NICOLAS BOURBAKI Elements of Mathematics General Topology Part 1 wb HEKMANN, EvirEUKS DES SCIENCES ET DES ARTS 115, Boulevard Saint-Germain, Paris Ww ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY Reading, Massachusetts - Palo Ito - London - Don Mills, OntarioA translation of ELEMENTS DE MATHEMATIQUE, TOPOLOGIE GENERALE, originally published in French by Hermann, Paris Library of Congress Catalog card number 66-25377 Printed in France © 1966 by Hermann, all sights reserved This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in whatever form without the publishers’ written permissionADVICE TO THE READER -, This series of volumes, a list of which is given on pages 9 and 10, ies at the > mathem: ip mathor principle, it requires uo particular knowledge of madlieatios on the reader’s part, but only a certain familiarity with mathematical reasoning and a certain capacity for abstract thought. Nevertheless, it is directed especially to those who have a good knowledge of at least the content of the first year or two of a university mathematics course. 2. The method of exposition we have chosen is axiomatic and abstract, and normally proceeds from the general to the particular, This choice has been dictated by the main purpose of the treatise, which is to provide a solid foundation for the whole body of modern mathematics. For this it is indispensable to become familiar with a rather large number of very general ideas and prince ge a rigorously fixed order on the subject matter. It follows that the utility of certain considerations will not be immediately apparent to the reader unless he has already a fairly extended knowledge of mathematics; other- wise he must have the patience to suspend judgment until the occasion Jes, Moreover, the demands of proof impose les, reover, the demands of proof ir al ideas and pr 3- In order to mitigate this disadvantage we have frequently inserted examples in the text which refer to facts the reader may already know but which have not yet been discussed in the series. Such examples are always placed between two asterisks: *--- 4. Most readers will undoubtedly find that these examples w to understand examples v understand ihe icai, aud will prefer uvt tu leave them out, cveu ai a fast reading. Their omission would of course have no disadvantage, from a purely logical point of view. This series is divided into volumes (here called “ Books ”’ ed and, ed and, in The first the text general, every st: generar, every st vADVICE TO THE READER assumes as known only those results which have already been discussed in the preceding volumes. This rule holds good within each Book, a consccutive order. At the beginning of cach of these Books (or of these chapters), the reader will find a precise indication of its logical relationship to the other Books and he will thus be able to satisfy himself of the absence of any vicious circle. 5. The logical framework of each chapter consists of the defnitions, the axioms, and the theorems of the chapter. These are the parts that have mainly to be borne in mind for subsequent usc. Less important results and those which can easily be deduced from the theorems are labelled as “propositions,” “lemmas”, “corollaries”, “remarks”, etc. Those which may be omitted at a first reading are printed in small type. A commentary on a particularly important theorem appears occasionally under the name of “scholium”’. To avoid tedious repetitions it is sometimes convenient to introduce notations or abbreviations which are in force only within a certain chapter or a certain section of a chapter (for example, in a chapter which is con- rings, the word “ring” would always signify “commutative ring”). Such conventions are always explicitly mentioned, generally at the beginning of the chapter in which they occur. 6. Some passages in the text are designed to forewarn the reader against h serious errors. These passages are a (“dangerous bend”). 7. The Exercises are designed both to enable the reader to satisfy himself that he has digested the text and to bring to his notice results which have no place in the text but which are nonetheless of interest. The most difficult cxcrcises bear the sign §]. 8. In general, we have adhered to the commonly accepted terminology, except where there appeared to be good reasons for deviating from it. 9. We have made a particular effort to always use rigorously correct language, without sacrificing simplicity. As far as possible we have drawn attention in the text to abuses of language, without which any mathematical text runs the risk of pedantry, not to say unreadability. 10. Since in principle the text consists of the dogmatic exposition of a theory, it contains in general no references to the literature. Biblio- graphical references arc gathered together in Historical Notes, usually vIADVICE TO THE READER at the end of each chapter. These notes also contain indications, where appropriate, of the unsolved problems of the theory. only, those books and al memoirs which ra been of the Eeatest importance in the evolution of the theory under discussion. It makes no sort of pretence to completeness; in particular, references which serve only to determine questions of priority are almost always omitted, hy y sources (original papers, textbooks, collections of exercises). 11. References to a part of this series are given as follows: a) If reference is made to theorems, axioms, or definitions presented in the sume section, they arc quuicd by iheir uuuber. b) Ifthey occur in another section of the same chapter, this section is also quoted in the reference. c) Lf they occur in another chapter in the same Book, the chapter and section are quoted. d) If they occur in another Book, this Book is first quoted by its titie. The Summaries of Results are quoted by the letter R: thus Set Theory, R signifies “* Summary of Results of the Theory of Sets”.CONTENTS ADVICE TO THE READER ......6.. 000s cece eeeee errr ee reer een) Conrents oF THE ELEMENTS OF MATHEMATICS SERIES ..... seeeeee . INTRODUCTION «0.6 e eect e eee eee ee ene eee ene Cuapter I. § 1. Open seis, neighbourhoods, closed seis . +, Open sets ..... Neighbourhoods Fundamental systems of neighbourhoods. bases of a topology . . Closed sets : Locally finite families... Interior, closure, frontier of a sct; dense scts wp poe § 2. Continuous functions .....6.c0secseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 1. Continuous functions .. 2. Comparison of topologies . 3. Initial topologies. 4. Final topologies . . 5- Pasting together of topological spaces § 3. Subspaces, quotient spaces.........05 be eceee tense eens 1. Suhspaces of a tapalogical space 2, Continuity with respect to a subspace 3. Locally closed subspaces 4. Quotient spaces .. . 5. Canonical decomposition of a continuous mapping ... 6. Quotient space of a subspace .CONTENTS § 4. Product of topological spaces . 1. Product spaces a. Seviiuu of au vpen sci; seviiun uf a cluscd sci, projection of an open set. Partial continuity . 3. Closure in a product ... 4. Inverse limits of topological spaces § 5. Open mappings and closed mappings .............00005 3. Open i 2. Open equivalence relations and closed equivalence relations 3- Properties peculiar to open mappings 4. Properties peculiar to closed mappings 86. Filters 2.020.020.0002. 1. Definition of a filter 2, Comparison of filters 3. Bases of a filter 4. Ultrafilters . 3. Induced filter . 6. Direct image and inverse image of a filter base 7. Product of filters . 8. Elementary filters g. Germs with respect to a filter 10. Germs at a point ........... 1, Limit of a filter . 2. Cluster point of a . Limit point and cluster point of a function . er base . 3 + 5. Limits relative to a subspace . 6. Limits in product spaces and quotient spaces . § 8. Hausdorff spaces and regular spaces. 1. Hausdorff spaces 3. Tlausdorff quotient spaces 4. Regular spaces . 5, Extension by continuity; double limit 6. Equivalence relations on a regular space § 4g. Compact spaces and locally compact spaces 1. Quasi-compact spaces and compact spaces 2. Regularity of a compact spaceCONTENTS 3. Quasi-compact sets; compact sets; relatively compact sets. Image of a comp a continuous mapping ..... . Product of compact spaces . . . Inverse limits of compact spaces Locally compact spaces Embedding of a locally compact sp: ” oy py g. Locally compact ¢-compact spaces To. Faracompact spaces .... . tion of proper mappings by compactness properties 3. Proper mappings into locally compact spaces . 4- Quotient spaces of compact spaces and locally compact spaces .. § 11, Conncetedness ..........+ sees 1. Connected spaces and connected sets 2. Image of a connected set under a continuous mapping 3. Quotient spaces of a connected space 4. Product of connected spaces ..... 5. Components ...........- se 6. Locally connected spaces. 7. Application : the Poincaré-Volterra theorem Exercises for § 1 Exercises for § 2 Exercises for § 3 Exercises for § 4 Exercises for § 5 Exercises for § 6 Exercises for § 7 Exercises for §8 .... Exercises for §.9 .. Exercises for § 10. Exercises for § 11 101 10g 110 110 112CONTENTS Cuaprter II, Uniform Structures 169 § 1. Uniform spaces .. wee seeeees 16g 1. Definition of a uniform structure 169 2. Topology of a uniform space 17% § 2. Uniformly continuous functions . 174 1. Uniformly continuous functions 174 2. Comparison of uniformities . 175, 3. Initial uniformities .... . 176 4. Inverse image of a uniformity; uniform subspaces .... 177 5. Least upper bound of a set of uniformities . see 178 6. Product of uniform spaces 179 7. Inverse limits of uniform spaces 180 § 3. Complete spaces .. 181 1. Cauchy filters . 181 2. Minimal Cauchy filters 183 3. Complete spaces ..... 184, 4. Subspaces of complete spaces 186 5. Products and inverse limits of complete spaces : 186 6. Extcnsion of uniformly continuous functions 190 7. The completion of a uniform space ..... . 8. The Hausdorff uniform space associated with a uniform space . » 195 197 § 4. Relations between uniform spaces and compact spaces ... 198 1, Uniformity of compact spaces ..... 2. Compactness of uniform spaces ... 3. Compact sets in a uniform space 4. Connected sets in a compact space Exercises for §1 Exercises for § 2. Exercises for §3 Exercises for § 4 . Historicai Note 216 Bibliography :<:e0ec 0, or through any infinite strictly increasing sequence of integers > 0. * There are analogous results for the real line. 4 DEFINITION 6. A base of the topology of a topoiogical space X is any set B of open subsets of X such that every open subset of X is the union of sets belong- ing to B. Proposition 3. Jf X is a topological space, then for a set 8 of open subsets of X to be a base of the topology of X it is necessary and sufficient that for each x=X the set of Ve®B such that x eV is a fundamental system of neighbourhoods of x. It is clear that the condition is necessary. Conversely, if it is satisfied, then given any open sct U and any xe U there is an open sct V,eB such that xe V,¢U. The union of the sets V, for xeU is therefore equal to U. This completes the proof. Examples. 1) The discrete topology has as a base the set of subsets of X which consist of a single point. 2) The set of bounded open intervals is by definition a base of the topology of the rational line (no, 2). * Likewise, the set of bounded open intervals is a base of the topology of the real line. y 4. CLOSED SETS Dermrrion 7. In a topological space X, the complements of the open sets of X are called closed sets. ar1 TOPOLOGICAL STRUCTURES Taking complements, we find that the axioms (O;) and (Oy) take the following form : (Of) Every intersection of closed sets is a closed set. (Oj) Every finite union of closed sets is a closed set. The empty set and the whole space X are closed (and therefore both oben and closed: cf. § 11). On the rational line, every interval of the form [a, —[ is a closed set, for its complement ]<-, af is open; likewise, every interval of the form J<, a] is a closed set; hence so is every bounded closed interval [a, 6], since it is the intersection of the intervals [a,—>[ and ]<, 6]. ‘The set Z_ of rational integers is closed in the rational line, since its complement LU yx, n+ tf is open. nee A covering (F,).ex of a subset A of a topological space X is said to be closed if each of the F, is closed in X. A homeomophism f of a topological space K onto a topological space X’ (no. r) can be characterized as a bijection of KX onto X’ such that the image under f of every closed subset of X is a closed subset of X' and the inverse image under f of every closed subset of X' is a closed subset of X. 5. LOCALLY FINITE FAMILIES Dermron 8. A family (A)ier of subsets of a topological space X is said to be locally finite if for each x =X there is a neighbourhood V of x such that VnA,=@ for all but a finite number of indices .e1. A set © of subsets of X is said to be locally finite if the family of subsets defined hy the identity map of & onto itself is locally finite. It is clear that if (A,),er is a locally finite family of subsets and if B,< A, for each ve, then the family (B,)eq is locally finite. Every finite fami of subsets of a topological space X_ is obviously l ger * For example, in R, the open covering formed by the interval J<-, 1[ and the intervals Jn, —>[ for each integer n > 0 is locally finite; and each interval }n,—>[ meets an infinite number of sets of this covering. 4 Proposrrion 4. The union of a locally finite family of closed subsets of a topolog- teal space X is closed in X. 22INTERIOR, CLOSURE, FRONTIER OF A SET; DENSE sETs —§ 1.6 Let (F,),ex bea locally finite family of closed subsets of X, and suppose that xe X does not belong to F = UF; then x has a neighbourhood ier, V which meets only those F, whose indices belong to a finite subset J of I, For each teJ let U, be the complement of F,; then OF contains the set Vn Qe, which is a neighbourhood of x since each U, is open and contains “x. Hence, by Proposition 1 of no. 2, QF is open and therefore F is closed in X. We note that the union of an arbitrary family of closed subscts of X is not necessarily closed; for example, on the rational linc Q, the set 32, 1[ is the union of the closed sets but is not closed. 6. INTERIOR, CLOSURE, FRONTIER OF A SET; DENSE SETS Derinition g. Jn a topological space X, a point x is said to be an interior point of a subset A of X if A isa neighbourhood of x. The set of interior points of A. is called the interior of A and is denoted by According to Definitions 9 and 4, a point * is an interior point of A if there is an open set contained in A which contains x; it follows that A is the union of all the open sets contained in A, and hence is the largest open set contained in A: in other words, if B is an open set contained in A. then BcA. Consequently, if A and B are two subsets of X such that Bc A, then BcA; and A is a neighbourhood of B if and only if BeA. Remark. The interior of a non-empty set can be empty; this is the case for a set consisting of a single point which is not open, for example on the rational line * (or the real line) y. Proposition 1 of no. 2 can be restated as follows: A sel is open if and only if it coincides with its interior. The property (Vy) of no. 2 implies that every point which is an interior point of cach of two subsets A and B isan interior point of A nB; consequently _, . @ AnB=AnB. 23I TOPOLOGICAL STRUCTURES Every point which is interior to the complement of a set A. is said to be an exterior point of A, and the set of these points is called the exterior of A in X; a point re X wh characterized by the property that * has a sek rh heh docs not meet A, Dermrrion 10. The closure of a subset A. of a topological space X is the all bo X suck that chhourkood of x mects A. and is set of all points weX such that every neighbourhood of x meets A, and is denoted by A. This definition can be reformulated by saying that a point x lies in the closure of a set A if there arc points of A as near x as we please to. Every point which is not in the closure of A is exterior to A, and conversely; thus we have the formulae (which are duals of each other) (2) tk-ta, GAC. Hence, to any proposition on interiors of sets, there corresponds by duality a proposition on closures, and vice versa. In particular, the closure of a set A is the smallest closed set which contains A; in other words, if B is a closed sct such that AcB, then AcB. If A and B are two sub- sets of X such that AcB, then AcB. A sot is closed if and only if it coincides with its closure. The dual of formula (1) is (3) AuB=AvB. PROPOSITION 5. Let A be an open setin X; then for every subset B of X we have (4) AnBcAnB. For suppose xe AB; then if V is any neighbourhood of x, Vn A 1s a neighbourhood of x, since A is open; hence Vn AnB is not empty and therefore x lies in the closure of AnB. If x lies in the closure of A but notin A, then every neighbourhood of x contains a point of A other than x; but if xe A it can happen that x has a neighbourhood which contains no point of A except x. We say then that x is an isolated point of A. In particular, x is isolated in the whole space X if and only if {x} is an open set. A closed sct which has no isolated points is called a perfect sct. 24CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS § an DeriniTion 11. In a topological space X, a point x is said to be a frontier point of a set A if x lies in the closure of A and in the closure of QA. The set of frontier points of A is caiied the frontier of A. The frontier of A is therefore the set An GA, which is closed. A frontier point x of A is characterized by the property that every neighbourhood of x contains at least one point of A and at least one point of fA; frontier of [/A. ‘The interior of A, the exterior of A and the frontier of A are mutually disjoint and their union is the whole space X. DEFINITION 12. A subset-A_ of a topological space X is said to be dense in X° (or simply dense, if there is no ambiguity about X) if A=X, ie. if every non-empty open set U of X meets A. Examples. * We shall see in Chapter IV, § 1 that the set of rational numbers and its complement are dense on the real line. » Ina disorete space X the only dense subset of X is X itself, On the other hand, every non-cmpty subsct of X is dense in the topology on X for which the only open sets are @ and X. Proposition 6. Jf ® ts a base of the topology of a topological space X, there is a dense set D in X such that Card (D) < Card (8). We may restrict ourselves to the case in which none of the sets of 8 is empty (the non-empty sets of 98 already form a base of the topology of X). For each Ue, let xy be a point of U; it follows from Proposition 3 of no. 3 that the set D of the points xy is dense in X, and we have Card (D) < Card (8) (Set Theory, Chapter III, § 3, no. 2, Proposition 3). 2. CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 1, CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS DEFINITION 1. A mapping SF Of a topological space X into a topological space X! is said to be continuous at a point x.@X if, given any neighbourhood V' of f (%o) in X', there is a neighbourhood V of xg in X such that the relation xeV implies f(x) eV’. 251 TOPOLOGICAL STRUCTURES Definition 1 may be restated in the following more intuitive form: to say that f is continuous at the point x) means that f(x) is as near as we please to f (xo) whenever x is suficiently near xq. The relation “for each xe V, f(x) ¢V!” is equivalent to /(V)<¢V’ or again to Vc f'(V'); in view of the neighbourhood axiom (V,), we see that Definition 1 is equivalent to the following: f: X > X’ is said to be continuous at the point xq yf, for each neighbourhood V' of f (xa) in X!, f (V') is a neighbourhood of + in X. Moreover, it is sufficient that f (V’) is a neighbourhood of x) for each neighbourhood V’ belonging to a fundamental system of neighbourhoods of f (x) in X' (§1, no. 3). PRoposiTion 1. Let f be a mapping of a topological space X into a topological space X'. If f is continuous at x, and if x lies in the closure of a subset A of X, then f(x) lies in the closure of f(A). Let V' be a neighbourhood of f(x) in X’. Since f is continuous at x, 7 (V’) is a neighbourhood of * in X. Hence f(V’) meets A, from which it follows that V’ meets f(A), and therefore f(x) is in the closure of f(A). Prorosrrion 2. Let X, X', X" be three topological spaces; let f be a mapping of X into X', continuous at xeX; let g be a mapping of X' into X", continuous at f(x). Then the composition h=gof: X—+>X" is continuous at x. Let V" be a neighbourhood of A(x) =g(f(x)) in X". Since g is continuous at f(x) it follows that g(V") is a neighbourhood of f (x) in X’. But f is continuous at x, hence f(¢(V")) = A(V") is a neighbourhood of x in X, and therefore ’ is continuous at x. Dermnrtion 2. A mapping of a topological space X into a topological space X' is said lo be continuous on X (or just continuous) if it is continuous at each point oy X. Examples. 1) The identity mapping of a topological space X onto itself is continuous. 2) A constant map of a topological space into a topological space is continuous. 3) Every mapping of a discrete space into a topological space is conti- nuous. 26contmvous FUNCTIONS § 2x Tueorem 1. Let f be a mapping of a topological space X into a topological space X'. Then the following statements are equivalent : a) f is continuous in X. b) For every subset A of X, f(A) ¢ f(A). ©) The inverse image under f of every closed subset of X' is a closed subset of X. d) The inverse image under f of every open subset of X! is an apes subset of X. already s tha tha cad that a) that b) implies c), let_F” be a closed subset of X’_and let Fe), then by hypothesis f (F) ¢f(F) ¢F’ = F’, hence Fe f'(F’) =F cF, so that F=F and F is closed. By virtue of the relation (7'(A’) = 7 (6A’) for every subset AT of XI, c) in 4). Finally, suppose that 4) issatisfied. Let x be any point of X and let V’ be any neighbourhood of f(x) in X’; then there is an open set A’ in X! for which f(s) eA'coV! ean Gam nie ye aye +o aud hence we F(A) CSV). By hypuitesis, F(A is open in X, so that f(V’) is a neighbourhood of x in X. Thus d) implies a). Remarks, 1) Let ® be a base (§ 1, no. 3) of the topology of X’; then for f: K-+X’ to be continuous, it is necessary and sufficient that F(U’ is open in X for every U'e®. Examples. Let a be any rational number. The mapping *—»a-+ x of the rational line Q into itself is continuous on Q, for the inverse image under this mapping of an open interval Jb, c[ is the open interval w—ac—al. Likewise, the mapping x—>ax is continuous on Q; this is clear if a=0, for then ax=o for all x; if ao then the inverse image under this mapping of the open interval 6, c[ is the open interval with end-points 6/a and <¢/a. a ope: of X und an open (resp. closed) set of Xun mapping j': X > X’ is not necessarily open (resp. closed) in X’ (cf. § 5). Example. * The mapping f: x—1/(1 + 2%) of R into itself is continuous, but f(R) is the half-open interval Jo, 1], which is neither open nor closed in R.« Tuzoxem 2. 1) ff: X—>X' and gi X'—>X" are two continuous mappings, then gof: X—>X" is continuous. 27N 1 TOPOLOGICAL STRUCTURES 2) For a bijection f of @ topological space X onto a topological space X' to be a homeomorphism, it is necessary and nd sufciet that f and the inverse of f \ s (or, as is also The first assertion is an immediate consequence of Proposition 2; the second follows from Theorem 1, d) and the definition of a homeomor- phism (§ 1, no. 1). 1) Teds of topo! x) It is pe of space X ouiva iupulogical space XK’ which is noi dicontinuous : for example, take X’ to be the rational line Q, and X to be the set Q with the discrete topology; then the identity map X-> xX’ is continuous but is not a homeomorphism. Pp xox a homeo 2) To veri ‘ morphism, it is cnough to show that for cach xeX and cach ncighbour- hood V of x, f(V) is a neighbourhood of f(x) in X’. 3) Let X be a topological space, and for each xeX let B(x) be the set of all neighbourhoods of x. Let x) be a point of X; for each xeX, define a set Bq(x) ofsubsets of X as follows: Bo(xo) = B(x), and if x Ax, then %,(x) is to be the set of all subsets of X which contain x. Tt is immediately verified (§ 1, no. 2, Proposition 2) that the sets q(x) are sets of neighbourhoods of points of X for a topology on X; let Xy denote the topological space thus obtained, and let j: Xy—>X denote the identity map, which is continuous but not in general bicontinuous. A mapping f of X into a topological space X’ is continuous at the point xq if and only if the composition X,—> XX’ is continuous on Xai this follows immediately from the definitions. hot a 2, COMPARISON OF TOPOLOGIES Theviem 2 of uv. 1 shows thai we may take the cuuiinuvus aappings as morphisms of topological structures (Set Theory, Chapter IV, § 2, no. 1); from now on, we shall assume that we have made this choice of morphisms. In accordance with the general definitions (Set Theory, Chapter IV, § 2, no. 2), this allows us to define an ordering on the set of topologies on a given set X: DEFINITION 3. Given two topologies 0, Oz on the same set X, we say that ©, is finer than G_ (and that Ge is coarser than ©) if, denoting by X; the set X with the topology ©; (i = 1, 2), the identity mapping X,—>X, is continuous. If in addition G4 Gq, we say that ©, is strictly finer than Ge (and that ©, is strictly coarser than ©). Two topologics, onc of which is fincr than the other, are said to be comparable, 28COMPARISON OF TOPOLOGIES § 22 The criteria for a mapping to be continuous (no. 1, Definition 1 and Theorem 1) give the following proposition : Proposition 3. Given two topologies ©,, Gy on a set X, the following statements are equivalent : a) ©, is finer than Gq. b) For each x@X, each neighbourhood of x for Gq is a neighbourhood of x fer G.. ¢) For each subser A of X, the closure of A in the topoiogy ©, is contained in the closure of A in the topology ©». d) Every subset of X which is closed in Gy is closed in Gy. e) Every subset of X which is open in Gy is open in by. Bxampie, * in Hilbert space H_ comsisiing of sequences x = (%,) of real numbers such that iat = Dat<+to, = the neighbourhoods of a point xt» in the strong topotogy on HL are the dat xy; the neighbourhoods of x9 in the weak topology on H are the sets contain- ing a set defined by arclation of the form , sup |(x—xdla)| <1, where the @; are points of II and isn (b) = Darn if x= (x,) and y=(y,). Now if @= sup |lajl, the relation 1gi NAF). ted and the hypothesis implies that each of the sets ¢(7',(U,)) is a neigh- bourhood of z in Z; hence ¢(V) is also a neighbourhood of z in Z. This completes the proof. Let , be a base of the topology of ¥,(1e1); let G' denote the set of subsets of X of the form f(U,) for tel and U,e%, for each tel; if 8’ is the set of finite intersections of sets of G’, it is evident that ®’ is a base of the topology ©. 5 § 2, no. 3, ular the following érdus property (the direct proof of which is quite straightforward) : 30INITIAT. TOPOLOGIES § 23 ProposiTion 5. Let X be a set, (Z,)req @ family of topological spaces, (Syrex @ partition of 1 and (Yy)re, 4 family of sets indexed by L. Also for cach = 1. let hy, he amapping of X inta Vy; foreach 21. and each leh, let gn be a mapping of Y, into Z,, and put f, =gn°eh. Ifeach Y) carries the coarsest topology for which the mappings gp(veJy) are continuous, then the coarsest topology on X for which the f, are continuous is the same as the coarsest topology for which the hy are continuous. Examples. 1) Inverse image of a topology. Let X beaset, Y a topological space, f a mapping of X into Y; the coarsest topology © on X for which “f is continuous is called the inverse image under f° of the topology of Y. It follows from Proposition 4 and the formulae for the inverse image of a union and an intersection [Set Theory, R, § 4, formulae (34) and (46)] that the open (resp. closed) sets inthe topology are the inverse images under f of the open (resp. closed) sets of Y; consequently, for each xeX, the sets f(W), where W runs through a fundamental system of neighbourhoods of f(x) in Y, form a fundamental system of neighbourhoods of x in the topology 6. In § 3 we shall study, under the name of induced topology, the particular case in which X is a subset of ¥ and f is the canonical injection XY; X, with the induced topology, is then called a subspace of Y. For a mapping f of a topological space X into a topological space X' to be continuous it is necessary and sufficient that the topology of X is finer than the inverse image under f of the topology of X’. _ogies on a set X a a least «pet ie & in the ordered set of all topol- ogies on X, i.e. there exists a topology on X which is coarsest among all the topologies on X which are finer than each of the ©,. To see this we may apply Proposition 4, taking Y, to be the set X with the topology G, and £ to be the identity map KX © i coarse. oy for which all the mappings f, are continuous. Let © bean arbitrary set of subsets of a set X; amongst the topologies & on X for which the sets of © are open, there is a topology G» which is coarser than all the others and which is called the topology generated by ©. For cach set Ue let Gy be the topology whose open scts are @, U and X [itis clear that this set of subsets of X satisfies (O,) and (Oj)|; then ©, is just the least upper bound of the topologies ‘Gn. By Proposition 4, if 8 is the set of finite intersections of sets belonging to G, then ® is a base of the topology Gy. We say that © is a sub- base of Gy. Product topology. Let 3) Product topology. Let (X)rer ‘The coarsest topology on the product set X = |] X, for which the | projec ier 3r1 TOPOLOGICAL STRUCTURES tions pry: X—>X, are continuous mappings is called the product of the topologies of the X,; we shall study it in more detail in § 4. 4, FINAL TOPOLOGIES Proposition 6. Let X be a set, let (Y.).ex be a family of topological spaces, and for cach v= let f he a mapping of V, inta X. Let © he the sot of subsets U of X such that FAV 1) is open in Y, for each .el; then SD is the set of open subsets of X in a topology % on X which is the final structure on X for the family (f,) (Set Theory, Chapter IV, § 2, no. 5), and in particular © is the finest topology on X for which the mappings Ji are continuous. In other words, if g is a mapping of X into a topological space Z, then g is continuous (X carrying the topology 0) if and only if each of the mappings go f, is continuous. It is immediately verified that © satisfies the axioms (O,) and (Oy). [Set Theory, R, § 4, formulae (34) and (46)]. We shall prove the last assertion of the proposition, which implies the other assertions by reason of the general properties of final structures (Sei Theory, Chapter IV, § 2, no. 5, criterion CST 18). It is clear that the f, are continuous in the topology ©, by the definition of © (no. 1, Theorem 1); hence if g is continuous, so is each mapping gf, (no. 1, Theorem 2). Conversely, suppose that each of, is continuous, and let V be an open set in Z; by hypothesis, #,(@(V)) isopenin Y, foreach ve 1; hence @(V) €9, and the proof is complete. Coroiary. Under the hypotheses of Proposition 6, a subset F of X is closed in the topology © if and only if f'(F) is closed in Y, for cach .el. This follows from the definition of the open sets in the topology © by taking complements. The general properties of final structures (Set Theory, Chapter IV, § 2, no. 5, criterion GST 19) imply the following transitivity property (the direct proof o! t proof o: is also straightforwa iE Proposrrion 7. Let X be a set, (Z,)ex @ family of topological spaces, (h)nen @ partition of I, and (Yy),eq a family of sets indexed by L. Also, for each .EL let hy be a mapping of Y, into X; foreach XL and each Ley let gy, bea mapping of Z, into Yy, and put f,= hogy. Ifeach Y), carries the finest topology for which the mappings g,,(.€],) are continuous, then the finest topology on X. for which the f, are continuous is the same—as the finest topology for which the hy are continuous. 32