles, cartilage and joints.

They close the windpipe except for a small gap, which is called glottis. The vocal folds are relaxed during
normal breathing and the glottis is wide, so the air can flow in and out unhindered. To create voiced
tones, the vocal folds tense. The glottis narrows to a fine crack. If air now comes out of the lungs the
vocal chords are set in vibration similar to a side. The Air resonates. And so a sound (voice sound) is
created.The more relaxed the vocal folds are, the deeper the basic tone of the sound is - the more tense
they the higher it gets.

The pitch depends on the length and thickness of the vocal chords. The longer they are, the deeper the
voice. Men have longer vocal folds than women because the larynx is larger. Children always have high
voices, because the vocal folds are shorter. Meanwhile, in boys and girls who have their voices broken
Girls the vocal folds thicker and longer, some have the voice during this time not at all more under
control, sounds hoarse or even voiceless.

The vocal folds are responsible for pitch and tone strength, in addition to the blowing pressure; they
provide the Keynote. Here they produce an undifferentiated mixture of vibrations rich in overtones. It
sounds like a ...snarling sound.

The sounds we need for linguistic communication are created in the embouchure tube. mouth and The
pharynx, the tongue, the lips and the teeth work together. For example, in the vowels A, E, I, O and U,
the position of the vocal folds is almost always the same. The different timbres are produced by the
change of the oral cavity and pharynx. With M and N, the oral cavity remains closed and air flows out
through the nose.

1. mechanics of the voice generation Just like all wind instruments, the human voice has
1) a reservoir of air with the ability to maintain a positive pressure in it
2) an outlet duct with a constriction where the air flow is interrupted or modified may become
3) a resonance chamber through which certain frequencies of the sound waves produced are amplified
will be.

The air reservoir consists of the lungs with a volume of about 3-4 litres, whereby about half a liters of air
out and in with every breath. When inhaled, the lung is moved across the Intercostal muscles and
stretched lengthwise from the diaphragm muscles. Relaxation of the muscles and the contraction of the
abdominal muscles leads to exhalation. The lungs of an adult can contain up to 6 litres of air, even after
deep exhalation they retain up to 2 litres of air. The difference from 3 to 5 litres represents the
maximum amount of air available for a continuously sung phrase is standing.
The windpipe (trachea) leads from the lungs up to the so-called vocal tract, which consists of throat,
mouth and Nose passes.

At the upper end of the trachea there is also a hollow structure made of cartilage, the so-called larynx
(larynx), which serves as a switch point to the esophagus and the vocal tract. The epiglottis is a valve on
the larynx which is opened when swallowing falls down to prevent accidental entry of food into the
trachea.

The airflow can be interrupted by the vocal chords, which is a pair of soft tissue on the inner walls of the
larynx, the shape and stiffness of which is determined by various small muscles can be changed. The
opening between them is called glottis, it is V-shaped, because the vocal chords are connected at the
front and separated at the back at the control cartilages. The glottis is about 2 cm long and 1 cm wide.
The vocal folds close when swallowed, during normal breathing they are open. For the phonation they
close completely or almost completely, so that the lungs have an air pressure of at least 50-400 mm
water column or more on them. This pressure causes the vocal chords to open and Gradual admission of
air into the vocal tract. The vocal chords vibrate with a frequency that is controlled by the tension of
their muscles. In normal speech, the frequencies range from 70 to 200 Hz for a male voice and from 140-
400 Hz for a female voice. The difference is determined by the longer and heavier vocal cords in the
adult male.

These frequency ranges can when singing can be extended upwards by one octave or more. Directly
above the larynx is the pharyngeal cavity, which extends outwards through the mouth opens, whereby
tongue, teeth and lips offer additional possibilities to obstruct the air flow or to block. Depending on the
position of the soft palate, the throat is open towards the nasal cavity or closed. The size and shape of
the vocal tract are therefore extremely variable, with the tongue with its variants (variable) position and
shape plays the greatest role, so that very different sounds are produced can be.

Speech generation

Every distinguishable element of language is called a phoneme. In linguistics, phonemes are the
phonemes are divided into consonants (transition sounds) and vowels (constant sounds). Man
distinguishes 5 groups of phonemes: Plosive sounds, fricatives, other consonants, pure vowels and
diphthongs (double vowels). The closure sounds (plosive sounds) are produced by suddenly letting
through a single air blast after previous complete closure of the vocal tract. This happens at various
points. Acoustically, the plosive sound is a simple sudden impulse of high pressure followed by a short
damped vibration, superimposed by the breathing sound of the air passing through the opening until
the excess pressure is equalized. These non-uniform and non-periodic sound waves have have a
continuous frequency spectrum, i.e. they have no definable pitch.

Every unvoiced plosive has a voiced counterpart: p-b, t-d and k-g. With these the vocal chords an even
vibration with a kind of vowel sound immediately after the initial Air thrust instead of leaving a larger
gap. The transitional character of the plosive sounds means that they transports little sound energy,
which is why they have to be exaggerated when singing professionally, to be noticed.

The fricatives (fricativa) also exist in pairs unvoiced/voiced: f/v, ch/ch, sch, th, s, z. All these sounds differ
in that they can be held out for as long as desired. Nevertheless the unvoiced versions have no
recognizable pitch, they are even. Their waveforms are also
non-periodic, the spectra contain a continuous frequency band The noisy or hissing The sound part of
the friction sounds corresponds to the turbulence in an air stream, which is passed through a small
opening with too much is pressed at high speed. This point can be located at various points along the
path of the vocal tract. These articulation points are the lips and teeth, tongue and palate. The different
forms of the vocal tract cause different frequency ranges to be amplified will be. The positive feedback
(resonance) is not strong enough to periodically instead of forcing randomly distributed vibrations.

Among the "other consonants" one summarizes some phonemes in which transitions take place, which
are not fundamentally different from those described so far. These are: gliding sounds J, palatal sounds L
and r, nasal sounds m, n, nh, which contain a transition from consonant to vowel. At the beginning of a s
nasal sound the vocal chords already vibrate, only the nose is open, but this leaves already produces an
even voiced sound, the humming sound. This can be heard for an unlimited time. before the consonant
is articulated; it indicates a certain pitch and a partial tone series. The consonant end of the nasal sounds
is created by opening the oral passage as

Preparation for the following phoneme. The nasal sounds differ from each other only by the passage,
where the final consonant is articulated the lips at m, tongue at n. The vowels are regular, voiced sounds
with a specific pitch and periodic waveform.

Their spectra are harmonic series. When an air stream is passed between two almost closed vocal
chords, there is a critical speed, but exceeding it will cause the flow can no longer be uniform. Flow-
dynamic instabilities cause the vocal chords for swinging to and fro, so flow can only occur by jerks. One
can hear the voice classify it as another reed instrument. An important difference is the relationship
between reed and resonator (sound tube). On all brass and woodwind instruments the reaction of the
tube strong enough to influence the frequency of the reed sufficiently, therefore The bore and shape of
the bell lintels have a great influence on the pitch of the sound. The vocal tract differs here because its
walls are soft and pliable and thus Absorb vibrational energy.

All resonances in the vocal tract are relatively weak. The feedback through the vocal tract is much too
weak to exert any significant influence on the vocal cords. Although the vocal chords are also are made
of soft fabric, they must be considered as hard reeds from an acoustic point of view, whose oscillation
frequency and waveform are almost completely determined by their own voltage, mass and distance,
with a slight influence by the pressure of the lungs.

The pitch of the voice is thus determined by muscular control in the throat, indifferent to which vowel it
is; being able to sing cleanly intoned scales therefore requires a mental and physical training of these
muscles. The timbre of the vowels is determined by another independent group of muscles that control
the shape of the vocal tract.

The double vowels are fast transitions that begin with one vowel and end with another, because the
tongue changes shape. Double vowels (ai, eu, oi) are a dangerous minefield for singers because they add
value to the problem of how long the transition point can be delayed. A too long Staying in the wrong
place can distort the meaning of the word.
Formants

In acoustics or phonetics, formant (from Latin formare = to form) is the Concentration of acoustic energy
in a specific frequency range. Formants are called musical instruments or the human voice Frequency
ranges where the volume is raised that is, maxima in the spectrum.

Due to the resonance properties of an instrument (or the articulation space), certain frequency ranges in
relation to other frequency ranges. The formants are those Frequency ranges where the relative gain is
highest. The position of the formants in the Frequency range is independent of the generated pitch.
Only formants that are above the fundamental frequency of a tone have an effect on the timbre of the
tone.

For the musicians, the vowels are of particular interest, since they are the ones on which the respective
permanent value of a note. The generation of different vowels by bending the tongue must therefore be
based on different filter functions based on the same basic sound produced by the vocal
chords...influence.

What do the sound waves entering the vocal tract sound like?
In unaltered form, one would perceive a "farting" sound, similar to the sound before lips of a trumpeter
(without contact to the mouthpiece). It is a sequence of Air blasts, the exact properties of which depend
on how forcefully the air is forced through the throat will.

How does the vocal tract affect the frequency spectrum?

All components of the spectrum in the radiated sound and there is rather a moderate amplification of
the frequencies that are neighbouring regions around a resonance. Any such frequency range, within
which the Amplitudes of the spectral frequencies amplified is called formant. Let us assume that a singer
sings one octave higher, always with the same cylindrical shape of the Vocal tract. Then the sound
spectrum of the larynx receives all multiples of 200 Hz, but the Formants or formant areas remain
unchanged. The ear somehow recognizes the position of these formant ranges almost independent of
the individual frequencies that make up these ranges, so that sounds (Figure 14.8) can be perceived as
largely identical vowel colour.

Scientists Strong and Plitnik give calculations for 2 cases of contiguous cylindrical tube sections with
different diameters. These can be a rough approximation to the shape of the vowel tract for the vowels
"iiiii" (tongue up or in front) and open "ooo" (tongue down and back) (Figure 14.10). Further examples
of spectra, their formant ranges and the corresponding waveforms are shown in Figure 14.11.

The frequency position of the first formants is particularly influenced by the way the lower jaw is
opened the second is influenced by the shape of the main body of the tongue and the third by the Tip of
the tongue. We could now proceed to the formant representations for a long list different vowels or a
table of frequency ranges for the respective formants.

If you select a display where the horizontal axis is the frequency of the first formant range and the
vertical one indicates that of the second, each point in this representation represents a unique formant
pair dar.
Ideally, each vowel would correspond to such a point, but in practice there is a large bandwidth not only
from one person to another, but also for the same person to different Times. One finds a whole region
of formant pairs, within which the same vowel information is recognized. The ranges overlap partially,
so that sometimes the same sound is ambiguous can be perceived. Normally only one of the two
possible sound interpretations results a meaning, and we tend to automatically accept this meaning
without consciously accepting the ambiguity will be. This flexibility is very useful in music: because some
vowels sound shrill when they are longer singers learn to modify these vowels by adding a short "e"
more like an "ä". singing without losing intelligibility.

Men, women and children have different vocal tracts, they are all able to sing exactly to produce the
same vocal formants. An important tool for the analysis of rapid succession following phonemes is
nowadays the speech-spectogram. You can see the changes in the formants, caused by the movements
of the vocal tract.

Two factors sometimes considerably reduce the distinguishability of vowels: volume and Voice pitch.
Presumably a soft output sound brings in such a low percentage of high frequencies, that the higher
formants will hardly be pronounced. It is easy to be able to sing, simply by singing. verify that weakly
sung vowels have little specific timbre, while loudly sung vowels have little specific timbre sung sound
very clearly different.

Another problem arises when singing in high registers. Higher fundamental frequencies spread the
harmonic series to such an extent that under certain circumstances a given formant range may no
longer find any resonance support in the vocal apparatus. This means that good sopranos, especially in
the high register of the formant ranges, so that sufficiently strong lower partials can be produced for the
production of of a musical sounding tone, even if they deliberately use an incorrect vocal coloration of
the ...to accept.

Harmonics, i.e. harmonics, partial tones, partials or overtones, and noise components that are range of a
formant, are compared to the fundamental frequency and to other overtones amplified. Voices and
instruments often have several formant regions that are not directly connected to each other connect.

The tone colour or timbre of a musical instrument or voice is determined by the position and expression
of the formants. Through them voices and also musical instruments can be from one another - for
example, the voices of two women or one violin from another.

Formants are caused by resonances, which are used to amplify or attenuate of certain frequency ranges.
Their position and character depends on them:
• in mechanical musical instruments, on the design and materials used, in particular the design of the
body
• in the human voice from the form of the vocal tract, as it is used to articulate a of certain sounds is
adjusted by muscle movements.
• for electronic musical instruments by bandpasses and band locks
Language

Spectrogram [i, u]: F1, F2

In human speech, the position of formants characterizes the meaning of certain sounds. Using the first
two formants in the vocal triangle [1] or in the vocal trapezoid, all vowels of a sound system from each
other. Certainly the vowel-formants differ from person to person, especially between men, women and
children. Here follows a descriptive Table of the averaged formants from the vocal triangle mentioned
above:

The first two formants f1 and f2 are important for the comprehensibility of the vowels. Their position
characterizes the spoken vowel. In order to be able to understand each other, these formants must be
speaker to be about the same.

The third and fourth formants f3 and f4 are no longer essential. They rather characterize the Anatomy of
the speaker and their articulation characteristics and vary according to the speaker. Beyond that the
character of a voice is still determined by the fundamental frequency (100 to 250 Hz), the bandwidth,
the spectrum, articulation characteristics are determined. The basic frequency of speech in men is about
130 Hz and in the woman at about 240 Hz.

As for the singing voice, certain vowels are no longer singable above a certain pitch, because then the
fundamental frequency comes into the range of the first formants, and thus the sound impression of
these formants disappears. The analysis of formants plays, among other characteristic aspects of a voice,
an important role in of speaker recognition in criminalistics.

Special problems of the singer's voice

The way in which our vocal apparatus produces sung sounds can be very be different. A large part of the
singing training consists of mastering and to learn to use the transitions between "chest and head
voice". Obviously you hear this when male singers change from the "normal" voice to the falsetto voice
on high notes. In the falsetto register the vowel folds are elongated and thinner thus effectively stiffer
and can therefore vibrate at higher frequencies than usual. The glottis (glottis) always remains slightly
open when singing falsetto, which is why the waveform is relatively even and so that the timbre remains
quite pure and round. But the continuous opening of the glottis also contributes to that the air supply of
the singer in falsetto is exhausted faster than usual.

Singing teachers sometimes use words like resonance and carrying capacity (or vocal strength) in a Ways
that are difficult for an acoustician to understand.

It is perfectly correct to speak of careful control of the jaw, tongue and palate as Means of producing
better vocal tone as a result of resonances. Resonance in the thorax should only be spoken of in a
psychological sense. Speech about the carrying capacity of the voice can also be called psychological (in
the singer's imagination with muscle control), which are associated with a louder and more even sound
in the vocal tract or larger mouth opening.

However, the sound intensity will always decrease with distance according to the same law, and the
Trueness of sound radiation is completely determined by diffraction. Since audible wavelength between
15 m to 0.5 m (i.e. frequencies up to approx. 700 Hz) almost uniformly in all directions,
the head as an obstacle therefore does not represent any impairment. At higher frequencies the beam
largely to the front and hardly to the back, only at very high frequencies (about 6 kHz) a

Singers really expect to "project" a sound in a certain direction by using a very large mouth opening
used. Such frequencies, however, can only be higher partials.

Scientist Sundberg gave an interesting explanation why a singer (opera tenor) can hear quite well, even
if he is accompanied by an orchestra. Although the the singer's total sound radiation is naturally far
behind that of the orchestra, the singer can make himself heard by concentrating his acoustic energy
mainly on one frequency range, in which the orchestral sound is not so strong: the result could be
perceived by the listeners as a good "sustainable" voice can be interpreted

Vibrato - frequency modulation - is a voice characteristic that is sometimes consciously cultivated. Man
can also produce a tremolo (amplitude modulation with short time intervals) with the voice. In music,
vibrato is the periodically recurring, slight change in frequency of a held tone. In contrast to a non-
vibrating tone, a tone with appropriate Vibrato perceived as lively. That is why vibrato is widely used
especially in classical music. use. In the voice the vibrato arises involuntarily without being learned or
taught. On strings and some wind instruments it is produced by certain playing techniques.

How big should the vibrato be? Usually frequencies between 5-7 Hz are most convincing assessed less
than 3 and more than 10 Hz modulation frequency require special training. As a value of approx. 2 %
frequency deviation has proven to be musically sensible, less than 1 % is hardly noticed, more seems
unattractive. The vibrato gives the sound a certain warmth, it can also draw attention to a solo voice,
where it is often and preferably is used. A good acoustic reason could also be that many small vibrato
contributions are in an ensemble can lead to an amplification of the chorus effect.