Chapter No-01-GT2

Compiled by: Prof.B.S.Chawhan M.Tech(Geo-Tech Engg), Asst.Professor,CED,Government.
Engineering College,Haveri-581110 1
GEO-TECHNICAL ENGINEERING-II
CHAPTER-07(01)
SUSURFACE EXPLORATION
Definition:
The selection of the type and depth of the foundation, the bearing capacity and settlement analysis and the determinations of the
earth pressures, all depend upon soil properties. The field and laboratory investigations required to obtain the necessary soil data for Page |
design are called soil exploration. 1
Soil exploration is not only needed for the design and construction of new structures but is also needed, sometimes for remedial
measures if a structure starts cracking due to settlement.
Exploration Programme:
The objectives of an exploration programmed are:
1. Determination of the extent in the horizontal direction and thickness in the vertical direction of the earth type of soil up to the
required depth.
2. Determination of the ground water table below the ground surface.
3. Obtaining of samples of ground water , soil and rock of a size and condition adequate for positive identification of the material.
4. Field observation and testing for evaluating the in-situ soil properties to substantiate the laboratory determinations.
5. In case the survey is meant for exploring the sounding of material, it is essential to collect data regarding cubic content of each
deposit.
Methods of exploration:
There are many methods of sub-surface exploration. These methods can be classified into three categories:
1. Semi-direct methods.
2. Direct methods.
3. Indirect methods.
1. Semi-direct methods;
The semi-direct methods include all operations that involve drilling of bore-holes into the ground for purpose of taking out the
samples.
Auger borings, displacement borings, wash borings, percussion drilling and continuous sampling all fall under the category of
semi-direct method.
It must be understand at the stage itself that the “advance of bore-holes” and “taking of the samples” are two separate, through
interconnected processes.
2. Direct method:
The direct methods include the digging of trench and trial pits. Accessible borings are also included in this category.
3. Indirect method:
Geo-physical methods and soundings or probabings fall into the indirect method.
Phases in Sub-soil Exploration:
The subsoil exploration involves four distinct phases
1. Fact finding and geology survey.
2. Reconnaissance exploration.
3. Detailed exploration.
4. Special exploration.
1. Fact finding and geology survey:
Before the actual explorations at site are started, it is always advisible and beneficial to know the geological history of the area
from the geological reports and maps. Soil survey maps of the area are also sometimes available and they can help in providing
information about the soils that the engineer may encounter in the field.
The geological survey means subsurface exploration and sampling which will provide information regarding:
1. Depth to ground water
2. Pressure of ground water
3. Sequence thickness, extent and approximate identification of encountered strata.
It include i) collection of samples of ground water, soil and rock in different quantity and conditions, for positive identification
and laboratory tests and ii) making observations and for field tests to determine condition of samples and to estimate physical
properties of the subsoil.
Valuable information about the general-geologic character of a site may be obtained from maps and publications of central and
institutional geological surveys and from the central and state agencies connected with the construction and planning of highways,
buildings, dams and other large projects.
The Central water and Power commission, central Road research Institute and Central Building research Institute (CRRI and
CBRI) are among the many sources of such information.
)
Compiled by: Prof.B.S.Chawhan M.Tech(Geo-Tech Engg), Asst.Professor,CED,Government.Engineering College,Haveri-581110 2
A study of stereoscopic aerial photographic also greatly facilities in detecting slide area, buried channel faults and other sub-
surface irregularities. Data about the general geological condition of a site is extential in deciding the locations for collecting
samples.
This type of the exploration is called fact-finding geological survey.
2. Reconnaissance Survey:
The main objective of this phase of exploration is to obtain rough idea about the soil type in the area. A rough profile and
representative sampling of the major soil strata may be aimed during the operations for this phase.
Ground water table must also be located during this programme. Geological methods are helpful in the preliminary exploration Page |
of large and medium sized projects, as these methods are quick and cheap. With proper interpolation, data from theses methods can 2
be directly used in design. However, it is always a good practice to supplement data with trial borings.
Auger borings, displacement borings and wash borings are commonly used during this phase of investigation. Data from
reconnaissance exploration helps in further planning of detailed and special explorations.
The following table-1 and figure-1 should be used only as preliminary guides and the soil engineer, after taking into account of
the sensitivity of the structure, general geological formation and other pertinent information, should decide the actual programme of
exploration.
Table-1. Suggested Spacing and depth Bore holes and Spacings:
a. Spacing and minimum number of bore holes for various structures,
Type of jobs Type of soil in horizontal strata
Uniform average Erratic Minimum number of boring at each jobs
Distance between borings in meters
One or two storied structure 50 25 10-15 03
Multi-storeyed structure 30 15 08-10 04
Bridge pier and abutments - 20 10 One or two for each foundation
Highways and airports 300 150 100
b. Depth of exploratory bore holes for buildings,
Width of buildings in mts No of storeys Boring depth in mts
1 2 3 4 6 8 16
30 3.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 13.0 16.0 24.0
60 3.5 6.5 9.0 12.0 16.5 21.0 32.5
120 3.5 7.0 10.0 13.5 19.0 24.0 41.0
8m 120-150m 30m
15m
8m 120-150m
15m 30m
15m
(a) 8m (c) 30m
(b) (d)
Fig-1. Spacing for boreholes for sub-soil investigation: a. normal building.
The required depth of exploration depends on
1. The size and type of proposed structure.
2. The design considerations like safety against foundation failure, settlement, seepage, earth pressure, etc and
3. The character sequence of the subsurface strata.
However, if an area is known certainly not to content a clay or silt layer, it is generally sufficient to explore upto 6m to 10m depth
depending on the size and weight of the structure. If the structure is made of a number of substructures, the size of the area occupied
by the group does not matters as each one of them settles almost independently and the compressibility of sand strata decreases
rapidly with increasing depth. The depths shown in figure 2. (b) Generally should be used as a rough guide and should be notified to
suit a particular zone.
)
P
Footing B Footing
G.L
Stress due to p d=2-3m

dmin=Z Pz/Peo≤0.1
Page |
d=2B 3
c. ( c).Highway embankment
Pz b. Sand
p eo G.L G.L H
(a) Clay W
D=Bearing hard strata or=W/2

D=1.5 to 2m
(e). High embankment like lavees, earth dams, etc. (f). Concrete dam
Back slope
D=2-3m
(d). Cut
Cut level
D=B
D= To firm strata or 0.75-1m=2H (h). Tunnel

(g) Retaining wall.
Fig.2. Depth of exploratory borings.

3. Detailed explorations.
The purpose of the detailed explorations is to obtain comprehensive soil profiles and representative soil samples of the important
deposits. This helps in lowering deposits of good construction materials. Sometimes undisturbed samples of the soil strata are also
taken during this phase and sent to the laboratory for testing. Test pits and trenches are usually dug, for shallow foundation. Anyone
of the semi-direct methods can be used for these exploratings.
4. Special explorations.
Special explorations are carried out to obtain undisturbed soil samples from the critical soil layers. The samples are usually
10cms in diameter. Accessible borings for visual inspection are drilled during this programme. Field tests, if any, required to be
conducted are carried out during this phase of investigation.
Power driven augers, wash borings, percussion and rotary drilling methods are employed to advance the bore holes.
Pore-water pressure is determined in the materials of low permeability and piezometer or hydrostatic pressure cells are employed
for this purpose.
Consolidation characteristics of a clayey layer, unconfined or triaxial compression strength of a soil and direct or torsion testing
of a soil is done on the samples obtain during this phase of investigation.
Methods of Exploration:
a. Boring:
The semi-direct methods are the auger borings, displacement borings, wash borings, percussion drilling and continuous
sampling.
a. Auger Borings:
Soil Auger is device that helps in advancing a borehole into the ground.
Bore hole is advanced by hand or power operation auger with periodic removal of material. In some cases continuous auger may
be used requiring only one removal. Casing is generally not used with auger boring. The following figure shows both hand-operated
and power operated.
Fig. 3(a). Post-hole auger
Fig.3(b). Power driven or helical auger.

)
Applications:
1. Hand driven augers are used in soft to stiff cohesive soils, in sandy silty soils above water table.
2. With hand auger, depth is usually limited to 6m.
3. Power driven augers can be used to great depths, even to 30m and used in almost all types of soils above water table.
4. This method provides almost continuous disturbed samples.
5. Undisturbed samples can be obtained at required depths by using proper samplers.
b. Wash boring:
The following figure shows a wash boring explorations. Page |
8 4
6
9
C
5 4
10
3
A 1
11
G L
12
13
14
15
16
1-Pump,2-Sump for wash water and collation of wash samples,3-T-section for return,4-Drill rod,5-Partial drill rod,6-T-section of
water swivel,7-swivel,8-Single hook for multiple blocks for pulling of casing,9-Nanila hoisting rope,10-Motor,11-Nipple,12-casing,13-
casing coupling,14-Drill rod coupling,15-Drive shoe,16-Drill bit,17-Three or four-legged derrick standard pipe or timber.
Fig. 4.Wash boring exploration
Bore hole is advanced by chopping, twisting action of a light chopping bit and jetting action of a drilling fluid, usually water, under
pressure, changes in soil strata are indicated by changes in the rate of progress of boring, examination of out coming slurry and
cuttings in the slurry, casing are used whenever necessary to prevent cave-ins.
Applications:
1. Wash boring can be used in all types of soil except these containing boulders.
2. This can be used great depths, adopted easily at inaccessible locations.
3. Undisturbed samples whenever needed can be obtained by use of proper samplers.
4. Samples obtained are in highly disturbed and slurry form.
c. Displacement Boring:
This is the simplest method of boring. Use is made of the slit, cap or piston samplers.
The operation involves;
1. Driving of a closed sampler into the soil until the desired depth is reached.
2. Rotation of the sampler or release or withdrawal of the piston and
)
3. Taking the sample.
After the withdrawal of the and removal of the sample, the sampler is again inserted into the bore hole and is forced down to the
depth where a new sample is desired.
Applications:
1. This method is suitable for loose to medium cohesion less soils.
2. Soft to stiff cohesive soils.
3. It is used for both reconnaissance as well as for detailed boring programme.
d. Percussion Drilling: Page |
Bore hole is advanced by chopping action of heavy bit driven by power. Water is added at the bottom of bore hole during 5
chopping action, if the ground water is not already struck, Slurry formed at bottom of bore hole is removed by bailer or sand pump.
Casing is generally required.
Changes in strata are predicted from the rate of progress of boring and examination of slurry bailed out.
Application:
1. It can be used in all types including soils containing boulders.
2. It can be used for great depth.
3. Use is limited because of difficulty in determining strata changes as chopping action can cause considerable disturbance and
because of high cost.
4. May be used in combination with auger or wash borings when boulders are encountered.
5. Undisturbed samples whenever needed can be obtained by use of proper samplers.
e. Rotary Drilling:
5
6
3
7
8
9
2
10
11
1 12
13
14
1-Base plate,2-Hoisting drum,3-Kelly,4-water swivel,5-cable,6-Lower most,7-Stand pipe,8-Hose,9-Main mud pit,10-Setling pit,11-

Return flow ditch,12-Casing,13-Drill cutter,14-Drilling bit.
Fig.5. Schematic setup of a rotary drilling.
Bore hole is advanced by proper rotation of drilling bit and removal of cutting by circulating fluids which maybe water, bentonite
slurry or mud slurry.
Whenever rock or boulders are encountered suitable bits viz, diamond studied bits with shots are to be use for drilling. Casing
may or may not be needed during drilling. Changes in strata are indicated by change in rate of advancing of bore hole, action of
drilling tools, and examination of cuttings in drilling fluid.
Application:
1. It can be used in all types of soils and rocks, can be used great depths.
2. Being increasingly used because of fast rate of progress in all soil types, but difficult to use at inaccessible locations because of
heavy machinery.
)
3. Undisturbed samples can be obtained at desired depths by using suitable samplers.
4. The bore-holes in this drilling range from 10cms diameters.
5. It is uneconomical for holes of less than 10cms diameter.
f. Continuous Sampling:
In this technique, the boring is accomplished entirely by sampling. In exploration of rocks, core drilling is done for obtaining the
rock samples continuously. In the soil too, when core barrels and piston samplers are used continuously to obtain the soil samples, the
boring proceeds side by side.
Applications: Page |
1. It is used extensively in detailed and special foundation explorations for important structures. 6
2. It provides a more reliable and detailed information on soil conditions than any other method.
Stabilization of Bore Holes:
The problem of preventing caving of the sides and bottom of a hole and to avoid disturbance of the soil to be sampled is common
to all boring methods.
Uncased, dry-bore holes are generally stable when they are shallow and above the ground water table, but danger of
caving increases rapidly with depth and the presence of free ground water. In firm cohesive soils the hole may remain open for a
limited-length of time. Bore-hole without any provisions for stabilization and extending below ground water level are often piston
samplers.
They are a number of methods for stabilization the bore-holes.
1. Stabilisation with water.
2. Stabilisation with drilling fluid.
3. Stabilisation with Casing.
4. Stabilisation by freezing.
5. Stabilisation by Grouting.
1. Stabilisation with water:
Suitable in rock and often in stiff cohesive soils. Water alone is not suitable or preventing caving of borings in soft or
cohesionless soils.
2. Stabilsation with drilling fluid:
An uncased bore-hole can be stabilized by filling it with a proportioned drilling fluid or mud, which when circulated also serves
to remove the churne-up soil from the bottom of the hole.
Drilling fluid: A satisfactory drilling fluid can be obtained by mixing locally available clays with water but it is often
advantageous and necessary to add commercially prepared products such as vol-clay or quaver. These commercial clay products
consists of highly colloidal, gel forming, thixotropic clays primarily bentonite with certain chemicals added to control dispersion,
thixotropy, gel strength and viscosity.
The stabilization effect of drilling fluid is caused part by its higher specific gravity compared to water and partly by the formation
of relatively impervious lining or mud coke on the sides of a bore hole.
3. Stabilisation with Casing:
Casing or the lining of the bore hole with steel pipe provide the safest through relatively expensive method of stabilization of the
bore-hole. Different types of casing are available.
4. Stabilisation by freezing:
A bore-hole may be stabilized by freezing the soil around it as the boring progress. This may be accomplished by replacing water
with kerosene or brine cooled by means of ‘dry ice’. This method cannot be used when the ground is dry or nearly so and when there
is a strong water flow. So for it has been used for experimental purposes.
5. Stabilisation by Grouting:
A bore-hole passing through zones in rock cavities, faults and broken rock etc may be stabilized by filling the lower part of the
hole with cement grout and then re-boring the concrete plug.
Typical Boring Log:
A boring log is a diagrammatic report on a bore hole. It should be carefully written and should provide the following information.
1. Identification of the job.
2. Number of boring on the plan (horizontal control).
3. Ground elevation of boring (vertical control).
4. Detailed information regarding the type of the soil available at various depths. This is written as per visual examination.
5. Ground water information.
6. Strength test values, if any tests are conducted in the field. These values must be shown on the boring log at the relevant
elevations at which the tests are conducted. (The tests usually conducted in the field are the unconfined compression test, the vane
shear test and the standard penetration test).
The following figure shows a data field in a boring log.
)
GL N values wn L.L P.I qu(t/m2)
Property line Clay fill grey coloured

1.0m
10m 2m W.T
B.H1 1.5m 4 22% 55% 20 4.9
B.B.Road Grey sandy silt with little Page |
4m clay 7
4m B.H2 3m 6 23.5% 58% 20 5.0
40m
2m 2m 3.5m
B.H3 4.5m 25
B.H4 Main Road Medium dense fine sand
2m N
6.0m 6m 30
30m
Foot path
Fig. 6.(a). Site plan of boring for a bank building. Fig.6 (b). Boring log of a bore hole with N and laboratory results.
The type foundation to be used for the various portions of the structure, the depth of foundation to be provided, the allowable
pressure to be used in designing the member and the expected settlement should be state unambiguously.
Sounding Tests:
In this method some sounding device like split spoon sampler, a cone or a rod is formed, statically or dynamically, into the soil.
The energy consumed in penetration into soil is indication of consistency of soil.
Standard penetration test, dynamic cone penetration test and static cone penetration test are commonly adopted standard tests.
Applications:
1. This method can be in any type of soil and to any depth.
2. Depth by static cone penetration is limited by the capacity of equipment.
3. Presently 3tonne and 10tonne machine are in use.
4. Standard penetration test is done in a bore hole.
5. Sounding methods are generally faster and cheaper than boring.
A. Dynamic Sounding.
When the probe is advanced with the help of dynamic load like a falling weight it is called dynamic sounding.
B. Static Sounding.
If the probe is subjected to a dead weight or hydraulic pressure and its penetration is measured, it is called static.
C. Standard Penetration Test(SPT):
This is most widely used sounding method. The SPT test is used extensively in soil exploration programmes.
The test consists of driving a standard split spoon sampler and SPT test equipments.
The test consists of driving a standard split spoon, 50.8mm outside diameter and 35mm inside diameter, into soil under the blows
of a drop weight (hammer) of 65kg falling freely through 75cm.
The number of blows required for 30cm of penetration of sampler in the soil is designated as N values and is termed as standard
penetration blow count.
Attempt has been made to correlate N-values to density of cohesionless soils and unconfined compressive strength of cohesive
soils. Attempt has also been made to correlate compressibility of soils to N-values. Such relations are utilized in arriving at allowable
bearing pressure of soil. Such approaches can be and are subjects of criticism. But past experiences indicate that standard
penetration test can provide reliable and safe design criteria when used with caution keeping in mind the limitations of the test and its
application.
Correlations to measured values of SPT:
The N-values of SPT as measured in field may to be correlated. There are two types of corrections generally applied to measured
N-Value.
1. Type of correction is applied when SPT is conducted in fine or silty, saturated sand and when the recorded blow count is grater
than 15(N>15).
This correction as recommended by Terzaghi’s and Peck(1967) is as follows;
N=15+1/2(NI-15)-----------------------------------------------------------------------------(1)
Where, N and NI are corrected and actual blow counts respectively.
)
Tripod
75cm drop
5.5kg pin guided drive weight or hammer. Page |

8
Drive head
Rods
G L
Casing
Coupling
Drive shoe
Rods
5.1cm split barrel sample spoon being driven ahead

of casing into undisturbed soil
For standard penetration resistance measurement sample spoon is driven 30cm
Fig.7(a). Standard Penetration Test equipment.
Tool steel drive shoe
Thread for wash pipe Flat for wranch 2cm
Flat for wranch
18cm 55.5cm 7.5cm

81cm
Fig.7 (b). Standard Split-Spoon Sampler
2. The other type of correction is known as correction for overburden pressure. This correction is applied only to cohesionless soils
(dry, moist or wet). The correction is suggested by Gibbs and Holtz (1957) and as widely is as follows;
35 N ′
N= , for σ 0 ≤ 28t / m 2 -----(Here σ 0 is in t/m2) -------------------------(2)
σ +7
345 N ′
N= , for σ 0 ≤ 276kN / m 2 -----(Here σ 0 is in kN/m2) ---------------(3)
σ + 69
Where, N and NI are corrected and measured blow counts respectively and σ0 is the effective overburden pressure at the depth of
SPT.
It is considered advisible to place an upper limit of 2 for overburden correction with this limit, equation (2) and (3) becomes,
35 N ′
N= ≤ 2 N ′ , for σ 0 ≤ 28t / m 2 -----(Here σ 0 is in t/m2)-----------------(4)
σ +7
345 N ′
N= ≤ 2 N , for σ 0 ≤ 276kN / m 2 -----(Here σ 0 is in kN/m2) ------(5)
σ + 69
The overburden correction is gradually presented in eqn(1) &(2)&(3) for the following respective two cases,
1. Water table at great depth greater than 16.5m below ground level with assumed density of soil as 1.7t/m3 (16.7kN/m3).
2. Water table at ground level and assumed submerged density of soil as 1.0t/m3 (9.8kN/m3).
)
N of SPT and Consistency of soil:
Consistency of a soil granular soil is indicated by its relative density and that of a cohesive soil by its unconfined compression
strength.
Table-1 represents empirical relationships currently in use in obtaining relative density of cohesionless soils from N values of
SPT. From N values angle of internal friction, Φ of soil can be obtained from table-1.
Table-1. Empirical values of Φ, Dr and unit weight of granular soils based on the SPT with correction for saturation effect and
for overburden, if any
Description Very Loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense
Page |
Relative density,Dr(%) 0 15 35 65 85 100 9
SP blow count, N 1 04 10 30 50
Approximate angle of internal friction, Φ 250-300 270-320 300-350 350-400 380-430
3
Approximate range of moist unit weight, t/m 1.1-1.6 1.45-1.85 1.75-2.10 1.75-2.25 2.1-2.40
*Dr=emax-e
emax-emin
Geophysical Exploration:
A. Electrical Resistivity Method:
The following figure shows the electrical resistivity method setup.
Millimeter
Potential electrode
Potential electrode
Current electrode Current electrode
A C D B
r1 r2
r3 r4
Fig. 8. Electrical Resistivity measurement setup.

Resistivity is a fundamental property of a material and is defined as the resistance in ohms, between opposite faces of a unit cube
of that material.
If R is the resistance of a block of length L and of cross-section area A, then the resistivity
A
ρ=R --------------------------------------(1)
L
The conductance of a material is the reciprocal of its resistance. Fro the above figure, the potential at C and D resulting from the
current flow will be:
Iρ ⎛1 1 ⎞
Vc = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ ------------------------(2)
2π ⎝ r1 r2 ⎠
Iρ ⎛1 1⎞
Vd = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ -----------------------(3)
2π ⎝ r3 r4 ⎠
The potential difference measured by a voltmeter connected across C and D will be:
Iρ ⎡⎛ 1 1
⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
Vc − Vd = Vcd = ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟⎥
⎢⎜⎜ −
2π ⎣⎝ r1 r2
⎠ ⎝ r3 r4 ⎠⎦
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
2πVcd ⎢ 1 ⎥ -------------(4)
Hence, ρ =
I ⎢⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎥
⎢ ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ r1 r2 ⎠ ⎝ r3 r4 ⎠ ⎥⎦
This is the fundamental equation of resistivity method and gives the resistivity in terms of measurable quantities.
)
If the electrodes are placed at equal distances,
r2 r3
i.e., r1 = r4 == , then equation (4) reduces to
2 2
ρ = 2πR.r1
V
Where, R = cd -------------------------------------------------(5) Page |
I
Where, R is measured in Ώ and r in cm; therefore the units of resistivity ρ is Ώcm. The value of R equals the voltage E measured 10
between the central electrodes divided by current I measured by an ammeter.
Some resistivity values of various soils are shown in below table;
Type of Material ρ (Ώ-cm)
Wet to moist clayey soils 150-300
Wet to moist silty clay and silty soils 300-450
Moist to dry silty and sandy soils 1500-15000
Well fractured to slightly fractured bed rock with moist soil-filled cracks. 15000-30000
Sand and gravel with silt 30000
Slightly fractured bedrock with dry soil filled cracks, sand and gravel with layer of silt. 30000-240000
Massive bed rock and hard rock; Coarse dry sand gravel deposit. >240000
Advantages Disadvantages
1. The method is very rapid and economical for large projects 1. This method is that it is capable of only detecting strata
where only average conditions are required. having quite different properties, i.e., rock and water table.
2. It is good for depths upto 30m and instrumentation is 3. It provides no simple for definite identification and therefore
simple. should always be supplemented by borings.
4. It needs a specialist for proper interpretation of results as
the results are known to be influenced by surface irregularities.
B. Seismic Refraction Method:
The following figure shows the seismic refraction waves;
Geophones Connected to automatic time recorder with multiple channel
Shot point L1 L2 L3 L4
G.L
D
A
Loose, dry top soil
H1
V1
H2 B C Clay, compacted soil weathered rock

V2
Massive sound rock

Fig. 9(a). One shot point with multiple geophone method.
)
Geophone
Pegs or shot point
Hammer
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5
G.L
Loose, dry top soil Page |

11
H1
H2 Clay, compacted soil weathered rock
Massive sound rock
Fig.b. One geophone with multiple shot point method.

Fig.9. Seismic refraction method of stratigraphic exploration at a location.
T
T3
Tβ
T2
Tα
T1
L
L1 L1+L2 L1+L2+L3
Fig.9(c). Plot of seismic refraction method of exploration data.

It was mentioned earlier that in the seismic method the difference in elastic properties of various soil soil types and rocks are used for
their identification. The velocity of propagation of a wave or impulse in an elastic body is known to be a function of G, the shear
modulus, and γ, the unit weight of the material.
An impulse will produce three types of waves, in soil media.
1. Surface or Rayleigh wave
2. Shear or transverse wave
3. Longitudinal or compression wave.
The velocities of these waves are related to properties of transmitting medium by the following equation;
0.5
⎡G ⎤
Vs = ⎢ ⎥ -----------------------------------------(1)
⎣ρ ⎦
⎡1 ⎛ 4G ⎞ ⎤
0.5
Vp = ⎢ ⎜ K + ⎟ ⎥ -------------------------(2)
⎣⎢ ρ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦⎥
Where,
Vs=velocity of shear wave.
Vp=velocity of compression wave
G=shear modulus of material
K=bulk modulus of material
ρ=bulk mass density of material=γ/g
γ=bulk density of material
g=acceleration due to gravity
from eqn (1) and (2) it is clear that Vp is greater than Vs.
Figure 2(a) & (b) shows a typical soil formation with the direction of waves. The exploration by seismic refraction method is
generally conducted in one of the two ways;
1. Multiple geophone with multiple shot point fig.2(b), and
)
2. One geophone with multiple shot point fig.2(b).
In one shot point, as soon as the charge goes off the recorder starts recording the time (t=0) and records the time taken for the
first arrival of the wave at various geophone. A time-distance record (L1 in T1, L1+L2 in T2, etc) is made from recording of time starts
when the hammer strikes the first peg at L1 and the recorder reads, the time taken for the first arrival of the wave at the geophone.
Next, time is recorded from when the hammer strikes the peg at(L1+L2) distance from the geophone till the first arrival of the wave
at the geophone and the process is repeated for all the pegs. This also produces a time-distance record like the previous method.
From fig2(a) and (b), it is easy to visualize that the waves will travel either through the top layer along AD or partly through the
top layer and partly through the second layer (ABCD). Page |
In the latter, the path length is more than that in the former but the velocity of travel in BC is higher. Therefore, the thickness of 12
the top layer and the velocities in the layers will influence the arrival time by the two routes. The time distance plot gives the velocity
of wave prorogation through the strata and also the thickness of strata.
In both the methods, L1 is usually kept quite small (about 3m), so that L1 and T1will give the velocity in the top layer. With the
velocity of top layer known, it can be seen whether the L1+L2 and T2 data shows the first arrival is through second layer. This also
becomes evident when time-distance data is plotted fig93). The velocity V2 and thickness H1 can be obtained from the time distance
data.
L
V1 = ---------------------------------------(1)
T1
If T2 =
(L1 + L2 ) then the wave travelled through top soil and reached as first arrival, otherwise it travelled partly through top
V1
layer and partly through the second.
Next, from fig(3), the third point (L1+L2+L3,T3) does not lie on the same straight line indicating that the velocity of propogation is
different from V1.
Therefore,
2 H 1 L1 + L2 + L3
T3 = + ----------------(2)
V1 V2
2 H 1 L1 + L2 + L3 + L4
II ly T4 = + --------(3)
V1 V2
L
Or T4 − T3 = 4
V2
L4
Or V2 = ----------------------------------(4)
T4 − T3
Substituting the values of V2 in equation (2),
⎛ L + L2 + L3 ⎞ V1
H 1 = ⎜⎜ T3 − 1 ⎟⎟ * -------(5)
⎝ V2 ⎠ 2
From figure(4), the first intersection is at X and it means that a wave travelling by AD route and ABCD route would be take the same
time to reach a point at a distance of X from the shot point. In another wards,
X 1 2H1 X
= +
V1 V1 V2
⎡V − V1 ⎤ X
∴ H1 = ⎢ 2 ⎥ * ------------------------(6)
⎣ V2 ⎦ 2
Merits Demerits
1. It can be used for exploring up to a depth of 300m 1. It is more sophisticated instruments and an expert for accurate
interpretation and programming the exploration work.
2. The seismic velocity of successively deeper subsurface 2. It cannot detect an area having a layer with high velocity of
layers increases with depth below ground surface. wave prorogation over a layer with low velocity of wave
prorogation.
)
The following are the range of velocities of seismic waves in materials at shallow depths.
Type of soil Velocity of wave propogation(m/s)
1. Top soil and sand 200-360
2. Loose and dry soil 150-1000
3. Sandy clay 400-600
4. Gravel 480-780
5. Glacial till 540-2100 Page |
6. Water saturated loose soil 1380-1800
13
7. Clay and wet soils 750-1950
8. Coarse and compacted soil 900-2550
9. Sandstone and cemented soils 900-4200
10. Shale-marl 1800-5100
11. Lime stone-chalk 1800-6300
12. Metamorphic and Volcanic rocks 3000-6600
13. Sound plutonic rocks 3000-7500
14. Jointed granite 2400-4500
15. Weathered rocks 600-3000
Types of Samples:
Soil samples are of two types;
1. Disturbed samples
2. Un-disturbed samples
1. a. Representative samples
b. Non-representative samples.
1. Disturbed samples:
The properties of the soil depend to a large extent on the structural configuration of the soil particles in the natural state. This is
specially true in the case of cohesive soils. If a sample during the process of sampling gets disturbed, the sample is designated as a
disturbed sample.
a. Representative sample:
In case soil sample brought to the surface from some depth retains all the constituents present in the soil in its natural state at
that particular depth from which it is taken, the sample is designated as a representative sample.
b. Non-representative sample:
In case some constituents of the soil are lost during the process of sampling or if some constituents of the soil other layers get
mixed up with the sample from a particular depth, the sample may be designated as non-representative.
The representative samples of a soil are suitable for classification and chemical tests, but the non-representative samples only
give an indication of the major stratifications of the soil.
2. Disturbed sample:
A sample of soil which retains the natural soil structure after sampling is called an undisturbed sample. This type of
sampling is used for more precise tests like the shear strength or the consolidation test.
Samplers: (Types of Samplers):
A. Split spoon Sampler
B. Thin-Walled Samplers
C. Piston samplers Cutting edge
a. Hydraulically Operated Piston sampler Split tube Thin tube opens along this line
b. Bishop sampler. 3’’ 24’’
A. Split Spoon sampler: Head (top)
20” 1.5’’
Fig.10. Split Spoon Sampler.

A split spoon sampler consists of a thick walled steel tube split lengthwise. It carries a cutting edge called a cutting shoe at the
low end and a head at the upper end. The maker of the sampler currently available in the market have an outer diameter ranging from
2inches to 4.5inches and the internal diameter ranging from 1.5inches to 4inches. The overall length in all cases is 24inches. The
Indian Standard recommends a size, outer diameter 50.8mm, and inner diameter 35mm. The sampler is lowered into the bottom of the
borehole with the help of drilling rods and is driven into the soil with hammer blows. After penetration to full depth, it is pulled out.
The cutting shoe and the head are removed and the soil is examined visually. Then it can be bottled and sealed for shipment to the
laboratory for further examination.
)
A split spoon sampler is used in the standard penetration test is conducted. Properties of cohesive soils are obtained from the
undisturbed samples and for sampling thin-walled tubes popularly known as Shelby tubes are used.
B. Thin-Walled Tube samplers: Length as specified method
Page |
Mounting hole 10mm min dia 14
12mm Min Thickness as specified
Fig.11. Thin-Walled Tube Sampler.

A thin-walled tube sampler is a seamless tube with very thin walls. The Indian Standard Institution recommends that the tubes
shell be 40mm to 125mm in outside diameter and should be made of steel, brass or aluminum. The sizes and wall thickness as
recommended by ISI of these tubes are given below,
Table-1. Sampling tube dimensions.
Outside diameter in mm 40 50 55 65 75 125
Wall thickness in mm 12.5 12.5 12.5 17 17 31.5
The length of tubes shall be 10times the diameter for sampling in sandy soils and it shall be 10-15times the diameter for sampling
in clays, subject to a maximum of 60cms.
The lower end of the tube is sharpened to form a cutting edge. One typical tube is shown in above figure.
The tube can be fitted to a head attached to a drilling rod. Static force is applied to push the tube in the bottom of the bore hole
dug to the required depth.
C. Piston Samplers:
Sometimes it happens that the soil tends to drop out from the sampler while being withdrawn. In such cases piston samplers are
available in the market. Dr.Osterbarg developed a piston sampler whose principle is explained in below figure, and this is the most
advantageous amongst all the piston samplers.
Drill rod
Sampler head
Pressure cylinder
Hollow rod
Fixed piston
Fig. 12.Osterberg’s Piston Sampler.

If a pit has been dug to the level where a sample is needed, a cake of the soil can be cut with a spatula and sealed on all sides.
This probably is the best method of sampling but expensive.
Sample Disturbance:
Some sample disturbance by any one of the sampling techniques (Disturbed sample, undisturbed sample, representative samples
or non-representative samples) however sophisticated they may be, usually occurs. As for as the sampling by the use of the tube
samplers is connected the area ratio is an index to the sample disturbance.
Area ratio is defined as;
De − Di
2 2
Ar = 2
* 100 --------------------------------(1)
Di
Where,
De=external diameter of the sampling tube.
)
Di=internal diameter of the sampling tube and it represents approximately the ratio between the volume of displaced soil and
the volume of the sample. If this ratio is <10%, the disturbance is considered negligible. The area ratio of the split spoon sampler is
approximately 30% and hence a sample obtained is a disturbed sample. The ratios for the sampling tubes mentioned in above table-1
are less than 10% and hence a sample obtained with these tubes is an undisturbed sample.
Area ratio (Ar), Recovery Ratio (Rr), Clearance Ratio (Cr):
Area Ratio(Ar):
Page |
Dc Di D0 15
Cutting edge or Drive shoe
D0 Dc <200 Di
Where,
Do= Outside diameter of sampling tube, Di=inside diameter of sampling tube, Dc=inside diameter of cutting edge.
Dc<Di<Do.
De − Di
2 2
Area ratio, Ar = 2
* 100 --------------------------(2)
Di
D − Dc
Inside Clearance ratio, I cr = i * 100 -----------------------------(3)
Dc
D − Dc
Outside clearance ratio, Or = o * 100 ---------------------------(4)
Dc
1. Area ratio for undisturbed samples obtaining is maximum permissible area ratio is 12% for 50mm diameter samplers, 15% for
75mm diameter samplers and 20% for 100mm diameter samplers.
2. Inside clearance ratio for undisturbed samples obtaining should be between 0.5 to 3% for different types of samplers. Low value
of clearance ratio is recommended for sampling in sands while clearance ratio upto 3% may be needed in obtaining good sample
recovery in certain clays.
Table-2. Inside Clearance ratio for Samples for undisturbed sampling.
Sl.No Inside Clearance ratio of sampler Soil Type
1 About 0.5% Sands, silts and soft clays
2 About 1.5% Stiff and hard clays below ground water level
3 About 3% Stiff expensive clays below ground water level
Recovery ratio(Rr):
The practical requirement to be satisfied by a sample for accepting it is an undisturbed sample is given by recovery ratio. The
overall condition of a soil sample taken in a tube is represented by the total recovery ratio is defined as;
Total recovery ratio=Length of the sample before withdrawal/Penetration of sampler below the bottom of the bore hole.=L/H*100
Gross recovery ratio=Distance from the top of the sample to the cutting edge/Penetration of sampler below the bottom of the bore
hole=Ls/H
The gross recovery ratio should be used in computing the recovery ratio for soil sample.
The net recover ratio=Net length of the sample/Penetration of sampler below the bottom of the bore hole=Ln/H
It is generally used as a measure of the condition of the recover section in core boring operation I rock.
Rocks are described according to R.Q.D (Rock Quality Designation) as follows;
R.Q.D 0-25 25-50 50-75 75-90 90-100
Description Very poor Poor Fair Good Excellent
1. The following sizes of sampling tubes are available in the market:
O.D in mm 75 110 50
I.D in mm 72 107 35
Length in mm 600 600 600
Out of these which ones would you select for obtaining undisturbed soil samples from a bore hole?.
Solution; Given data:
)
a.
O.D in mm 75 110 50
I.D in mm 72 107 35
Length in mm 600 600 600
To find: a. Which one would you select?.
Procedure:
De − Di 75 2 − 72 2
2 2
Page |
1. Area ratio, Ar = * 100 = * 100 = 8.5%
Di
2
72 2 16
De − Di 110 2 − 107 2
2 2
2. Area ratio, Ar = 2
* 100 = * 100 = 5.69%
Di 107 2
De − Di 50 2 − 35 2
2 2
* 100 = * 100 = 104.10%
Di 35 2
Comment: Samplers with sizes O.D=110mm. I.D=107mm, and O.D=75mm,I.D=72mm have area ratio less than 10%. Therefore, any
one of them may be used.
Normally boreholes are of diameter 100mm and hence a sampler with O.D.110mm will require holes of larger diameter. Hence
from the point of view of economy, sampler with O.D=75mm is preferred.
June-July/2093/July/2003
2. Determine the area ratios of the sampler of the following data and comment on the values.
i, Split spoon sampler ,Do=50mm, Di=35mm
ii. Drive tube D0=100mm, Di=90mm
iii. Shelby tube Do=50mm, Di=47mm.
where,
Do=Outside diameter of sampling tube, Di=Internal diameter of sampling tube.
Solution: Given Data:
a. Split spoon sampler, Do=50mm, Di=35mm
b. ii. Drive tube D0=100mm, Di=90mm
c. iii. Shelby tube Do=50mm, Di=47mm.
To find: a. Ar=?.
Procedure:
De − Di 50 2 − 35 2
2 2
1. Area ratio for Split spoon sampler, Ar = 2

* 100 = * 100 = 104.10%
Di 35 2
De − Di 100 2 − 90 2
2 2
2. Area ratio for Drive tube, Ar = 2

* 100 = * 100 = 23.46%
Di 90 2
De − Di 50 2 − 47 2
2 2
3. Area ratio for Shelby tube, Ar = 2

* 100 = * 100 = 13.17%
Di 47 2
Comment: Area ratio as per as possible it should be <10%. But here >10% and nearly it should be consider 13.17% is used for
undisturbed samples & Do=50mm and Di=47mm is used as Shelby tube.
May/June-2010
3. A sampling tube has inner diameter 70mm and that of a cutting edge is equal to 68mm. Their outer diameters are 72 and
74mm respectively. Determine the inside clearance, outside clearance and area ratio of the sampler. This tube is pushed at the
bottom of a borehole to a distance of 550mm and length of sample covered is 530mm. Find the recovery ratio.
Solution: Given data:
a. Dcs=Dic=70mm, b.Dc=Dic=Di=68mm, c. De=72mm, d. De=Do=74mm, e. distance=550mm, f. L=530mm.
To find: a. Ar=?, b.Ic=?, Oc=?.
Procedure:
De − Di 74 2 − 68 2
2 2
* 100 = * 100 = 18.425%
Di 68 2
Di − Dc 70 − 68
2. Inside Clearance ratio, I cr = * 100 = * 100 = 2.94117%
Dc 68
)
D − Dc 74 − 72
3. Outside clearance ratio, Or = o * 100 = * 100 = 2.77%
Dc 72
4. The recovery ratio=Length of the sample before withdrawal/Penetration of sampler below the bottom of the bore hole.=L/H*100
Rr=530/550*100=96.3636%
July/2007
5. Given the following data from seismic refraction test plot time versus distance and compute wave velocities V1,V2,V3 and
thicknesses of I and II layers.
Page |
D1=30m T1=0.10sec 17
D2=90m T2=0.15sec
D3=210m T3=0.20sec
Solution: Given data:
a. D1=30m T1=0.10sec
b. D2=90m T2=0.15sec
c. D3=210m T3=0.20sec
To find: a. V1,V2,V3 and thicknesses of I and II layers.
Procedure:
1. Plot time versus distance graph i.e., Distance(meters) along X-axis and Time(sec) along Y-axis;
T3
T2
Time (sec) t2
T1
t1
0 D1 D2 D3
Distance in mts
2. From plot, t1=0.075sec, t2=0.115sec.
3. Velocity of wave in I layer, V1;
D1 30
V1 = = = 300m / s
T1 0.1
4. Velocity of wave in II layer,V2;
D2 − D1 90 − 30
V2 = = = 1200m / s
T2 − T1 0.15 − 0.1
5. Velocity of wave in II layer,V3;
D3 − D2 210 − 90
V3 = = = 2400m / s
T3 − T2 0.20 − 0.15
V 300
sin α = 1 = = 0.25
6. V2 1200
∴ α = 14.47 0
V2 1200
sin β = = = 0.50
7. V3 2400
∴ β = 30 0
8. Thickness of I layer is given by the following equation;
V1t1 300 * 0.075
Z1 = = = 11.62m
2 cos α 2 * cos14.47
9. Thickness of II layer is given by the following equation;
V2 (t 2 − t1 ) 1200 * (0.115 − 0.075)
10. Z 2 = = = 27.72m
2 cos β 2 * cos 30
)
June/July-2011
6. Determine the area ratio for the following details and state the type of sampler. Outer dia of cutting edge is 75mm, wall
thickness is 1.7mm.
Page |
18
GOOD-LUCK

Chapter No-01-GT2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter No-01-GT2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Compiled by: Prof.B.S.Chawhan M.Tech(Geo-Tech Engg), Asst.Professor,CED,Government.

Stress due to p d=2-3m

D=Bearing hard strata or=W/2

D= To firm strata or 0.75-1m=2H (h). Tunnel

Fig.2. Depth of exploratory borings.

Fig. 3(a). Post-hole auger

Fig.3(b). Power driven or helical auger.

1-Base plate,2-Hoisting drum,3-Kelly,4-water swivel,5-cable,6-Lower most,7-Stand pipe,8-Hose,9-Main mud pit,10-Setling pit,11-

Property line Clay fill grey coloured

5.5kg pin guided drive weight or hammer. Page |

5.1cm split barrel sample spoon being driven ahead

Flat for wranch

18cm 55.5cm 7.5cm

Current electrode Current electrode

Fig. 8. Electrical Resistivity measurement setup.

H2 B C Clay, compacted soil weathered rock

Massive sound rock

Loose, dry top soil Page |

H2 Clay, compacted soil weathered rock

Massive sound rock

Fig.b. One geophone with multiple shot point method.

Fig.9(c). Plot of seismic refraction method of exploration data.

Fig.10. Split Spoon Sampler.

12mm Min Thickness as specified

Fig.11. Thin-Walled Tube Sampler.

Fig. 12.Osterberg’s Piston Sampler.

Cutting edge or Drive shoe

1. Area ratio for Split spoon sampler, Ar = 2

2. Area ratio for Drive tube, Ar = 2

3. Area ratio for Shelby tube, Ar = 2

You might also like