1

Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE

Rationale of the study

The ability to communicate effectively in a particular context and situation has

been the main focus and goal of what communication is. As language teachers, our

ultimate goal is to equip our students with the essential skills that will enable them to

become competent communicators. To do this, it is important for a language teacher to

have an understanding of the grammatical constitution of the target language and its

underlying linguistic and sociolinguistic representations. Moreover, it is also imperative

that one must be trained in the sub-disciplines of linguistics in order to have an intimate

knowledge of the prescriptive and pedagogical grammars of the target language for

instructional purposes and beyond.

One of the means by which one learns a language is having the basic

understanding of how sentences are structured and arranged in order to be understood

in the target language. Investigating the processes involved in the constituent structural

linearity of linguistic structures in terms of its syntax is thus the focus of this study.

Knowledge of the constituent structure of phrases, clauses, and sentences and the

word order is one of the vital tools in gaining communicative competence.

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Theoretical setting

This paper argues that the fable entitled “Two Men and a Bear” by Aesop follows

a syntactic structure as revealed in its immediate constituents and word order in its

textuality.

This assumption is supported by Corder’s theory of linear grammar (179), which

…treats the sentences of a language as a “string” of grammatical categories like

beads in a necklace, or alternatively as a series of “slots” to be filled by words of

category appropriate to each slot. For this reason, this model of linguistic description is

also called “slot-and-filter grammar” because it treats the structure of the sentence as a

linear pattern, such that the choice of each successive category is dependent upon the

category immediately preceding it.

Hence this academic paper synthesizes the constituent structural linearity of

linguistic structures in syntax or linearity in sentences, as follows:

1. Immediate constituent analysis; and

2. word order analysis.

Parker and Riley(59) maintain that syntax is a constituent structure of phrases,

clauses, and sentences, which Chomsky (qtd. in Parker and Riley, 59) described

analytically as syntactic structure.

Syntax, thus, illustrates how the constituent linearity of words in a language are

organized into different categories and how the constituent linearity of words in a

sentence are not just strings of elements arranged in hierarchical constituent structure.
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Categories in modern linguistics classify words as parts of speech into two:

LEXICAL (word) CATEGORIES and PHRASAL (word group) CATEGORIES. Lexical

categories include content words (N, V, ADJ, ADV) and function words (DET, PREP,

CONJ, PRON, INTJ). Determiners include articles (the, a, an), demonstratives (this,

these, that, those) as well as possessive personal pronouns (my, your, his, her, its, our,

their). Phrasal categories include noun phrases (NP), verb phrases(VP), adjective

phrase(ADJ P), adverb phrases(ADV P), and prepositional phrases (PP).

Constituent Structures, on the other hand, group together those elements which

function as meaningful units: noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase, adjectival

phrase, adverbial phrase, etc. Also called phrase structure description, this

segmentation of constituent structures treats as similar in function groups of sentence

elements, which are themselves different in internal structure.

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Schematic Diagram

Aesop’s Fable “Two Men and A Bear” reveals the

immediate constituents of the syntactic structures in
its textuality.

LINEAR GRAMMAR
THEORY

IMMEDIATE
CONSTITUENT WORD ORDER
ANALYSIS ANALYSIS

AESOP’S FABLE
”TWO MEN
AND
A BEAR”

Figure 1: A Schematic Presentation of the Theoretical Setting of the Study

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Problem Statement

This linguistic investigation analyzes syntactically the textuality of Aesop’s fable

entitled “Two Men and a Bear”.

Specifically, it focuses on the analysis of the following:

1. immediate constituents; and

2. word order.

Significance of the Study

This investigation may prove beneficial to the following groups of people.

Language Teachers. This study may provide valuable information to teachers

teaching languages in enhancing their knowledge of how sentences are structured as

revealed in their immediate constituents and word order. Knowledge of such may prove

beneficial in improving delivery of instruction and enhancing pedagogical practices.

Students. They may be provided with a basis on how they are to construct

sentences guided by their understanding of the principle behind immediate constituents

and the word order or patterns of sentences.

Linguistic Researchers. Findings of this study may provide a rich source for

further research not only in the area of syntax, but in other sub-disciplines of linguistics

as well.
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Scope and Limitations

The linguistic investigation focuses on the syntactic analysis of Aesop’s fable

entitled “Two Men and a Bear” in its textuality and is limited to the analysis of its

immediate constituents and word order.

Definition of Terms

Fable. It is defined as a short story that tells a moral truth, often using animals as

characters (Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary)

Immediate Constituent. This refers to a meaningful constituent, such as a word,

that enters directly into the formation of a linguistic construction, such as a phrase

(American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 5 th ed).

Linear Grammar. It is defined as a grammar in which each structure contains at

most one nonterminal in its right-hand side. Such a grammar is right linear if a

nonterminal can only occur as the rightmost symbol, i.e. if each production has one of

the forms  A → w A → wB where A and B are nonterminals and w is a string of terminals.

A left-linear grammar can be similarly defined: A → w A → Bw (A Dictionary of

Computing)

Syntax. The study of the rules whereby words or other elements of sentence

structure are combined to form grammatical sentences (American Heritage Dictionary of

the English Language, 5th ed.)

Word Order. It is defined as the linear arrangement of words in a sentence,

clause or phrase (American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 5 th ed.)

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Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED READINGS

In order to come up with better insights and a broader perspective of this

study, a review of conceptual literature and related studies were undertaken.

Related Literature Reviewed

In his book Syntactic Structures, Chomsky (p.5) tries to construct a

formalized theory of linguistic structure and places emphasis on rigorous formulations

and precisely constructed models. Chomsky writes that his fundamental concern is the

problem of justification of grammars. He defines “a grammar of the language as

essentially a theory of language” as well as a device that generates all of the

grammatical sequences of language and none of the ungrammatical ones. Talking

about the goals of linguistic theory, he draws parallels to theories in physical

sciences.  He compares a finite corpus of utterances of a particular language to

observations, grammatical rules to laws which are stated in terms of hypothetical

constructs such as phonemes, phrases., etc.(Chomsky, p.11) According to

Chomsky(p.56), the criteria for the justification of grammars are external conditions of

adequacy, condition of generality and simplicity. To choose which is the best grammar

for a given corpus of a given language, Chomsky shows his preference for the

evaluation procedure which chooses the best possible grammar for a language against

the aforementioned criteria over the discovery procedure ( a procedure employed in

structural linguistics which is supposed to automatically produce the correct grammar of

a language from a corpus) or the “decision procedure” (a procedure which is supposed

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to automatically choose the best grammar for a language from a set of competing

grammars).

According to Chomsky (p.13), the fundamental aim in the linguistic analysis of a

language is to separate the grammatical sequences which are the sentences of

language from the ungrammatical sequences which are not sentences of language and

to study the structure of the grammatical sequences. By grammatical, Chomsky means

acceptable to the native speaker. Analyzing further about the basis of grammaticality,

Chomsky(p. 49) shows three ways that determine whether a sentence is grammatical or

not: its inclusion in a corpus, it being meaningful, and it being statistically probable.

Chomsky concludes that “grammar is autonomous and independent of meaning, and

that probabilistic models give no particular insight into some of the basic problems of

syntactic structure”.

Tallerman’s (2012) Understanding Syntax presents not only major concepts and

categories associated with this branch of linguistics but also addresses some more

advanced issues. She uses ambiguous phrases and sentences to demonstrate the

existence of syntactic structure and proceeds to show that strings of words can be

tested for constituency by applying some syntactic tests, such as the sentence fragment

test, the echo question test, the cleft test or the displacement (movement) test.

Although these are just some of the commonly used text, they do show how the

intuitions of the native speakers can be captured. Tallerman also introduces the idea of

representing the structure of sentences using tree diagrams or bracketing and presents

some key terms for describing relationships holding between nodes in a tree.
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She underscores the three major ways in which grammatical relations may be

represented cross-linguistically, namely: constituent order (basic and marked),

case(nominative/accusative vs. ergative/absolutive systems and split systems) and

agreement and cross-referencing(Tallerman, p.54). The relationships between verbs

and their noun phrase arguments within the clause are investigated as well as the core

relations of subject and object in an attempt to determine whether there are any

grammatical relations that could be considered universal.

Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition(SLA) has had a large impact

in all areas of second language research and teaching since the 1980s. His theory of

SLA consists of five main hypotheses, namely: the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, the

Monitor hypothesis, the Input hypothesis, the Natural Order hypothesis, and the

Affective filter hypothesis. The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most important of

all the hypotheses in his theory and the most widely known and influential among

linguists and language practitioners.

According to Krashen(p. 5), the study of the structure of the language can have

general educational advantages and values that high schools and colleges may want to

include in their language programs. It should be clear, however, that examining

irregularity, formulating rules and teaching complex facts about the target language is

not language teaching, but is rather "language appreciation" or linguistics. The only

instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition (and

proficiency) is when the students are interested in the subject and the target language is

used as a medium of instruction. Very often, when this occurs, both teachers and

students are convinced that the study of formal grammar is essential for second
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language acquisition, and the teacher is skillful enough to present explanations in the

target language so that the students understand. In other words, the teacher talk meets

the requirements for comprehensible input and perhaps with the students' participation

the classroom becomes an environment suitable for acquisition. Also, the filter is low in

regard to the language of explanation, as the students' conscious efforts are usually on

the subject matter, on what is being talked about, and not the medium.

The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis proposed by Robert Lado as cited by

Lightbrown (p. 1) states that a person learning a second language is assumed to start

off with the habits formed in the first language and these habits interfere with the new

ones needed for the second language. Therefore, the main points of the study of the

CAH are the languages involved in the learning of the learner - the native language and

the learner’s target language. CAH is based on the assumptions that points of

differences cause the interference of the native language in the learning of the target

language.

            These points of differences are proposed in the hierarchy of difficulties

(Lightbrown, p.11), ranging from level 0 to level 5. Starting from the zero level, or what

Lado named as transfer level, is the transfer of language from native tongue to the

target language. Level 1, coalescence, wherein two or more words of the native

language is equivalent to one word in the target language. The level 2,

or underdifferentiation, involves the inclusion of enclitic from the native language to the

target language. Level 3, or reinterpretation, states that a particular one word in the

native language, that when translated to the target language, may mean multiple things.

Level 4, or overdifferentiation, includes the difference of sound interpretation in the

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target language. And the last level, the highest of all the levels, is level 5, or

the split level, wherein one word in the native language may be equivalent to two or

more meanings in the target language. Upon having these levels of difficulties, the

Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) assumed to predict upcoming errors in the

language learning.

Radford’s book An Introduction to English Sentence Structure defines the

concept of syntax and outlines the taxonomy of terms used in traditional grammar to

describe sentence structures. He then turns to Chomsky’s cognitive view of language

and his theory of Universal Grammar. He presents Chomsky's notion of a Language

Faculty which accounts for the innate human ability to acquire language, and he

explains how principles of Universal Grammar underlie this model. He discusses the

concept of parameters, describes their binary nature and their role in language

acquisition. On the topic of structure, Radford discusses the idea that a series of binary

merger operations are carried out in this process and introduces the use of tree

diagrams. He presents the Minimalist view that function words, such as determiners,

can serve as heads for phrases and explains key concepts used. Radford also focuses

on Chomsky’s theory that syntactic structures are formed by a series of phrases that are

ultimately expressed in a semantic and phonological form by means of a transfer

movement. Radford writes that such a phase theory would explain how humans are

able to process large amounts of material and data using limited memory capacity.

          
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Related Studies Reviewed

Shanawaz’s (2013) study portrays morphological and syntactical comparison

between English and Bangla from synchronic, diachronic, and grammatical perspective

which aids the second language (L2) learners of either English or Bangla to

comprehend both the language better and to overcome second language acquisition

(SLA) challenges. He stressed the fact that first language (L1) acquisition is a natural

process where learners acquire mother tongue (L1) unconsciously. Unlike L1,

second/foreign language (L2) acquisition (SLA) is a conscious process of learning

language where learners have to imply deliberate attempts. Hence, L2 learners go

through many SLA challenges including mother tongue/L1 interference, error analysis,

interlanguage/ learner’s language, learner’s age, motivation, positive feedback, and so

on.

SLA challenges are also the concerns of Jayaasundara and Premarathna’s

(2011) study wherein they conducted a linguistic analysis on errors committed in

English by undergraduate students of Uva Wellasa University of Sri Lanka. Their study

has explored grammar as the greatest category where undergraduates commit errors

both in writing and speaking. Moreover, advanced analysis has ascertained that

newspaper reading and committing errors in grammar and syntax are as dependent

variables. Study has shed light on the manner in which students internalize the rules of

the target language and the findings are vital in designing curricula for the better

fulfillment of the objectives of the second language teaching and learning while

providing a guide in creating effective teaching methodology.

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Hendrick’s study(2014) focuses on teaching strategies that promote English

language development. The first purpose of her study was to investigate and describe

the teaching strategies of six Head Start teachers within one program in Oregon whose

dual language learners had shown gains of at least three levels in receptive and

expressive English language development, as determined by their assessment ratings

in Teaching Strategies GOLD Assessment System. The second purpose was to identify

what, if any, professional development strategies and resources have been beneficial to

those teachers in promoting English language development for children who are dual

language learners. This qualitative study utilized three data collection methods:

interviews, observations and review of artifacts. Seven conclusions emerged from the

study. First, home language support in the classrooms contributed to English language

development. Second, teachers' use of pictures, gestures and other visual cues

promoted children's comprehension of English. Third, culturally responsive curriculum

was not necessary for promoting enhanced language outcomes. Fourth, a supportive

social/emotional environment in the classroom contributed to progress in expressive

language development. Next, singing songs with gestures and high quality teachers' talk

in English also contributed to expressive language development. Lastly, professional

development, formal and informal, is beneficial and needed for preschool teachers.

Five recommendations emerged from the study. Policy recommendations are for

college teacher preparation programs to require coursework pertaining to dual language

learning and for programs to actively recruit bilingual teachers. Practice

recommendations are for programs to implement a Planned Language Approach, set up

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peer mentoring and training opportunities, and for teachers to plan individual and small

group read alouds.

Ponnuchamy (2012) stressed the sad fact that even after 10 or 12 years of

learning English as a second language in state government schools, most Indian Tamil

ESL students' English proficiency was inadequate to meet the demands of higher

education (Gargesh, 2006; “To English,” 2004) or employment (Sankary, 2009;

Thiyagarajan, 2008). The current phenomenological study used interviews to explore

the lived experiences of 20 adult Indian Tamil ESL students in undergraduate programs

and identify reasons for the poor English proficiency to inform educational leadership.

Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology of perception (1958) and Heidegger's concept of

hermeneutic interpretation (1962) were adopted in data analysis. After triangulation of

data from the pilot study, main study, and focus group, 12 major themes were identified,

nine of which were similar to previous literature and three were different. The 12 themes

were: Difficulty understanding lectures and texts in English, benefits of repeated target

language exposure (TLE), early ESL introduction not supported by other factors,

participants' socioeconomic background restricting TLE, parents and participants'

positive attitudes toward English, lack of influence of first language (L1) proficiency on

second language (L2) proficiency, positive influence of intrinsic motivation, schools'

socioeconomic status limiting TLE, culture-sensitive ESL curriculum rendered futile,

ineffective ESL teaching methods, unsupportive teacher attitudes, and participants'

recommendations for improving ESL teaching. Four themes relating to participants'

socioeconomic background, school status, ineffective teaching, and unhelpful teacher

attitudes could be cited as likely reasons for study population's poor English proficiency.
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The themes gave rise to six theories, recommendations for educational leaders, and

the OPEN SESAME model for elementary school ESL teaching.

Scivner’s study(2015) investigates word order change in infinitival clauses from

Object-Verb(OV) to Verb-Object(VO) in the history of Latin and Old French. By applying

variationist approach, she examines a synchronic word order variation in each stage of

language change from which she infers the character, periodization and constraints of

diachronic variation. She also shows that in discourse-configurational languages such

as Latin and Early Old French, it is possible to identify pragmatically neutral contexts by

using information structure annotation. She further argues that by mapping pragmatic

categories into a syntactic structure, we can detect how word order change unfolds. For

this investigation, the data are extracted from annotated corpora spanning several

centuries of Latin and Old French and from additional resources created by using

computational linguistic methods. The data are then further codified for various

pragmatic, semantic, syntactic and sociolinguistic factors. This study also evaluates

previous factors proposed to account for word order alternation and change. In her

study she shows how information structure and syntactic constraints change over time

and proposes a method that allows researchers to differentiate a stable word order

alternation from alternation indicating a change. Finally, she presents a three-stage

probabilistic model of word order change, which also conforms to traditional language

change patterns.

Abdulhakim’s, et al(2015) study briefly discusses the immediate constituent

analysis and gives account of what ICA is by providing clear illustrations and examples.
 16

It starts with the introduction of ICA and how it developed from 1950s onwards. Then it

discusses the approaches, frame, and limitations of ICA.

Synthesis

The various insights taken from the review of related literature and studies have

provided relevant information and a broader perspective on this present study.

Chomsky’s Syntactic Structures has showed that a formal yet non-empiricist theory of

language was possible and more importantly, it demonstrated this possibility in a

practical sense by formally treating a fragment of English grammar. Likewise, it puts

syntax at the center of the theory of language. Syntax is recognized as the focal point of

language production, in which a finite set of rules can produce an infinite number of

sentences. The vital concepts in this theory are vital in the analysis of syntactic structure

which is the concern of this study. Similarly, Tallerman’s concept of representing the

structure of sentences using tree diagrams and the linguistic representation of

grammatical relations through constituent order has provided valuable information in

studying relationships between verbs and objects. Krashen’s theory of language

acquisition has contributed to the researcher’s understanding of how learners acquire

language, the impact of the teacher’s comprehensible input in the delivery of instruction,

the preparation of age-appropriate teaching methodologies and the provision of suitable

environment in aiding the learners to acquire the target language. The Contrastive

Analysis Hypothesis of Lado has shed light on the challenges encountered by second

language learners and language teachers in their goal of gaining proficiency of the

English language. It has enlightened the researcher on the points of differences

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between the L1 and L2 that cause interference in the learning of the target language as

reflected in the hierarchy of difficulties.

The related studies cited in this study have been helpful in providing important

insights on the universal challenges of second language learners in gaining proficiency

of the target language and have shed light on ways by which these challenges may be

met. Furthermore, these studies have provided support on the assumption put forward

by this study, specifically on the constituent structural linearity of linguistic structures as

revealed in the immediate constituent and word order of Aesop’s Two Men and a Bear.
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Chapter 3

LINGUISTIC RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses the method of research used, sources of data and the

data-gathering process.

Method Used in Linguistic Research

This study utilizes the structural analysis and the descriptive analysis as the

methods of the linguistic investigation. “An analysis is structural if, and only if, it displays

the content as a model, i.e., if it can isolate a formal set of elements and relations in

terms of which it is possible to argue without entering upon the significance of the given

content" (Benoist, 8). In other words, Structuralism is not concerned with the content of

a text or any other kind of system; rather, it analyzes and explores the structures

underlying the text or system, which make the content possible. One of the leading

principles of Structuralism is that the form defines the content ("form is content").  That

is, that the underlying structure of a text or system, which presents and organizes the

content, determines the nature of that content as well as its message or communicated

information. Thus Structuralism analyzes how meaning is possible and how it is

transmitted - regardless of the actual meaning.

Sources of Data

The fable “Two Men and a Bear” by Aesop serves as the main source of data.

The theory of linear grammar by Corder provides the basis for the analyses of the

syntactic analysis of the selection.

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Data-gathering Process

In gathering the verbal data in this linguistic research, logical reasoning was used

in order to prove the assumption of this study. This follows two phases.

Phase One: Immediate Constituents Analysis

The ten sentences that comprise the selected fable are subjected to

immediate constituents analysis(ICA). In this study, ICA is done by splitting the

sentence into individual words and identifying the function of each word in relation to its

immediate constituent. The rule is then rewritten in terms of how each sentence is

constructed based on its immediate constituents.

Phase Two: Word order Analysis or Sentence Pattern

The sentences are then analyzed according to their word order or

sentence pattern.
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Chapter 4

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION

This chapter presents, analyzes, and interprets the verbal data in response to the

sub-problems raised in this study.

Immediate Constituent Analysis

The immediate constituents of the 10 sentences contained in the fable are

hereby analyzed.

1. Two men were traveling together, when a Bear suddenly met them on their path.

D N Aux V Adv Conj D N Adv V Pron Prep D N

2. One of them climbed up quickly into a tree and concealed himself in the

Pron Prep Pron V Prep Adv Prep D N Conj V Pron Prep D

branches.

3. The other, feeling that he might be attacked, fell flat on the ground.

D Pron V Conj Pron Aux Aux V V Adv Prep D N

4. The bear came up and felt him with his snout, and smelt him all over.

D N V Prep Conj V Pron Prep D N Conj V Pron Adv Adv

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5. He held his breath and pretended to be dead.

Pron V D N Conj V Part V Adj

6. The bear soon left him, for it is said he will not touch a dead body.

D N Adv V Pron Conj Pron Aux V Pron Aux Adv V D Adj N

7. When he was quite gone, the other Traveler descended from the tree.

Conj Pron Aux Adv V D Adj N V Prep D N

8. With a clever grin, he inquired of his friend, “Just what was it that

Prep D Adj N Pron V Prep Pron N Adv Pron V Prep Conj

the Bear whispered in your ear?”

D N V Prep Adj N

9. “He gave me this advice,” his companion replied, “Never travel with a friend

Pron V Pron D N D N V Adv V Prep D N

who deserts you at the approach of danger.”

RPron V Pron Prep D N Prep N

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10. Moral: Misfortune tests the sincerity of friends.

N N V D N Prep N

Rewrite Rule

1. D + N + Aux + V + Adv + Conj + D + N + Adv + V + Pron +

Prep + D + N S1

2. Pron + Prep + Pron + V + Prep + Adv + Prep + D + N + Conj + V

+ Pron + Prep + D + N S2

3. D + Pron + V + Conj + Pron + Aux + Aux + V + V + Adv + Prep +

D + N S3

4. D + N + V + Prep + Conj + V + Pron + Prep + D + N + Conj + V

+ Pron + Adv + Adv S4

5. Pron + V + D + N + Conj + V + Part + V + Adj S5

6. D + N + Adv + V + Pron + Conj + Pron + Aux + V + Pron + Aux

+ Adv + V + Adj + N S6

7. Conj + Pron + Aux + Adv + V + D + Adj + N + V + Prep + D + N

S7

8. Prep + D + Adj + N + Pron + V + Prep + Pron + N + Adv + Pron

+ V + Prep + Conj + D + N + V + Prep + Adj + N S8

9. Pron + V + Pron + d + N + D + N + V + Adv + V + Prep + D +

N + RPron + V + Pron + Prep + D + N + Prep + N S9

10. N + N + V + D + N + Prep + N S10

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Where:

N = Noun

V = Verb

Adj = Adjective

Adv = Adverb

Conj = Conjunction

D = Determiner

Pron = Pronoun

Aux = Auxiliary Verb

RPron = Relative Pronoun

Part = Particle

Sentence 1 is divided into two clause constructions, the independent and

dependent clause. The independent clause is composed of a noun phrase construction

two men(D + N) and a verb phrase construction composed of the following constituents:

were, traveling, together (Aux + V + Adv). The second division is a dependent clause

introduced by the conjunction when followed by a noun phrase a bear (D + N), the

adverb suddenly and the verb phrase construction met them on their path (V + Pron +

Prep + D + N).
 24

Sentence 2 is a clause construction with a simple subject and a compound

predicate. It has a subject composed of a pronoun, preposition, and pronoun and a

predicate containing two verb phrases (climbed up quickly into a tree and concealed

himself in the branches) joined by the conjunction and.

Sentence 3 has a subject made up of a determiner and a pronoun. The verb fell

is preceded by a participle clause and followed by an adverbial phrase.

Sentence 4 is a simple sentence with a simple subject The bear, and a

compound predicate composed of three verb phrases joined by the conjunction and.

Sentence 5 is another simple sentence with a pronoun as the subject and a

predicate composed of two verb phrases joined by the conjunction and.

Sentence 6 is made up of three clause constructions. The first clause and the

second clause are joined by the coordinating conjunction for. The third clause is a

complement of the verb said.

Sentence 7 is a complex sentence introduced by a subordinating clause that tells

time. The independent clause has a noun clause as a subject and a predicate

containing a verb modified by a prepositional phrase.

Sentence 8 is introduced by a prepositional phrase, followed by the subject

represented by a pronoun, then the verb inquired followed by the prepositional phrase

that functions as an indirect object, and finally a direct quotation that acts as the object

of the verb.
 25

Sentence 9 is a direct quotation containing four clause constructions. The first

clause is made up of a pronoun as the subject followed by a transitive verb and its two

objects. The next clause construction is a noun phrase followed by the verb. The third

clause construction has an implied subject and is introduced by an adverb of negation

followed by the verb and a prepositional phrase. The fourth clause is a relative clause

modifying the object of the preposition friend; it is introduced by a relative pronoun who

followed by the verb, its object, and followed by two prepositional phrases.

Sentence 10 contains the moral of the story. It is a clause construct made up of

noun as the subject and the predicate that contains the transitive verb, followed by the

noun that serves as the object of the verb and the prepositional phrase that modifies the

object of the verb.

The ten sentences that make up the fable show that the syntactic structures of

sentences are revealed through the process of immediate constituent analysis. The

process involves dividing up the sentence into major parts or immediate constituents,

and these constituents are in turn divided into further constituents until irreducible

constituents are reached. The division employs the phrase structure description which

is done by grouping together those elements which function as meaningful units such as

noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase, adjectival phrase, adverbial phrase,

etc.

Word Order Analysis

The word order of the ten sentences in the chosen selection is hereby analyzed.

Sentence 1: S – IV Conj S – TV – DO
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Sentence 2: S – IV Conj TV - DO

Sentence 3: S - IV

Sentence 4: S – IV – Conj –TV- DO – Conj – TV - DO

Sentence 5: S – TV – DO – conj - IV

Sentence 6: S – TV – DO – Conj – S – TV - DO

Sentence 7: Conj – S – IV, S - IV

Sentence 8: S – TV – IO - DO

Sentence 9: S – TV – IO – DO, S – TV – DO

Sentence 10: S – TV – DO

Sentence 1 is a complex sentence made up of an independent clause following

the pattern S-IV and is connected to the dependent clause with the S-TV-DO word order

by the subordinate conjunction when.

Sentence 2 is a simple sentence with a singular subject and a compound

predicate. It observes the S-IV- conj -TV – DO. The first verb is an intransitive verb and

the second one is a transitive verb that requires a receiver (himself).

Sentence 3 is a simple sentence that contains a participle clause that separates

the subject from the predicate. The simple sentence follows the S-IV pattern. The

participle clause provides the reason why the action was done by the doer.
 27

Sentence 4 is another simple sentence that contains one subject and three

verbs. Having varied verbs, the sentence also has multiple word orders with multiple

conjunctions. Thus the pattern S-IV-conj-TV-DO-conj-TV-DO.

Sentence 5 is likewise a simple sentence composed of a single subject with two

verbs joined by the coordinating conjunction and. It follows the pattern S-TV-DO-conj-

IV.

Sentence 6 is a compound sentence. The compound sentence is made up of the

first independent clause with the pattern S-TV-DO joined by the conjunction for and the

second independent clause with the pattern S-TV-DO. The second clause has a

subclause that serves as the receiver of the verb is said.

Sentence 7 is a complex sentence introduced by a dependent clause observing

the S-IV pattern. It is followed by the independent clause with the S-IV pattern.

Sentence 8 follows the S-TV-IO-DO pattern. The sentence is introduced by a

prepositional phrase that modifies the subject he, followed by the verb, then the indirect

object and finally the whole direct quotation that serves as the receiver of the verb

inquired.

Sentence 9 contains two direct quotations with the patterns S-TV-IO-DO and S-

TV-DO respectively. The second quotation is a complex sentence.

Sentence 10 states the moral of the story which is expressed in a sentence

following the S-TV-DO pattern.

 28

As shown by the discussion above, the syntactic structure of sentences are

revealed through the process of word order. The sentences reveal that in the English

language, the most prominent constituent word order is S-V-O. This means that the

subject(S) comes before the verb(V), which comes before the object.
 29

Chapter 5

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION

This chapter presents the summary of findings, conclusion, and

recommendations.

Summary of Findings

The following are the findings of the study:

1. The textuality show that the syntactic structures of sentences are revealed

through the process of immediate constituent analysis.

2. The syntactic structures of sentences are revealed through the process of word

order. The sentences show that in the English language, most sentences

conform to the S-V-O word order.

Conclusion

Based on the findings the following generalization is arrived at:

Aesop’s fable entitled “Two Men and a Bear” follows a syntactic structure as

revealed in its immediate constituents and word order in its textuality.

Recommendations:

Based on the findings and conclusion, the following recommendations are hereby

suggested:
 30

1. Language teachers may employ immediate constituents analysis as a

strategy in helping students understand the principle behind sentence

construction in English.

2. Students learning the English language should be equipped with the

knowledge of sentence patterns as this will enhance their skills in constructing

correct and varied types of sentences, thereby improving their oral and written

English proficiency.

Further Recommendations for Future Research:

The following titles are hereby recommended to be undertaken by future

linguistic researchers:

1. Morphological Analysis of Aesop’s fable Two Men and a Bear

2. A Descriptive Linguistic Analysis of the Hiligaynon-Visayan Verb System

3. A Pedagogic Grammar for Hiligaynon-Visayan

4. Comparative Syntax of Some Philippine Languages

5. Hiligaynon-Visayan: A Phonemic Analysis

 31

WORKS CITED
 32

BOOKS

Benoist, Jean-Marie. The Structural Revolution. Trans. A. Pomerans. London:

Widenfeld and Nicolson, 1978.

Chomsky, Noam. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1965

Cook, Vivian and Mark Newson. Chomsky’d Universal Grammar 3rd ed. Victoria,

Australia: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 2007

Corder, Stephen Pit. Introducing Applied Linguistics. Baltimore: Penguin, 1973.

Parker, Frank and Katherine Riley. Linguistics for Non-Linguist. Boston: Allen and

Bacon, 1994.

Radford, Andrew. An Introduction to English Sentence Structure. Cambridge University

Press, 2007

Tallerman, Maggie. Understanding Syntax. New York: Oxford University Press Inc.,
2011.

ONLINE SOURCES

“A Dictionary of Computing 2004”, originally published by Oxford University Press 2004

“A Linguistic Analysis on Errors Committed in English by Undergraduates” Retrieved 28

Dec 2016 www.ijsrp.org/research_paper _dec 2011/ijsrp-dec-2011_05.pdf.

"linear grammar." A Dictionary of Computing.  Encyclopedia.com. 22 Dec.

2016<http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

“Morphology and Syntax: A Comparative Study between English and Bangla”. 28 Dec.

2016 https://www.academia.edu/35483581/
 33

PDQT Open. Retrieved 5 January 2017

http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/doc/1017864457.html?FMT=ABS

“Probabilistic Approach in Historical Linguistics Word Order Change in Infinitival

Clauses: from Latin to Old French”, Indiana University, 2015, Accessed 9

January 2017

“Stephen Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition”. 28 Dec 2016

www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.html

"Syntactic structure." American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth

Edition. 2011. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, Accessed 22 Dec.

2016 http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Syntactic+structure

http://study.com/academy/lesson/who-is-aesop-biography-fables

morals.html#transcriptHeader
 34

APPENDICES
 35

APPENDIX A

Two Men and a Bear

by Aesop

Two men were traveling together, when a Bear suddenly met them on their path.
One of them climbed up quickly into a tree and hid in the branches. The other, feeling
that he would be attacked, fell flat on the ground.
The Bear came up and felt him with his snout, and smelt him all over. He held his
breath, and pretended to be dead.
The Bear soon left him, for it is said bears will not touch a dead body.
When the bear was quite gone, the other Traveler came down out of the tree. With a
clever grin, he inquired of his friend, “Just what was it that the Bear whispered in your
ear?”
His companion replied, “He gave me this advice: Never travel with a friend who deserts
you at the approach of danger.”
Moral: Misfortune tests the sincerity of friends.

APPENDIX B
 36

Biography of Aesop

The life of Aesop is a bit of a mystery. There is even some debate if Aesop was an
actual person or just a name used by another writer. However, there have been
mentions of Aesop in Greek history, which has allowed historians to piece together a
biography (if it is true that he exists). Many of the stories about Aesop contain mythical
interventions and legends.

Aesop is believed to have been alive from 620 to 560 BC. It was believed that he was a
slave, but was given his freedom because of his literacy and storytelling. He is also
described with many physical deformities and a speech impediment that was healed by
a deity. Aesop was said to have escaped punishment many times throughout his life,
often standing up to his accusers and telling a story that showed the irony or the
characteristics of those punishing him. His death is just as much of a mystery as his life.
It is believed that he stole a gold or silver cup and was violently put to death by being
thrown off a cliff.

Although Aesop is mentioned in Greek history, particularly by Greek historian Herodotus

and Aristotle, many scholars do not believe that he actually existed. There is simply just
not enough proof to confirm that he was alive.

Aesop is credited with more than six hundred fables. Fables are short stories that teach
a moral, or lesson, to children. The stories are often funny, and the themes are easy for
children to understand. The characters of fables are usually animals who act and talk
like people but still have animal traits. The fables tell a story and end with a moral.
 37

CURRICULUM VITAE

OF

LINGUISTIC RESEARCHER
 38

LEIZL MAY CO-TORTOGO

About the Linguist

The linguist is a member of the Faculty of Instruction of
the College of Education (COE) of Carlos Hilado Memorial State
College, Talisay City, Negros Occidental since 1995. She took up
her Bachelor in Elementary Education with specialization in
English at the University of Negros Occidental-Recoletos, Bacolod
City and later pursued her Master of Arts in Education major in
Teaching English in the same university.
Prior to the grant of full scholarship for study leave, she
was designated as principal of the Laboratory School and at the
same time, General Education subject specialist of the BEED
program of the COE. As a student-teaching subject specialist, she
has introduced notable activities for the enhancement of the
Student Teaching Program of the College, specifically on
strengthening the mentoring practices. She was instrumental in
building strong linkages with DepEd and in the training of
cooperating teachers who serve as mentors of the education
students. She was also chosen as one of the trainers in the
Regional Mass Training for Grade 7 English teachers in 2012 and
spearheaded the hosting of the Regional Mass Training of Grade 10
Araling Panlipunan teachers in Negros Occidental in 2015.
Earning her doctorate degree has always been her dream. Now
that she has started that journey towards that dream, she is
determined to excel in every way she can and enjoy every moment
that she visits University of San Jose-Recoletos, the institution
destined to make her dream a reality.