Further ia Lt) BRIAN JEFFERSON TONY BEADSWORTH OXFORDOXFORD ‘UNIVERSITY PRESS ‘Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP ‘Oxford University Press is 2 department of the University of Oxford, It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing workdwide in Oxford New York Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town: Chennai DaresSalzam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Sido Paulo Shanghai Taipei Tokyo Toronto Oxford is w registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Brian Jefferson and Tony Beadsworth 2001 ‘The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (makes) First published 2001 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without prior permission in writing from Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographies rights organisation. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scape of the above should be sent 10 the Rights Department. Oxford University Press, at the address above, ‘You must not circulate this book in any order binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing tn Publication Data Data available ISBN 0 19914738 & 1098765432 Typeset and illustrated by Tech-Set Ltd, Gateshead, Tyne and Wear Printed and bound in Great Britain by Bell & Bain Lid.Contents Preface 1 Vectors I Specifying a vector Properties of vectors Describing space using vectors Vectors I Vector product Scalar triple product Other geometrical uses of the vector product and the scalar triple product Vector equation of a curve Moments Equivalent force systems and equilibrium Differential Equations Definitions and classification Forming differential equations First-order differential equations Separation of variables Homogeneous equations First-order linear equations 35 35 36 38 3 45 48 Linear equations with constant coefficients 50 ‘The complementary function and the particular integral Second-order linear equations with constant coefficients ‘Vector differential equations Simultaneous linear differential equations Numerical methods General Motion in One Dimension Motion with variable mass. Variable forces Examination Questions: Chapters I to 4 Impulses and Impulsive Tensions Oblique impact Impulsive tensions ‘Oscillating Systems Damped oscillations Forced oscillations Investigation Resonance 32 6 67 70 76 81 8I 88 oT 103 103 109 5 ms 126 2 132 in 10 n Projectiles Projectiles on an inclined plane Air resistance Motion of a Particle in a Plane Canesian coordinates Polar resolutes of acceleration Motion under a central force Intrinsic coordinates Examination Questions: Chapters 5 to 8 Stability of Equilibrium Centee of mass Stability of equilibrium Moment of Inertia Kinetic energy of rotation Moment of inertia Equation of rotational motion Angular momentum Uniform angular acceleration Calculating the moment of inertia Parallel and perpendicular axes theorems Radius of gyration Summary of standard results Rotation about a Fixed Axis Total energy of a rotating body Work done by a couple Relationship between work and energy Compound pendulum Reaction at the axis Impulse and momentum Conservation of angular momentum General Motion of » Rigid Body in Two Dimensions Particle model ‘Translational and rotational motion of the lamina Angular momentum about a fixed point Kinetic energy Small oscillations of a system Examination Questions: Chapters 9 to 12 Answers. Index 197 137 145 155 15s 159 165 Vs 182 188 188 196, 201 201 201 203 203 204 9 29 21 22 2a 224 ns 225 2B 235 238 242 46 46 247 249 249 288 267Preface This book is the companion volume to Introducing Mechanics and completes the coverage of the mechanics content of the A-level mathematics specifications which came into force in September 2000. The text does not follow the syllabus of any one examination board, but seeks to develop the subject in such a way as to be accessible to all students of further mathematics. As with Jutroducing Mechanics, emphasis is given to the modelling aspects of the subject and, where possible, reference is made to real-world situations and to practical investigations which may complement the theoretical development of topics. Because of the nature of the topics covered, this has proved much more difficult than with the previous volume. It is not possible, for example, to devise a simple experiment to illustrate the general motion of a body in wo dimensions, and so a good deal of the work is necessarily rather theoretical. No new use has been made of spreadsheets, although the sheet which explores damped harmonic motion is again relevant, and can be downloaded from the Oxford University Press website (http://www.oup.co.uk/mechanics), ‘There is a good deal of variation in the emphasis given to different topics by the various syllabuses across the single-subject/further-mathematics divide. Far the sake of coherence, we have therefore found it necessary to repeat in this volume some of the text and exercises [rom Introducing Mechanics. The topics are introduced in what we believe is a helpful order, but a degree of cross-referencing has been included to help those whe wish to take a different approach in developing the subject. ‘The first three chapters are devoted to revising and extending the basic mathematical tools of the trade — vectors and differential equations. Chapters 4 10 7 develop further some of the topics covered in Introducing Mechanics, and deal with motion under a variable force or with variable mass, oblique impulses, damped and forced oscillations and the motion of a projectile on an inclined plane. Chapter 8 explores the motion of a particle in a plane, described in cartesian, polar or intrinsic coordinates. Chapter 9 introduces the notion of stability of equilibrium and its relationship with potential energy. A good deal of further mechanics consists of a fuller exploration of ideas already encountered in the earlier book. The major new area of study is rotational motion, and the final three chapters are devoted to this, covering moment of inertia, rotation about a fixed axis and the general motion of a body in two dimensions. Most students will use this book with the guidance of a teacher, but every effort has been made to make it readable and accessible to those using it for self-study or for revision. A large number of worked examples. are included, with exercises designed both to provide rote practice and to stretch the more able student, There are also three sections containing a selection of recent sxamination questions. ‘We are grateful to AEB, EDEXCEL, MEI, NEAB, NICCEA, OCR, SQA and WJEC for permission to use their questions. The answers provided for these questions are the sole responsibility of the authors. Thanks are due to James Nicholson for his helpful suggestions when reviewing the text and for his diligence in checking the answers to the exercises and examination questions. Heartfelt thanks also go to John Day for his untiring attention to detail in the iting of this book. Finally, thanks are duc to our wives for their patience over the last several years during which these two books have consumed so much of our time. Brian Jefferson Tony Beadsworth September 20001 Vectors | A line is length without breadth. BuCLID We will start with a resumé and some slight formalisation of the vector properties dealt with in Introducing Mechanics. To define a veetor quantity requires both magnitude and direction (a scalar quantity has only magnitude), ® Vectors a and b are equal if and only if they have the same magnitude and the same direction. © Vectors a and b are parallel if and only if a = ib for some scalar 4. If J is positive, the vectors have the same direction (they are like parallel veetors). If A is negative, the vectors are in opposite directions (they are unlike parallel vectors). Ifa =—b, vectors a and b have equal magnitudes but opposite directions. © Vectors can be represented by directed line segments. We can then represent vector addition as the single displacement. equivalent to the successive displacements representing the individual vectors. In the diagram, the line segment AD represents the resultant or vector sum of the vectors a, b and c. @ The subtraction of vectors can be regarded as adding a negative vector, so that a—b is effectively a+ (—b). Specifying a vector To specify a vector, we need a frame of reference. This would normally be the standard cartesian axes in two or three dimensions. In two dimensions, we can state the magnitude of r ({r| or r) and its angle, @, with the positive x-direc Alternatively, we state the x- and y-components of r. tous Here, r= (3) or r= ai + 4j, where i and j are unit vectors in the x- and y-directions.CHAPTER 1 VECTORS | Clearly, we have a=rcosd b=rsind and re V@TR Oe arcan(2) a In three dimensions, we would normally use the x-, y+ and z-components of the vector, as shown below. a Here, r= (*) corr = ai + bj+ ck, where i, j and k are unit vectors in the © a+, sand z-directions. If makes angles 2, and y with the x-, y= and :-directions, then we have cosy a=reosa b=reosp ¢ reVetPy The direction of vector ris specified by the ratios ai h:c. We can see this because if vector s = di-+ ej +fk is parallel to r then s=dr => d=Ia e=sb fade = dtetf=darabiie = arbre ‘The ratios a:4:¢ are called the direction ratios of the vector. Two vectors having the same directions ratios are parallel (either like or unlike). The angles a, f/ und y specify the direction of r, The cosines of these angles are called the direction cosines of (he vector. These are frequently given the symbols /, m and it. Hence, we have a b cosa=4=1 cosp=2=m r r If sis a like parallel vector to r, it will have direction cosines /, m, n. If sis an unlike parallel vector to r, it will have direction cosines —/, —n, —n.PROPERTIES OF VECTORS The directions cosines are related because Pormaw= ered r But? =a +6? +7, which gives [ Pom tral Properties of vectors Combining vectors in component form Addition, subtraction and multiplication by a scalar can be done component- wise. Hence, we have 6-8) ~ 0-0 Unit vectors A unit vector has a magnitude of 1. It is often indicated by a ‘hat’ over the symbol. The unit vector in the direction of r = ai + bj + ck is given by [ pot at bink iW Ve@tPre Scalar product Also known as the dot product, this is the first of the two ways in which vectors can be combined in a form reminiscent of multiplication. It is called the scalar product because the result is a scalar quantity. The symbol used to denote a scalar product is a dot. (See Introducing Mechanics, pages 25-6.) Consider the two vectors a, by a=| a, | andb=| a3 by where a= af pata and b= VA TR PR. a We can calculate their scalar product in two ways: a.b = abeos@, where @ is the angle between the vectors and ab = ayby + aby + agbyCHAPTER 1 VECTORS I Notice in particular: © aaa aos =a (in fact, some authors write a.a as a”) « Ifa.b = 0, where a and b are non-zero vectors, then cos = 0 and § = 90°. So, vectors are perpendicular if and only if their scalar product is zero. Properties of scalar product We can show that @ the scalar product is commutative: ® the scalar product is distributive over vector addition: a.(b+c)=a.b+a.c But note that a.b =a.c does not mean that b = ¢. For example, we have HG) @0- Angle between vectors Using the fact that abcos@ = a.b, we have a.b g—23 [ sos ab Hence, we can find the angle between two vectors. Example 1 if. a = 2i+4j—-k and b= between them. 6j + 3k, find the angle @ Using a.b = ayy + ayby + aybs, we have <6) (1x3) 008 0 = ee = 0.74 yeee een? x (P+ ese = 0-07 The angle between two vectors can also be expressed in terms of direction cosines. If a= ayi + as} + ak has direction cosines he ma® ma a a a and b = b)i+ dj + dyk has direction cosines by b: b: b= ma ma ba oma masDESCRIBING SPACE USING VECTORS we have cos@ = Sibi t sabe + abs ab = cos) = FL 4 Sahn , abe abab which gives [ C080 = daly + tatty + Hatt Exercise 1A 1 Given vector V = 2i+ 3) - 6k, find a) the magnitude of V b) the unit vector in the direction of V e) the vector in the opposite direction to V and with magnitude 10.5 units d) the angles which V makes with the coordinate axes. 2 Octavius the spider spins two successive threads along vectors a = i — 3j-+ 2k and b=4i+j~3k. Find a) the angle through which Octavius turns at the junction of the two threads b) the vector he must then travel to form a triangular web: ¢) the angle this third side makes with the x-axis. 3 Vector V has direction ratios 4:—4:7 and magnitude 36 units. Find the two possible values of Vv. 4 Vector ¥ makes angles of 50° and 70° with the positive x- and j-directions. Find the two possible angles it could make with the z-direction and hence find the possible values of V if |V| = 6 units. 5 Find the possible vectors which make equal angles with the positive x-, y- and z-directions and which have magnitude 12 units. 6 A force F is of magnitude 40N, Its direction makes an angle of 75° with the positive x-axis and makes equal, acute angles with the positive y- and z-directions. Find F in component form. Describing space using vectors You are used to describing two-dimensional space using cartesian coordinates, equations of straight lines, etc. We can do the same using vector notation, and in this form the ideas are more easily extended to three dimensions (and beyond). To specify points, we need an origin O and a frame of reference, which is normally the standard cartesian axes. The point A with coordinates (a), a3, a3) is then specified by its position vector OA = ai + aj + askCHAPTER 1 VECTORS | Conventionally, the position vector of point A is labelled a, of point B is labelled b and so on. (The only obvious exception to this is that it is common for the general point P to be given the position vector r.) Distance between points Given two points A and B, the displacement of B from A is given by the vector AB, where AB=b-a So, the distance AB = [AB] is given by |AB| = |b - a] Example 2 Find the distance between A(2, 3, —1) and B(4, 2, 3). sowwtion The position vectors are a = 21+ 3j—k and b = 4i + 2j + 3k, which give b-a=2i-j+4k - = AB=|b—al= 27+ (-1 +4 = 21 The ratio formula Suppose we have twe points, A and B, and we wish to find the point C on AB such that AC:CB= min We have . AC =c-a and CH=b-c A ‘We know that > AC Lm . CB on > nAC =mCB (since ABC isa straight line) = ne ~ a) = mib ~ 0) = na + mb men This formula gives a point C on AB for all ratios m:n. If the ratio is positive, then C lies between A and B (C divides AB internally). If the ratio is negative, then C lies on the line AB extended (C divides AB externally) In particular, if C is the mid-point of AB, then m = 1 and we have e=}(@+b)DESCRIBING SPACE USING VECTORS Vector equation of a line In general, the equation of a line or of any curve can be regarded as a formula which will generate all the points on the line or curve. In vector terms, this means it must generate the position vectors of the points. There are two ways in which we may define a line, We can either specify the direction of the line and the position of one point through which it passes, or we can specify the positions of two points on the line. Equation of a tine through a given point and in a given direction Suppose the line passes through point A with position vector a relative to some origin O and is in the direction of vector b. The position vector r of a general point P on the line is given by GA + AP a+AP But AP is a multiple of b, so we get a+b By varying the value of 2, this equation will give all the points on the line, and so it is the vector equation of the line, Equation of a line through two given points Suppose the line passes through points A and B with position vectors a and b relative to some origin O, The direction of the line is given by the vector AB = b— a. From the result in the previous section, the equation of the line is therefore a+i(b—a) Exampl Find the vector equation of the line through the point A(2, 5, —1) in the direction i+ j — 2k, and show that it passes through the point P(-1,2, ~$). ‘SOLUTION The position vector of A is 21+ 5j —k. Therefore, the equation of the line is r= (2+ Sj—k)+ 4G +j- 2k) This is sometimes given in the form r=Q+di+4aj-U 42k For the line to pass through P, we need These are all satisfied by 4 = ~3, and so P is on the line. 7CHAPTER t VECTORS | Example 4 Find the equation of the line passing through the points. AG,4, 1) and B(—2,4,0). ‘soLUTION 3 2 The position vector of A isa = | 4 | and of Bisb= 4}. 1 0 -3 The direction vector of the line is b — a = ( ‘) “I The equation of the line is then 3 -5 35h r=|4] 44] 0 or r= 4 1 -l 1-4 Note Any equation of the form r = a + Ab is a straight line, where b indicates the direction of the line. Example § Show that the lines r = (31+ J — k) + A(21— 4j — 3k) and r= (7 —4p)i + (1 + 810) + 2 + 60k are parallel soLuTION The second line can be written as (J+ j + 2k) — 2n(2i — 4j — 3k) is therefore a direction vector for both lines and so they are Qi-4j parallel. Find the equation of the line through the point A(2, 2, 1) which is parallel co the line r = (1 — J)i-+24j+ 3+ 2k soumon The given line ean be written r= (i+ 3k) + A-i + 2j + 2k) (-1 +2) + 2k) is therefore a direction vector for this line and all lines parallel to it. Hence, the required Line is r= (4 2+ k) + of—i + 2+ 2k) Cartesian equations for a line in three dimensions The vector equation of a line can be expressed in cartesian form. ‘Suppose the line is r=a+ibDESCRIBING SPACE USING VECTORS where a= ai+ aoj+ayk, b= i ait yj-t zk. We then have baj + bsk and r is the general point x= a) + 2b, Y= a + db, 2= a5 + iby Solving cach of these for 4, we obtain the equations X-a@ _ pra _z-a by b: by which give the cartesian representation of the line, Notice that it requires two cartesian equations to define a line in three dimensions. Notice also that for a line given in this form, we can still easily identify the by direction vector (*) of the line. by Example 7 Find the vector and cartesian equations of a) the line through (2, 1,3) with direction ratios 4:3: —1 b) the line through (5,2, —3) and (2, 2, 1) SOLUTION a) The vector equation is ()() The cartesian equations are 3 3 b) The direction of the line is ( 0 ) 4 The vector equation can be written -( Because the » component of the direction is zero, we cannot express J in terms of y. The cartesian equations are thereforeCHAPTER 1 VECTORS | Intersection of two straight lines In two dimensions, two straight lines are cither parallel or have a single point of intersection. Parallel lines ate easily spotted because the direction vector of one is a multiple of the direction vector of the other, as in Example 5 (page 8). Example 8 Find the point of intersection of the lines r=(Q-di+(1420§ and r=(24+ pit 4 pj soumon If the point (x, ») is on both lines, then we have x=3-4 and y=l+24 and S24 14M=1+p This leads to the simultaneous equations and 2=p Solving them, we get 4 = 4, p= 3. Atpa Substituting for 4 in the first line equation or for jin the second, we find the point of intersection of the lines is (22, 14). In three dimensions, the situation is slightly more involved. A pair of straight lines may be parallel, may have a point of intersection or may ‘miss each other" like telephone wires going in different directions. In the last case, they are called skew lines. Example 9 Investigate whether the following pairs of lines intersect. —Di+2j+GB—Ak and e=(5— 2 —4y§+ Ons Vk 2 —-Di+ G4 Dj+ak and r= (2- i+ —2y)j—2uk A-Mi+aj465-Wk and r= Gut Dit @—Dj+O2- wk a) 5) er ‘SOLUTION a) Rewriting the lines as r= (-2143k) + +2) -W) and r= (51-4 k)-+ y(—24 — 4) + 2k) we can sce that the direction vector of the second line is —2 x that of the first. The lines are therefore parallel. b) The lines are not parallel. If they have a point of intersection (x.y, =), ‘then we have 2-1 and x=2-po > MW-l=2-y ty A+ and = Atla=l- mm 2 i and z= 2p + la- BIDESCRIBING SPACE USING VECTORS Solving equations [1] and [2], we get 4 = 2, 4 = —1. These values also satisfy equation [3], so the lines intersect, Substituting for 4 in the first line equation or for in the second, we find that the point of intersection of the lines is (3, 3, 2). ¢) The lines are not parallel, If they have a point of intersection (x,y. 2), then we have x=4=-4 and x=3n+) > A-4=3n41 ty) ysd and y=u-l = Pl peS-2 and r=2-p + $-R=2-2 PB) Solving equations (1) and 2}, we get A= —4, = -3. If we try these values in equation [3], we find that the LHS = 13 and the RHS = 5. Hence, the lines do not have a point of intersection — they are skew lines, Angle between two straight lines We can define the angle between a pair of straight lines as being the angle between their direction vectors. This makes sense even for skew lines, as in this case we are effectively finding the angle between a pair of lines through an arbitrary point which are parallel to the given lines. The angle is then found using the scalar product as described on page 4. Example 10 Find the angle between the lines 4-3 3n42 r=({ 442) and r=[ 5-2 u-1 1-3 We can rewrite the equations as 4 -l 2 3 re 2)+a, 1 and r= [5] +p] -2 -1 2 1 -3 -1 3 and so the ditection vectors are p = ( 1 ) and q= (=) which give 2 3 bls fF +P +2 = ye lal = +2 + (3y = 22 p.q=(-1) x 341% (-2)42%(-3)=-11 Hence, if 0 is the angle between the lines, we have SOLUTION and 0.957 = d= 163.2" WCHAPTER 1 VECTORS | Exercise 1B Points A, B and C have position vectors 2i + 3j— 3k, i— 4j + 2k and 3i— 5j +k respectively. Prove that ABC is a right-angled triangle a) by using Pythagoras’ theorem b) by using the scalar product, Forces P and Q act along AB and AC respectively. P has magnitude 20/3 N and Q has magnitude 18 N. Find the magnitude of the resultant force and the angle it makes with AB. A has position vector a = i+ 2j— 2k and B has position vector b = divides AB in the ratio a:b. 2) Find the position vector of C. b) Show that OC bisects the angle AOB. — 3)-+ 6k. The point C o 4 1 2 Points A, B and C have position vectors (3) (2) and ( 3 ) respectively, The point P 1 2 -3 divides AB in the ratio 1:&, and the point Q divides AC in the ratio 1:k @) Find the position vectors of P and Q. b) Show that PQ is parallel to BC. ©) Find the ratio PQ: BC. a Find in both vector and cartesian form the cquations of the following lines. a) Through (2, 1, 1) in the direction 34 + j + 2k. b} Through (—3, 4, 2) and (1, 0, 3). ©) Through (4, -2, 2) and parailel to the line = : fatto sn 4) Through (3, 3, 2) in the direction j + 2k. e)} Through (—4, —2, 3) and parallel to the y-axis. For each of the lines in Question 4, find the coordinates of the point (if it exists) at which the ling intersects the xz-plane. Find the angle between the lines ayr=(244i+(3—-2yjt+ 3k and r= (n— 2+ (n+ 1-4 3k ves 3 6 ~ Determine whether the following pairs of lines are parallel, intersecting or skew. If they intersect, find the pasition vector of their point of intersection, a) r=344 DIFC — 2+ 22+ Dk and = 21 — 3p) + (Se — I+ — 80k (oC) Go)EXERCISE 18 : and = j j 7 i j j -H4 6) + A414 +2) and r= (—24 7k) + lA 4j+") = j~ 38) + uGi+ 2j+k) dr 0) r= (i+ f+ 3k) + A+ 2+ 3K) and = 8 Prove that the lines a ce e g r= [a+b |+alc+d | and r=[ ctf | pl gen a+ c+2d e+, gt+ih are always either parallel or intersecting (that is, they lie in the same plane).2 Vectors Il Beauty is as useful as usefulness. More perhaps. VICTOR HUGO Vector product We will now look at the second method of combining vectors axb which is reminiscent of multiplication. This is called the vector product or sometimes the cross product. If we have vectors a and b, the vector product is written a x b and is spoken as ‘a cross b’. If the angle between a and b is 0, then a x b is the vector with magnitude ab sin @ and with direction perpendicular to both a and b, such that a right-hand screw turning from a to b would travel in the direction a x b. This means that b x a also has magnitude absin 0 and is also perpendicular to both a and b. Commutativity A right-hand screw turning from b to a would travel in the opposite direction from a x b, Therefore, it follows that bx b This means that, unlike the scalar product, the vector product is not commutative. Parallel and perpendicular vectors If a and b are parallel vectors, the angle between them is 0°. The magnitude of bis, therefore, ab sin 0° = 0 and hence we have axb=0 where 0 is known as the zero vector. If a.and b are perpendicular, the magnitude of a x b is ab sin 90° = ab. 14vector propuct We can use these facts to find the vector products of the unit veetors i, j and k. By the nature of parallel vectors, we have [ ixisjxj=okxk=0 By the nature of perpendicular vectors, and using the fact that i, j and k form a right-hand set, we also have [ ixj=k xk kxisj and, of course, { jxi- Associativity We should now examine two other properties of the vector product. First, is it associative ~ that is, is the following true? ax (bx) =(axbyxe We can readily sce that this is not true by considering a x (b x b) and (ax b) xb. As b x b= 0, we have lax (bx by) =ax0=0 If a and b are inclined at angle 0, |a x b| = asin 9, Also, a « b is perpendicular to b. Hence, it follows that ta x b) x bl =absind x b £0 and so we have ax (bx b) # (ax b)xb This means that, in general, [ ax (bxe) #(ax byxe Distributivity The other property we need to examine is whether the vector product is distributive over vector addition. That is, is the following truc? ax(b+e)=axbpaxec The statement is, in fact, true, but the argument is slightly more involved than those above, It will be enough to prove it for the unit vector a. 15CHAPTER 2 VECTORS II Proof We have to prove that ax(b+c)=axb+axe J The diagram shows vectors a, b, ¢ and b +c. The shaded area represents a plane perpendicular to a. OP, PQ and OQ are the projections of b,c and b+¢ onto the plane. a ax b= (ayb; — ayba)i + (ayb — abs) + (ayb — ab, Vk This expression is most conveniently remembered in the form of a determinant, (If you are unfamiliar with determinants, see Further Pure Mathematics, pages 80-93.) ijk a ay ay by by bs axb= For example, if a = 21+ 3j - 2k and b 4j+ 3k, then ijk axb=/2 3 - 1-43 —|3 3) |2 3 =|3, 3 -[f J =i-gj-1k Interpreting the vector product We will see on pages 27-34 that the vector product has applications when we consider moments of forces, but for now there is a direct geometrical interpretation of it. 7CHAPTER 2 VECTORS II ‘The diagram on the right shows a parallelogram PQRS, 5 R with PS =a and PQ =b. The height of the parallelogram ish, We therefore have Area PQRS = bh As it = asin®, we get » hy Area PQRS = absin® But {a x b| = ab sin 8, so we have Area PQRS = |a x bj ‘We can therefore see that the magnitude of the vector product of two vectors «gives the area of the parallelogram generated by the vectors. The direction of the vector product indicates the orientation of the parallelogram by giving the normal direction to the plane. In this sense, a plane area can be regarded as a vector quantity. Example 1 Find the area of the triangle formed by the vectors a=24j—3kand b= ~243j+k. ‘The area of the triangle is half that of the parallelogram defined by the ‘vectors. That is, Area = }fa x b| Now, a « b is given by ijk =l2 1 2301 = 101 + 4] + 8k Hence, we have Area = bx VIO Fa E = 3V5 units? Exercise 2A 4 Given vectors a= 41+J+ 2k, b=142j—kand e= 31-3) +k. a) Verify that ax (b+e)=axbtaxe b} Show that a x (b xe) # (a xb) xe 2 Given vectors a = 21+ 2j +k and b = 4i + 3j—7k, find @ unit vector perpendicular to both a and b, 3 Given vectors a=i-3j+k,b i + j— 2k and ¢ = —31+ 2 + 3k, verify that a.bxe=axb.c (Note There is no need for brackets in these expressions, as to be meaningful the vector product must be done first.SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT > Prove that (a — b) x (a+b) = 2a xb 5 Given a = 2i4+j—3k and = 14i —j + 9k, find vector b such that a.b = —4 and a xb =e. o Triangle ABC has vertices A(2, 1, 1), B(4,0, find a) the area of ABC b) a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the triangle. 2) and C(-1, -2,3). Using the vector product, ~ Triangle ABC has vertices A, B and C with position vectors a, b and e respectively. By considering AB x AC or otherwise, shaw that the area of ABC is given by dlaxb+bxe+exal What could you say about the points A, B and C ifaxb+bxe =a c? 8 The diagram on the right shows a cuboid in which OA is 4 3 units, OC is 4 units and OG is 2 units. H is the mid-point c 4 of GD. 2 D Use the vector product to find the area of the triangle BFH R A C B le 9 The triangle ABC has sides formed by vectors a, b and ¢, as shown b ic in the diagram on the right. A Show that a x b = b x ¢ = © x a and hence derive the sine rule for the triangle, 10 Three vectors a, b and are such that ax b=ax¢ Explain why this means that the three vectors lic in the same plane. Show further that b —¢ is parallel to a, Scalar triple product There are three ways in which three vectors a, b and ¢ may be combined as a product First, there is the rather trivial (a.b)e. As a,b is a scalar, this is just a scalar multiple of vector c. Second, there is the vector triple product, a x (b x ), 50 called because the result is a vector. This is more interesting and important, but is outside the Aclevel syllabus.CHAPTER 2 VECTORS II Finaily, we have the scalar triple product, a.b x ¢, which results in a scalar quantity. As was pointed out in Exercise 2A, there is no ambiguity in leaving out brackets, because for ihe second operation to be meaningful the first operation must be the vector product. Example 2 Given a = 314 2)+ 2k, b =i+j+3k and e=i-2j—-k, verify that a.bx¢=ax b.c SOLUTION We have ij bxe lol Si+4j-3k 1 =2 = ab x ©= (31+ 2j-+ 2k).(51+ 4j — 3k) =3xS42e442%(-3) = We also have ijk 322 B13 => axbe=(4i—7j+k).i-3-k) = 4x 1+ (-7) x (-2)4+1 x (-1) =17 axb= =4i-7j+k Hence, we have verified that abxec=axb.c Component form of the scalar triple product Suppose we have vectors a, b, a=[a] b=[4; ay bs We know that b x © = (hze3 — dyez)i + (bse — byes)) + (bye2 = back which gives ab x € = ay(bycs — dyer} + aa(bser — byes) + as(bie2 ~ baer) This can be written in determinant form as a @ ay a.bxe=|h by by e263SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT rows, as depicted on the right, leaves the value unchanged, while swapping One of the features of a determinant is that any cyclic repositioning of the > two rows changes the sign of the determinant. From this we deduce that [ a.bxe=b.exaseaxb and, for example, that [ a.bxe=-baxe As scalar product is commutative, we also have, for example, [ a.bxesaxb.c Geometrical interpretation The diagram on the right shows a solid called a parallelepiped (pronounced parallele-pie-ped), whose faces are pairs of congruent parallelograms. fe The solid is generated by three vectors, a, b and ¢, as J / shown. Vectors b and ¢ form the base, and b x ¢, which is perpendicular to the base, makes an angle @ with vector a. Hence, we have a.bxc=|al|b x clcos0 But |b e| gives the area of the base, and |alcos.@ = h, the perpendicular height of the parallelepiped. So, we have a.b x c = Base area x Height = Volume of parallelepiped We can now see why reordering a, b and ¢ cyclically, such as b. x a, or swapping the . and the x operations as in a x b.c, leaves the value unchanged. In each case, the result is the volume of the same parallelepiped. Non-cyclical reorderings, such as a.c x b, give the negative of the volume, since ¢ x b would point downwards in the diagram and we would have to replace a with —a to relate the product to a ‘real” parallelepiped below the shaded plane. Some authors use [a, b, ¢] for the scalar triple product, meaning a.b x ¢, ax b.c and any cyclical reordering of these. Volume of a tetrahedron The volume of the tetrahedron generated by vectors a, b and ¢, as shown, is one sixth of the volume of the corresponding parallelepiped. [ Volume of tetrahedron = La.b x 21CHAPTER 2 VECTORS II Other geometrical uses of the vector product and the scalar triple product Distance from a point to a line Suppose we have a line passing through a point A, position vector a, and with direction vector b, as shown. We wish to find the distance ¢ from a point P, position vector p, to the line. We have d=APsin@ But AP =p —a, which gives d= |p—ajsind We know that {b x (p —a)| = |b] |p — So, substituting for |p — al sin #, we get _ bx (p—a)] a ‘ample 3. Find the distance from the point P(2, 3,1) to the line raG-di+Q—D)+ + 4k sousrion We rewrite the equation as r=(i-—j+4kh+Al-i+23+k) From this we see that the line passes through the point with position vector a = 3i—j+4k and has direction vector b = -i+ 2j+k jon vector p = 21+ 3j—k, giving 4j- 5k The required distance d is given by a ot tk) x (i+ 4h 5h) [i+ 2p +k! Simplifying the numerator, we get (i+ 2) +k) x (-i + 4j - Sk) = - 14 — 6j - 2k The point P has po: pra= which gives — [eli = 6 = 2k] i+ +k) yi(-l4y + (-67 + (-27 we de MOMENT V6 17 units vb Ven +2+rGEOMETRICAL USES OF THE VECTOR PRODUCT AND SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT Shortest distance between a pair of skew lines Suppose we have lines /, and /, which have equations =a) + 4b, and r= a; + by respectively. Points A, and A», having position vectors a, and a, lie on /, and /, as shown, If we draw lines parallel to 4, and /: through A; and Ay respectively, we define two parallel planes, shaded in the diagram. ‘The shoriest distance between the lines is the length, d, of the line P,P3, which is perpendicular to both /, and /;. This is the perpendicular distance between the two shaded planes. The vector AjA, = a, — a2, and this together with b, and b; define a parallelepiped, as shown in the diagram. The perpendicular height of this parallelepiped is d. If its base area is 4 and its volume is V, we know that A=|b, xb and V= |(a, —a).b, x by] where the modulus bars are needed for V to ensure a positive volume. But as V = Ad, we have (a1 — a2).b, x bo] |b: x by} [ Intersecting lines If the lines intersect, the shortest distance between them is zero. The condition for intersecting lines is therefore [ (ay ~ a3).b; x by = 0 Example 4 Find the shortest distance between the lines -QoG) =-()o() soumon Il 3 The points having position vectors a, = { 0} anda; = { 2 }are on the 2 1 respective lines. The lines have direction vectors by = ( Hence, we have 3 a,—a,;—]| -2 1 23CHAPTER 2 VECTORS II We also have by x by = {2 =24+7j+3k => |b xby[ = v62 Exercise 2B 1 Find the volume of the parallelepiped generated by the vectors [+ j + 2k, 2i—j—-k and 31+ 2j — 2k 2 A tetrahedron OABC has vertices at the origin O and A(2, 1,1), B(—1,-2,2) and C(I,3, -2). a) Find the volume of OABC. b) Find the area of triangle ABC. ©) Use your answers to parts a and b to find the distance from the origin to the plane ABC. 3 Find the volume of the tetrahedron with vertices A(1, 1,1), B(21-1), C@,3,2) and D(—3, 1,0). 4 A tetrahedron has vertices with position vectors a, b, ¢ and d. Show that its volume is given by Votld(axb+bxetexa)—a.bxe| § A straight line has equation r = (1 — 2)i+ 4) + (24 — Dk. A is the point with coordinates G,1,-2). a) Write down the vector AP connecting A with a general point P on the line, If AP is perpendicular to the line, find and solve an equation for 2, Hence find the distance from point A to the line, b) Use the vector product to confirm the value you obtained in part a for the distance of point A from the line. 6 a) Find the least distance between lines £), equation r = (A+ 4)i + (1 — 24)j — (4+ Dk and Ls, equation r = 3yi+ 2) + (#— Dk. b) A third line Z, is parallel to L; and passes through the point with coordinates (1.2.0). Find the value of a if L, and £; intersect. 3 1 7 Find the distance of the point P(—2, —3,0) from the lines £), equation r= (3) +4 ( -l ) , 2 0 4 0 and 2, equation r = (=) + (: I ) . Find also the distance between the lines. What can -l 2 you deduce about the point P?+ ++ + 24VECTOR EQUATION OF A CURVE 8 Find the shortest distance between the lines whose cartesian equations are x-2 zti x-l=2-p=7-1 d Sofa yy alt x pez an 3 yt 2 9 Examine whether the following pairs of lines intersect, (i) G) G)(4) (2)-G) = eC) Vector equation of a curve ‘We can express the equations of curves, in two or three dimensions, in vector form. Essentially, these are parametric equations, since they require us to express the i, j and k components of the position vector r of a general point P on the curve in terms of a parameter, which is usually designated as 1, A or 6. The vector equation of the curve can then be written in the form r= f+ gj + hk Example 5 Find the vector equation of a circle, centre C(a, 6) and radius /, lying in the ij-plane. SOLUTION In the diagram on the right, we have ¢ = ai + 5j and cP = feos Oi +fsin0j The position vector of P, a general point on the circle, is given by r=e+CP (ai + bj) + (eos 01+ dsin@ + 1=(a+lcos)i+ (b+ Isin dj > and this is the vector equation of the circle, Example 6 Sketch and describe the curve with vector equation r= acos i + asinOj+ 0k SOLUTION The curve r = acos#i + asin@j is a circle in the ij-plane, with centre O and radius a. This circle (shown dashed in the diagram) is the projection of the given curve onto the ij-plane.c HAPTER 2 VECTORS II As the projected point moves at a constant rate round the circle, the point on the curve also moves at a constant rate in the k-direction. The curve is a three-dimensional spiral, known as.a helix. (This is familiar from models of the DNA molecule -— the ‘double helix’,} A helix can be produced by wrapping a length of thread around a cylinder. The distance, p, between corresponding points P and Q on two neighbouring coils is constant and is called the piteh of the helix. The pitch of the helix is the increase in the k-component of ras 0 increases by 2. For the given equation, the pitch is 2nd, Exercise 2C 1 Find the vector equation of a circle, centre (2, -3) and radius 4. Find the vector equation of a circle lying in the ik-plane, centre the origin and radius 3. 3 Describe the curve whose vector equation is r = ti+ 2f7j — 4k. 4 Describe and sketch the curve whose vector equation is r = 3cos i+ 3sin 8 j+ 20k. 5 Describe and sketch the curve whose vector equation is r= gy +cos0j+sindk. x 6 Describe and sketch the curve whose vector equation is r = cos i + sin Oj + cos @k. Describe and sketch the curve whose vector equation is t = cos i+ V2sin@j+cos@k. ~ The diagram shows a disc of radius a, which is rolling without slipping around a circular track lying in the ij-plane. The track is centred on the origin and has a radius of 3a. The plane of the dise is at all times perpendicular to the ij-plane. ‘The dise starts rolling with a point P on its rim at the point (34,0, 0). Some time later, the disc has rotated through an angle ¢ and the point of contact with the track has undergone an angular displacement 0, as shown. a) Find ¢ in terms of 6. b) Find the position vector of the centre of the disc. c) Hence find the vector equation of the path traced out by the point P.MOMENTS Moments We now examine the moment of a force F about an origin O. We consider x- and )-axes in the plane containing O and F. Let the force be + ¥j and suppose that the line of action of F passes through a point P with position vector r = xi + yj, as shown. Taking the anticlockwise sense to be positive, as usual, the moment of this force about an axis through O perpendicular to the plane is C=xY¥—yXx But the vector product of the position vector and the force vector gives rx F=(x¥—yXk The moment of a force through a given point can therefore be represented by the vector product of the position vector of the point and the force vector. That is, the moment, C, is given by C=rxF The moment of F is, therefore, a vector quantity whose direction is that of the axis through O and perpendicular to the plane containing O and F_ The moment of F is independent of the choice of the point P on the line of action of F. If P is chosen as above, any other point Q on the line of action of F has position vector r + AF. If we find the moment taking Q as the point of application of F, we obtain (r+ AF) x F=rx F4(4F) = F =rxF+A(F x F) =rxF which is the same as the moment when P is the point of application. This is called the principle of transmissibility. Adding moments We now need to establish that the total turning effect about O of a number of forces in three dimensions can be obtained as the vector sum of their moments. Consider two forces F, and F; acting at points P; and P, which have position vectors Fr and ry respectively. There are three cases to consider: the lines of action of F, and F, intersect, are parallel or are skew. ‘When the lines of action of F, and F; intersect at some point P or are parallel, F, and F, are coplanar and have a resultant R = F; + F; acting through a point with position veetor r. arCHAPTER 2 VECTORS II If the lines of action intersect at some point P, P has position vector r and we have Total turning effect =r x R =x (F\) +F) =rxE,+rxF, As the line of action of F, passes through P and P;, we have, by the principle of transmissibility, fx F, =r; x F). Similarly, we have r x F, =r x Fy. Hence, we have Total turning effect = ry x F, + 4y x Fp as required. When the lines of action of F; and F> are parallel, it is equivalent to having a force F; acting at P, and a force F; = KF, acting at P3. The resultant is, therefore, a force (1 + k)F; acting at the point P, position vector r, which divides P)P; in the ratio k:1. That is, We therefore have Total turning effect = +E (14 9F, l+k =n + kr) Fy ery Fy +4, x (kF)) =r, * F, +4; x Fy as required. When the lines of action of F, and F, are skew, we need to replace F, with another force F; acting at a point P, with position vector r; such that the moment is unchanged but the line of action of F, intersects that of F,. If we have ry and Fy = te, the moment is unchanged, since Ts x Rokex thon x Fy In general, there is a value of / such that F, and F; act along lines which intersect. We therefore have Total turning effect =r, x Fy +r x Fy arx Fy tnx F, as required, We can therefore state that for any two forces F, and Fs, acting at points Py and P; which have position vectors ry and rz, Total turning effect =r x Fi +r: x Fe 28EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEMS AND EQUILIGRIUM Note The principle of moments (that the turning effect of two forces about a point ic the came as that of their resiiltaat) aaly applies in three dimensions if the lines of action intersect or are parallel. Equivalent force systems and equilibrium Two systems of forces are said to be equivalent if they have the same resultant acting along the same line. Another way of stating this is that they have the same resultant and produce the same turning effect about any point. Suppose we have a set of forves P), P2, P,, acting at points with position ssseTay and a second set of forces Q,, Qs, ...,Q, acting at points JON VECLONS $1,835 6+ Sq If these have the same resultant, we have Se=Na i at Rt If the forces have the same turning effect about an arbitrary point A having position vector a, we have Sax P.= S7)~ 9) x, a = Ylexp ot = Stix py-ax VP-P x O)-ax 9, a ti im i (ax Pi] = Solis x Q) = (@ x Q)) iat But from equation [1], we have ax Sornax 59, it i = SaxPi=S 6x) ot mm That is, having the same total moment about any arbitrary point implies they have the same total moment about the origin and hence about any other chosen point. We can therefore state the conditions for the equivalence of two systems of forces as follows. ‘Two systems of forces are equivalent if their vector sums are equal and the vector sums of their moments about any one chosen point are equal. This leads us to the conditions for equilibrium, since a system of forces in equilibrium is equivalent to a system containing no forces. We can therefore state these conditions as follows. A system of forces is in equilibrium if its veetor sum is zero and the vector sum: of its moments about any one chosen point is zero.CHAPTER 2 VECTORS II Forces and couples It is reasonable to ask what equivalent systems are possible for a general system of forces. In two dimensions, it is always possible to reduce a system of forces toa single force at some point, unless the system forms a couple. The Same is not true in three dimensions, Suppose we have a system of forces F; acting at points with position vectors r), ” sees Let the resultant be R = Mr and the total moment be mt for i= n C= SG x F). Also, let A be an arbitrary point with position vector a. i=l We can transpose each force F, so that it acts through A provided we introduce a couple (r; — a) x F; to keep the total moment constant. This leads to an equivalent system comprising a single force R acting through A, together with a couple Cy = 0; 8) x Fl ist It follows that: Any system of forces is equivalent to a single force acting through any chosen point, together with a couple. There are three particular cases to consider. @ Clearly, if R= @ and C, =0, the system is in equilibrium. e IfR =0 and C, ¥ 0. the system is equivalent to a couple, whose moment is Solis a) x F)= 0 x Fax F) =Venx yeax SK int ist 4 But } °F; = R = 0, so we have am Sia -ax Fl= ox ED ft mt That is, the moment of the couple is the same about any point. © IfR #0 and Cy =0, the system is equivalent to a single force through the point A. So, we have Ca= 0 l—a) x Fi) =0 > Siinxky-ax SOR =0 a rot + Sx Fo-ax E a roa => C=axR a0eC" EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEMS AND EQUILIBRIUM This means that cither a = or C is perpendicular to R. We can therefore state: Oand the resultant force passes through the origin, A system of forces is equivalent to a single force provided that the line of action of the resultant passes through the origin or is perpendicular to the total moment of the system. We have seen that it is always possible to choose a point A and reduce the system of forces to a resultant R, acting through A, together with a couple Cy. IfR 4 Qand Cy, ¥ 0, it is not in general possible to reduce C, to zero by moving the point A. We can, however, choose that C, has the same direction as R. This can be secn as follows. Suppose we choose the axes so that R = Ri and the line of action of R passes through the origin; and suppose further that the total moment about the origin is C=C44+G)4+ Ck It can be seen that, by changing the line of action of R so that it passes through some other point in the plane x = 0, we can change the values of C, and C,, but not that of Cy. In particular, if we choose its point of application to be the point A having position vector then we have axR=C,j+Ck The system therefore consists of the force R acting at A, together with a couple Ch We can therefore state: Any system of forces is equivalent to a resultant R and a couple AR. Such a system is called a wrench. Example 7 The diagram shows a uniform rectangular block OABCDEFG, witha vertex atthe origin O and with OA = 6i, OC = 4j and ‘OD = 2k. The weight of the block is 10 N. Forces Fy = i — 2j+3k, Fz = 31+j+2k and F; = —2i + j + 3k act at points E, F and G respectively. A fourth force, P, is applied in an attempt to achieve equilibrium, snoeeeeceueeeneCHAPTER 2 VECTORS II a) Show that it is not possible to achieve equilibrium with this single force, wherever it is applied. b) If P is applied at D, calculate the additional couple needed to maintain equilibrium. souumoN a) The sum of the forces is (OGG) The total moment of the forces is (OG )G)- (> ()()-(4) In order that the system be equivalent to a single force, the resultant must be perpendicular to the total moment. But we have (*). (4) So, we cannot replace the system by a single force. We cannot, therefore, maintain equilibrium by the addition of a single force. b) To make the total force zero, we need to add a force P = -2i + 2k. If we apply this at D, the total moment of the forces is (3) -()-C) We therefore need to add a couple of 10k to maintain equilibrium. Example 8 A system consists of forces 2) + k, 3i- j— 2k and i- 3k acting at the points (1,0, 1), (1, 2,0) and (0,0, 3) respectively. Reduce this system to: a) a force acting at the point (1,2, 1) plus a couple b) a single force acting at a point to be found. SOLUTION a) The sum of the forees is “H)-0)(EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEMS AND EQUIL ‘The total moment of the forces is -(1)°()-Q)-) -(2)-(4)-(4) If the system is equivalent to R acting through the point (1, 2,1) together with a couple L, then we have Gere OG «(3 b) The system can be reduced to a single force, since R.C = 0. Suppose that R then acts through the point (x,y, =). We have 0-0-0) which gives the equations 4y+z=6,.x-++7= 1 and x —4y Solving these, we obtain the straight line equations xv=dy-5=1-2 This is the line of action of R. Exercise 2D 1 Forces of i—j-+k, 21+j+ 3k and 3j —k act through the points (2,-3.4), (2,4, 6) and (-2,2,0) respectively. Show that the system can be held in equilibrium by the addition of a fourth force. Find this force and the equation of its line of action. 2 Forces of 3i~ 2)— 4k, ~i+j and -i+ 4k act through the points (1,0,1), (0.1.1) and (1,1) respectively. a) Show that the system does not reduce to a single force. by Reduce the system to a single force through the point (1, 0,0), together with a couple. 3 Forees of &, J and k act through the points (1,0,0}, (1.0.0) and (1, 1, 0) respectively, Reduce the system to a single force, whose line of action is to be found, and a couple in the same direction as the force, (That is, reduce the system to a wrench). 4 A system consists of a force i—k, acting at the origin, and a couple 2i-+j. Find an equivatent system consisting of a single force and a couple in the same dircetion (a wrench). 33CHAPTER 2 vecTons § A tetrahedron has vertices at the origin and at A(1,0,0), B(1,2,0) and C(1, 2,2). Forces of magnitude $N,9N, 4N and 6N act along OA, OC, AB and BC respectively, in the directions indicated by the order of letters. Reduce the system to a single force through A and a couple. 6 A vertical post, 6m high and of weight 40, is positioned in the direction of the z-axis and with its base at the origin. Taut cables attach the top of the post to the points (—8, 0,0), (2.3.0) and (2, ~3,0). If the tension in the first eable is SON, find the (equal) tensions in the other cables and the reaction of the ground on the post.3 Differential equations There is nothing in this world constant, but inconstancy. JONATHAN SWIFT Some aspects of this topic are covered in Introducing Mechanics, pages 420-40, However, some syllabuses do not include differential equations itt the single- subject A-level, so for the sake of coherence and completeness, we repeat some of the text, examples and exercises in the present chapter. Definitions and classification A differential equation is any equation containing a derivative. Here are four examples: p 4 aye sine dx dx 3— + 6x =4cos3r ay tot = Acos x ~ xed When we speak of ‘solving’ a differential equation, we mean obtaining a relationship connecting the two variables which does not involve a derivative. A derivative corresponds to a rate of change. Many real-life problems involve quantities which are changing continuously, and the associated mathematical models will be expressed in the form of differential equations. The solution of such equations is therefore an important branch of mathematics. In this chapter, we will encounter applications not only in mechanics but in a range of other fields, You have already met simple differential equations such as a 2x and can x solve these by integration. Some other types of differential equation cam be solved using analytical techniques, but many differential equations can only be solved by numerical methods. Differential equations are categorised by their style and complexity. @ The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest derivative appearing in the equation. Of the examples above, band Iv are first-order equations, while Hand fll are second-order equations. The degree of a differential equation in » is the highest power of y or it derivatives appearing in the equation. OF the examples above, I, li and Iv are first-degree equations, while ili is a second-degree equation because it contains (2) . An equation of the first degree is called linear. aCHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS In this chapter, we will concentrate on linear equations. Forming differential equations Before we consider how to solve the various types of differential equation, we should look at some situations in which they arise. Any situation involving a continuous rate of change can be modelled using differential equations, Often, the rate of change is with respect to time. For example, we might consider the rate at which the temperature, 7, of an object is increasing as it is heated. This appears in the equation as r When time is the independent variable, it is not usual to say so explicitly - we just refer to the rate of change. In other cases, we have to be explicit. For example, we might consider the rate at which temperature changes as we bore down into the surface of the Earth. This would appear as 27, say, where x is the depth below the surface. We would refer to this as the rate of change of temperature with respect to depth. Example 1 The rate at which the population of mice on an island is increasing is modelled as being proportional to the size of the population. It is estimated that when the population reaches 3000, it is increasing at a rate of 900 per week. Express this model in the form of a differential equation. soLunoN Let ¢ be the time in weeks and p be the population. The rate of increase of the population is then expressed as a, As this is proportional to p, we have t dp oP ok, a where k is a positive constant. We know that A = 900 when p = 3000, Substituting these, we have 900 = 3000k => k=03 So, the required differential equation is dp 0.3, de ° Example 2 A spherical air freshener is evaporating at a rate proportional to its surface area. Find an expression for the rate of change of its radius. soLuTION Let the volume be J’, the surface area be A and the radius be r at time J. 36EXERCISE 3A The information given corresponds to the differential equation Li ar where & is a positive constant. (The negative sign indicates that the volume is decreasing.) kA We know that 4 = 4nr?, giving dV ra —4akr? We also know that V = } nr’, giving oY oo Ane? dr We require an expression for £2, These thres rates of change are related by the chain rule av av ar dt dr dt dake? = ne? x de which gives ary di The radius is therefore decreasing at a constant rate. Exercise 3A 1 An object of mass Skg is dropped from a hot-air balloon. As it falls, it is subjected to air resistance RN proportional to its speed vms~!. By considering Newton's second law, express this as a differential equation connecting v, the time rs and a constant &, As it falls, the object's acceleration decreases and it approaches terminal velocity. If the terminal velocity of the object is 60ms"!, find the value of k. Ifa capacitor is subjected to a potential difference V, it gains charge up to a maximum, Qyax- The rate at which it gains charge is proportional to the difference between its charge and the maximum charge. Express this as a differential equation connecting the time, t, the charge, Q. on the capacitor at that time, and a constant k. The radius of a sphere is increasing at a constant rate, k. Find a differential equation connecting the time, ¢, and the volume, V, of the sphere. Salt is being poured at the rate of 2em?s~! onto a conical pile, Assuming that the cone always has equal height and base diameter, find a differential equation connecting the time, fs, and the height, /Arcm, of the cone. a7CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 5 Ina population of size , the number of people, 7, who have heard a particular joke increases ata rate proportional to the number of people who have heard it, but also to the number of people who have yet to hear it, Express this as a differential equation. 6 A moorland fire, burning in windless conditions, advances outwards from the point at which it started at a constant rate, kms~', Find a differential equation connecting the time, 1s, and the area Am?, which has been burned. First-order differential equations Tangent fields A first-order differential equation contains a derivative 2 only. If the solution to the equation is y = ry, & > Tepresents the gradient of the graph of f(x). We can therefore calculate the gradient of the solution at various points in the xy-plane. Plotting these we obtain a diagram called tangent field. The locus of points where the solution has the same gradient is called an isocline. Example 3 Plot the tangent field representing the differential equation dy = 2x at integer points (x, »), where -3 0 | 6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 -l —6 —4 -2 0 2 4 6 2) 6 -4 2 0 2 4 6 -3 -6 <4 -2 0 2 4 6 4) -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 -s | 6 -4 2 0 2 4 6 Notice that, since wi is independent of », we did not need to produce this large table - calculating the values once would suffice. d. A large table is only necessary when — = is dependent on both x and y. 38FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS We then draw a short line with the calculated ” gradient at each integer point, as shown \ s on the right. The isocline ay = mis the line x dx ~~ tS Tt SN NNR RNR RS ~~~ ee Note Some computer graphing packages are able to plot tangent fields, and if you have access to such a package you should explore these examples and those in Exercise 3B more fully. Example 4 Plot the tangent field representing the differential equation d X+y at integer points (x, ), where -3 for—3 yt =2sinx+K where K=2C v2sinx+ K This is the general solution. For the particular solution, we substitute y = 2 and x = é which gives 2=VI4+K = K=3 The particular solution is, therefore, y = V2sinx +3. Homogeneous equations These are the equations of the form. dy (2) dx x Such an equation can be converted to one in which the variables are separable by replacing ~ by v~ that is, by making the substitution y = ex. ¥ 45CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS eee c OSES EASES SUERTE ORSON ERE Example 8 Find the general solution of the equation Given that y = 2 when x = 1, find the value of y when x = 3. SOLUTION The equation is homogeneous because it can be written in the form Putting y = vx, we have dy dv sity dx dx and the equation becomes l+y? v dy der od ~ dx v ¥ We can now separate the variables, giving. = v=Vv2inn+K where K=2C Putting v = =. we obtain yoxv2inx + K which is the general solution. For the particular solution, we substitute y = 2 and x = 1, which gives 2=VK => K=4 So, the particular solution is yoxVinx +4 Hence, when x = 3, we have y=3V2In34+4=747 (to 3sf) 46EXERCISE 3D Exercise 3D 1 Find the genera! solution of = f(x, ») by separating the variables, where f(x, y) is e) (x= 2)(y = 3) a) x(y? - 4) Find the particular solution of the equation SY = 2", given that y = 0 when x = 0. dx cosy’ dy dx Given that *+7 and that y = 0 when x = 0, show that p= n(; 1 ). re 4 Find the general solution of each of the following differential equations by separating the variables. ws dx = SY oy exp any 2 ~ cos) Y= si , =1 wy Ea 2ysay oe) xtany SE=1 a (1 ~cosx) = sinxcoty 5. Use the substitution = = y — x to rewrite 2 =() — x) as a differential equation in 2 and x. Ba Hence a) find the general solution of the original equation in the form y = f(x) b) find the particular solution, given that y = 0 when x =0 ) show that, in this case, y = 7 when x = 1 +e 6 Find the general solution of each of the following homogencous differential equations. dy x4? dy _y+x dp oy dy ga : = by = = 2 OY @ gy? — 3ep 4 yr Va ie Mav poe Ja oe OM QT Sete ~ An object of mass 1 kg falls from rest. Air resistance is of magnitude 0.17 N, where v is the specd of the object. Write a differential equation connecting y and f, and solve it to find v in terms of t. Hence show that v cannot execed 98m s~!. 8 The motion of a go-kart with a laden mass of 100 kg is modelled by assuming that its engine exerts a constant power of 4kW, and that when travelling at a speed of rms~! it is subject to a resistance force of 10v N. a) Use this model to write a differential equation connecting v and ¢. b) Find the particular solution if the go-kart starts from rest. c) How long does the go-kart take to reach half its maximum speed? a7CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS First-order linear equations A first-order linear equation can be written in the form 2 4 Peay = a0) i) dx ‘We can solve such equations by using an integrating factor. Consider the expression e!"*"*y. Differentiating this with respect to x, we have B eefrrodeyy — ofrnt BF peel Mey pl dx dx Multiplying through equation [1] by e/"")*", we get qfrnee Dy vey el Pantry - free. Qcy dx which from [2] gives A efteyy — of QE dx ‘ Integrating, we have ef hds, [el sounder and, provided we can integrate the right-hand side, the equation is solved. ‘The expression e!""!*" js called the integrating factor. Example 9 Find the general solution of the differential equation ‘Comparing this with equation [1], we have P(x) = 2x, which gives Jroee = Jose = Pispae ‘The integrating factor e!"*!* is, therefore, ¢*”. Multiplying through by this, we get 4aFIRST-ORDER LINEAR EQUATIONS = eMps fre dx => eMy=ter4c which gives the general solution as. yodtce™ Example 10 Find the general solution of the differential equation (x? + yp Baas 3x dv and hence find the particular solution for which » = 2 when x = 0. soLuTION The equation is not yet in the correct format. To correct this, we divide by (x? + 1) to get dy oy Be dx x?+1 x24 Comparing this with equation [1], we have P(x) = + which gives el Jrorar =| dx = 4 In(x? +1) = Inve? +1 xt4] The integrating factor is, therefore, el Pale L gint el vxtpd Multiplying through by this, we get z dy xy 3x. J = wa! Veal veel => (ovat eT) = ax dx xe +1 3. = ye? FT = dy =3Vx?' +14 y | am +1+ => pod+ £. which is the general solution. To find the pa 2=34C 4 C=-1 lar solution, we substitute x = 0 and y = 2, giving So, the particular solution is 1 =3- , Vat +1CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Exercise 3E 1 Find the general solution of each of the following first-order linear differential equations by using an integrating factor. ay M+ dey = 4x os 18x* AY 32 toe? 3 dy i , se AY ey = 7 In x ) cosx + psinx = cos?) dx dx A particle has a mass of 1 kg and starts moving from rest. For the first 108 of its motion it is subject at time fs to a force of magnitude (10 — 4) N in a constant direction, and to a resistance force of magnitude 0.2vN, where v is the speed of the particle. Express this information as a differential equation connecting v and ¢, and, by solving it, find the speed at which the particle is moving at the end of the 10s period. Linear equations with constant coefficients The integrating factor technique is applicable to any first-order linear differential equation (provided the right-hand side can be integrated), but if the cquation has constant coefficients there is an alternative technique. A constant-coefficient linear differential equation has the form where dp, a, a2, @3, ... are constants. If the function f(x) = 0, the equation is called a homogeneous linear equation (not to be confused with the homogeneous equations we met on pages 45-6). Initially, we consider a homogeneous first-order linear equation with constant coefficients, such as dy + 5r=0 dx” We already know how to solve this using the integrating factor technique. The integrating factor is e**. Multiplying through by this, we get dy fe Ye sey a0 va?EXERCISE 3F = fery-0 = ey=c = pee However, it is easy to see that all such equations will yield an exponential function, and knowing this, we can solve such equations as follows. ‘Consider again the equation Wi syeo dv ‘We assume that the solution to this equation is of the form y= 4e™*. Differentiating this, we get Substituting in the differential equation, we have my + Sy =0 Now, y cannot be zero (or we have the trivial particular solution y =) and so m+5=0 8) > m= ‘The general solution is, therefore, y = Ae Equation [3] is called the auxiliary equation, In general, for the equation a 4+-ky = 0, the auxiliary equation is in +& = 0. " Example 11 Find the general solution of the homogeneous linear differential equation 9 + ay — 0. dx soLUTION The auxiliary equation ism +4 = 0, from which m = eneutneesneous ‘Thus the general solution is y = Ae, Exercise 3F 1 Find the general solution of the differential equation a —4y=0 a) by separating the variables b) by using an integrating factor ¢) by using the auxiliary equation.CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 2 Find the general solution of each of the following first-order homogeneous linear differential equations by using the auxiliary equation. dy dx a) a +y b) dr 5x=0 dx dy & osy—0 ® yoo ou! oa? The complementary function and the particular integral We now have to find the solution to the non-homogencous linear equation dy = +py =f) an? a) To sce what form our solution should take, Ict us use the integrating factor method to solve a simple example in which f(x) is a constant: dy oP Sy = ax” ‘The integrating factor is ¢*. Multiplying through by this, we get oo Fg 5ehty = 305 x dese Se = —(ey) =3e ax! 3 ce 4 which is the general solution The solution we have found consists of two parts: © y= Ce>" is the solution to the associated homogeneous equation dy os. ato Ce~** is called the complementary function. is one possible solution to the original equation & 45p=3, (This can be checked by differentiating it.) 2 is called a particular integral. If we can find these two parts for a given equation, our task is complete. Our approach is, therefore, as follows.THE COMPLEMENTARY FUNCTION AND THE PARTICULAR INTEGRAL First, solve the associated homogeneous equation to find the complementary function (CF). « Then find a particular integral (P!) which satisfies the original equation. ‘The general solution is then CF + PL Note You nced to be clear as to the difference between the terms particular integral, as used above, and particular solution, used to indicate the solution consistent with a given set of boundary conditions. We find the particular integral by deciding on its likely form and substituting our trial solution into the equation. Example 12 Find the general solution to the differential equation OY _ gy cde 8x? dx souunou The complementary function is found from the associated homogenous equation dy v4 a” ‘The auxiliary equation m —4 = 0 gives m= 4, and so the CF is y = Ae. We now need a particular integral which will generate the (2x — 8x2) term. Because this is a quadratic polynomial, we try the general quadratic polynomial =Pxi+Ox+R Differentiating this, we get Boorse Substituting in the differential equation, we have (2Px + Q)— 4(Px? + Qx + R) = 2x— 8x? This is an identity and so we can compare coefficients: xt; -4P=-8 giving P=2 xt: 2P-4Q=2 giving O x¥: Q@-4R=0 giving R= Hence, the Pl is y= 2x7 +4244 We find the general solution by combining the CF and the PI to give pode +2xt¢tegd 53CHAPTER 3 Finding a particular integral DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS When using the above technique, our trial solution should be the most general form of the right-hand side of the original equation. Thus, we have: ‘When the right-hand side involves We try a polynomial of degree n a general polynomial of degree a general exponential function, Pe" sin mx, cos ax or a combination a general trigonometric function of these Psinax + Qcosnx a combination of the above # combination of the general functions above Exercise 3G In each of the following, use the auxiliary equation method to find the general solution. By aye 2 aye cost at ae 3 oe de 5 = 42: = 2sin3x—costx dx 7 Bp dyn tenet Problem cases A difficulty arises in equations where the complementary function contains an clement from the right-hand side of the differential equation. For example, suppose we need to find the general solution to the equation ay dy=4e* dx ‘The complementary function for this equation is ‘When finding a particular integral, the right-hand side suggests a trial solution y= Pe™. However, when we combine the two solutions, we get ys Ae + Pe™ BX Y (where B= A+ = yps(d+P)e" or ‘This is just the solution to the homogeneous differential equation and not to ‘the non-homogencous one,THE COMPLEMENTARY FUNCTION AND THE PARTICULAR INTEGRAL For an indication as to how this difficulty might be resolved, let us solve the original equation using the integrating factor technique, The integrating factor is e~?". Multiplying through by this, we get one 2e™ = = [iae=aeea = y= de 4 ave In this solution, we have our complementary function Ae** as before, but the particular integral is not of the form Pe** as expected, but Pxre**. This gives us the required strategy. If the complementary function is te and our first choice of trial solution contains Pe**, we replace it by Pxe** to get an alternative trial solution. If Pxe** is already part of our trial solution, we use Pxte, and so on. Note We do not know whether there will be a problem umtil we have found the complementary function, and so we always find this first, Example 13 Find the general solution to the differential equation ae ay = 26 497 dr sownon ‘The auxiliary equation is m— 3 =0, giving m = 3. Thus, the complementary function is x = Ae™. ‘This is contained within the right-hand side and so our trial solution will be = Pte + QR Differentiating. we have = = 3Pte" + Pel4Q it Substituting into the differential equation, we get (Pic! + Pe™ + Q) — 3(Pre™ + Qr+ R) = 2c" +91 = Pe? —301+(Q—3R)= 20% +98 This is an identity and se we can compare coefficients: DUS Oe een Neensesmemeneuesuecssonenscenenennen 1: Q-3R=0 fr =3@0=9% giving @=-3and R=-1 ae P=2 55CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Thus, the PI is x= Dre — 41-1 The general solution is, therefore, x= Ae! + Ye —3r- 1 If, in Example 13, the right-hand side had been 2e* + 4re¥ + 9z, which contains ‘both the terms e” and te", our trial solution would have been PPe™ + Ore + Rt As an exercise, you might try to show that in this case P = Q R=S=-3. Exercise 3H Find the general solution of each of the following differential equations by finding the complementary function and the particular integral. Hence find in each case the particular solution consistent with the given initial conditions. 1 wag = Se", given that » = 4 when x= 0, Ix 2 ¥ + 5x = 10e"™ + 21, given that x =2 when r= 0 3 e 2y —6e"*, given that y = 2 when x = 0. ix 4 * = 34—3x+ 12c*, with initial condition x(0) = 6. 5 * — 2y = de® — 8xe™, with initial condition y(0) = 8. x 6 * + 3x = 6r+ 90" — 151e-%, with initial condition x(8) = 9 Second-order linear equations with constant coefficients With first-order linear differential equations with constant coefficients, it is a matter of individual choice whether to use the auxiliary equation technique or the integrating factor technique. However, when we progress to second-order equations, we cannol use the integrating factor technique but we can still use the auxiliary equation technique.SECOND-ORDEA LINEAR EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS The complementary function Consider the non-homogencous second-order differential equation with constant cocfficients 2 MY Ds y= ame at fix) The associated homogeneous equation is =0 al ay dy ba dy + or + Let us assume that this has a solution of the form y = Ae", Differentiating this, we have dy Py tem =Ame™ =my and = Am*e™ = m?y de . ae , Substituting into equation [4], we obtain amy + bmy + ey 0 Since y # 0 (this would be a trivial particular solution), we have am? +bm+c=0 This is the quadratic auxiliary equation derived from the second-order homogencous differential equation. If its roots are wm, and mt, then we have two solutions to the differential equation: y= de™™ and yy = Bem If yy and y; are two solutions to a differential equation, then }, + 7) is also a solution. (his is called the principle of superposition of solutions.) Hence, the most general form of the complementary function is ys Aem 4 Bem Note that this equation contains two arbitrary constants. Solving a second- order differential equation is equivalent to integrating twice, generating an arbitrary constant each time we integrate. (In general, the solution to an nth order differential equation has » arbitrary constants.) However, the quadratic auxiliary equation an? + bm + ¢ = 0 has three types of solution: * Two real, distinct roots. @ Areal, repeated root. ® Two complex roots (which are conjugates of each other). We will deal with cach case separately. 87CHAPTER 3 OIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Two real, distinct roots Essentially, this is the case dealt with above. If the two roots are mm, and mp, then the complementary function takes the form [ y= den + Bem Areal, repeated root The problem here is that if the repeated root is m, say, then the complementary function would be yode™ 4 Bem = pa(d+Bje™ > p=Ce™ This cannot be the complete complementary function, since it has only one arbitrary constant. If the auxiliary equation has a repeated root m, the associated homogencous equation is 2), : ay am +nry = 0 dx? dx Consider y = Bre". Differentiating this, we obtain 7 Py Y | pone™ +e") and 22 = B(m?x0™ + 2me") dx dx? We can establish by substitution that these satisfy the equation. (You should check that this is so.) Hence, using the principle of superposition, the most general form of solution is (A+ Bxye™ [9 yeaem bacon or Two complex roots The roots of the auxiliary equation will be complex conjugates: ip (Some examination boards use j rather than i to represent 1.) my =Atiw and any = The complementary function is, therefore, = (Col + Dem) ya Coll + De’ However, because in general ¢” = cos + isin 0, we have = © *[C(cos wx + isin ux) + D(cos x eo [(C + D)cos ux + (iC - id) sin px] in x)] > ys which we can write as ys eA cos jex + Bsin jer)SECOND-ORDER LINEAR EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS Note 4 and # can both be real. If we choose C = p + ig and D = p — ig, then we have which is real and B= i(C — D) = i(Qig) = -2q which is also real Hence, the complementary function is [ = e(Acos yx + Bsin jer) This can also be-written in the alternative form [ Y= Re cos(ux + 6) where the arbitrary constants are now R and 6. Example 14 Find the general solution to the equation ‘s0uuron The auxiliary equation is at Sm+6=0 = (m—3n-2=0 > m=3 o m=2 ‘Thus, the general solution is y = Ae + Be*. Example 15 Find the general solution to the equation ‘The auxiliary equation is me? —6m+9=0 > (a-3=0 on (repeated root) Thus, the general solution is vy = e“{Ax + B). = Example 16 Find the general solution to the equation : @y ody SY 6S 413) i ae °aetCHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 5 soLunoN The auxiliary equation is me? —6m+13=0 6+ V%H—-D > m= =342i ~~ 32 e'(4 cos 2x + Bsin 2x). Thus, the general solution is » Exercise 31 Find the general solution for cach of the following equations, ay a pop tee ayo at ° @x de 3 +4— 48x =0 de dt * 24. sy=0 dt ‘The particular integral and problem cases The approach to the particular integral is the same for second-order equations as for first. The trial solution is a general form of the right-hand side of the equation. If part of the complementary function is present in the first-choice trial solution, we multiply the trial solution by x, x? and so on, as before.SECOND-ORDER LINEAR EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS Example 17 Find the general solution of the differential equation Pe 4 6A 4 25x = deondt dP de SOLUTION ‘The auxiliary equation is ne? + 6m +25 = 0 => m=-344i The complementary function is x=eo™(4cos4¢+ Bsin 4s) The trial solution is x= Poos2s + Qsin2t which gives a = -2Psin 28 + 2Qcos2t and os 4Pcos2i — 4Q sin 21 Substituting these into the original equation, we obtain (—4P cos 24 — 40 sin 21) + 6(-2P sin 2¢ + 20 cos 21) + + 25(Pcos2t+ Qsin 21) = Joos 2r Comparing coefficients, we have costt; -4P +120-+25P = P+H4O=) sindt: -4Q-12P+25Q=0 = -4P+79=0 Solving these, we obtain P = 2. and @ = 4, So, the general solution is x=e"™(Acosdt + Bsin4i) + d-(7 cos 2 + 4sin 20) ‘This solution is typical of many mechanical systems where we have damped, forced vibrations. As time increases, the first part of the solution containing the term in e~™ will diminish and eventually the second part will dominate. ‘The first part is called a transient and represents the way that the damped system will oscillate naturally. The second part is the steady-state solution produced by whatever is driving the oscillations. This will be covered in more detail on pages 126-34. otCHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Example 18 Find the general solution of the differential equation @&y dy Saisie 4 Te +6y = We already have the complementary function y= Ae™ + Be2* (see Example 14). ‘Our first choice fora trial solution would be y = Pe** + Qe*. However, as ‘the term in e* occurs in the complementary function, we use a revised trial solution » = Pxe™ + Qe*, from whi YS pe 4 apre™ 4 Qe* dx and oY _ 6pe 4 9 xc + Qe* dx? Substituting into the original equation, we obtain (6Pe* +9Pxe** + et) — S(Pe* + 3Pre + Ge") + + OPxe™ + Qe") = de" — 2e* => Pe +20" = de® — 2c! Comparing coefficients, we have ef: Pad e': 20=-2 giving Q=-1 Hence, the particular integral is y = 4.x" — The general solution is CF + PI. That is, pe de + Be + 4x0 = 6° Example 19 Find the general solution of the differential equation e x <5 + 4x = cos2r SOLWTION The auxiliary equation is nm + 4 — 0, which gives m = +21. Thus, the complementary function is x= A cos2s+ Bein 21, Our first-choice trial solution would be x = Pcos2r + Qsin 21. However, the cos 2¢ term occurs in the complementary function. Our trial solution will therefore be x= t(Poos2e+ Qsin21) 62SECOND-ORDER LINEAR EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS which gives * = Poos2i + sin 2¢+ 21(-Psin 2t + Qcos 21) and ax —4P sin 2t + 4Q-cos 21 — 41(P cos 2¢ + Osin2¢) dr Substituting into the original equation, we obtain [-4Psin 21+ 4Q e021 — 4u(Peos2r + Qsin 20) + + 41(P cos 20 + Q sin 2t) = cos 2t => —4P sin 21 + 4Qcos21 = cos2r ‘Comparing coefficients, we have sind dP cos21: 4Q ‘Thus, the particular integral is x = drsin 20, The general solution is CF + PI. That is, = Aeos 21+ Bsin 20 + 4rsin 2r Example 20 Find the general solution of the differential equation dy dy SY 4D cay7 ade? dy souution ‘The auxiliary equation is m? + 4m = 0, which gives m = 0 or m = —4, Thus, the complementary function is y = 4 + Be~**. We note that this contains a constant term which will cause problems given the format of the right-hand side of the differential equation. Our first-choice trial solution of y = Px +Q must therefore be amended to ye Px? + Ow which gives and wy =2P dx? Substituting into the original equation, we obtain 2P + 4(2Px + Q)=4x—7CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Comparing coefficients, we have xt: 8P=4 giving P=} 2P+4Q=-7 giving Q=- Hence, the particular integral is y = 4x? — 2. The general solution is CF + PI. That is, yo At Bet 4 5x7 2x Exercise 3J ‘Use your results from Exercise 31 to find the general solution for each of the following differential equations. ey ed -3x starts 3 be anaes 4a as +68 4 9y= 4sin2x or 6 Fe gM 4 85 = Sens: 7 as 8 oad Senay Se? +4 9 Ss ght 4 toy m 20° 4 200% 10 Sr 428g =e +x " Seyi yae . 12 a +4924 13x = 3sin2r— 67 13 #y_ By = de 4 ES gee 2sin2s The particular solution ‘The general solution of a second-order differential equation contains two arbitrary constants, and so we need two sets of conditions to find their values. We can do this in two ways: © Give the values of y and 2 when x takes a particular value (usually x = 0). x ‘These are called initial conditions, This is the most common situation. ® Give the value of y for each of two different values of x (usually the end points of the interval being used). These are called boundary conditions.SECOND-ORDER LINEAR EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT Note Fora given set of conditions, there will usually be a unique solution, but the simultaneous equations to find the constants may be inconsistent (no solution) or not independent (an infinite number of solutions). Example 21 Find the particular solution of the differential equation ay de OY gS! Lay 7 ae Tae dy given that y = 0 and <= 6 when x= 0. dx From Example 20, the general solution i which gives ya Ad Bete $x? ~ 2x, When x =0, y= 0, so we have OSA+B tl 6, so we have 6=-48- I] Solving [1] and [2], we obtain A = 2. B= So, the particular solution is > de 4 fx? — 2 Example 22 Find the particular solution of the differential equation > +4 = cos2r dr given that x = I when 1=0, and x = when r= ©. 16 4 soumon From Example 19, the general solution is x= Avos2r+ Bsin2e-+ Lrsin2e When t= 0,0 = 1, so wehave d= 1, When t= 4, x —, so we have 16 za 16 Henee, the particular solution is B+ +s g=0 16 x= cost isin 2s 65 COEFFICIENTSCHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Exercise 3K ‘Use your results from Exercise 3) to find the particular solution for each of the following differential equations given the conditions stated. 0 when x =0 @x dy oe 4454 Bx = 49-3 de * de +es o x=tand 2 — 4 when 1=0 di dx . x 188 Sym Sent aan = Oand © — 2 when t= 0 & dx 2% —— + 2x = 31 —2 dear x=Oand 2 = 4 when 1=0 di &y dx? + 16y = 2e** + 2c0sx y=Oand 9 _ 4 when x <0 dx @y dy - Dae Watt tyske y=0and 2 0 when x =0 dx y= 3 when x = 0 and i yr cosh 3 when x dy dy 4 2 Sk 48h. gy = de ads 2and 9” = 2 when x <0 dx yp ody . — = + 6-= + Op = 4sin 2x ae de - dy = —2 when x =0 Ox 488 5 135 = sin 20 OF di dy x= Oand—=2 whens =0 dt dx di? w= 3 whens =0 and 14 +4x 2sin2e x=-1 whens == * 4 66VECTOR OIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS y= when x =Oand when x= —2.5 Vector differential equations Simple vector differential equations are, depending on dimensions, cffectively a set of two or three equations of the same form, one for cach component. We will consider first- and second-order linear equations in which the position or velocity vector is a function of time, We will see how the techniques we have already met — the use of an integrating factor and solutions in complementary function/particular integral form ~ can be applied in the vector case, Example 23 Find the general solution of the equation de ae —+r=ti+2j+e"k dr | sewn We will solve this equation in two ways, Method 1 Using an integrating factor The integrating factor ise!“ — e. Multiplying through, we obtain ty crs teliy2e] dr k =teit2e'j+k = rs [ees +2ej+kdr = era(te!—e'ji+2ej+tk+e where ¢ is a vector constant. Hence, we have ra (t— Dit Yeretk fete Method 2. Finding the complementary function and a particular integral The auxiliary equation is m+ 1 =O, giving m = —1, The CF is therefore e~'A, where A is an arbitrary vector constant. Our trial solution for the Pl is t= (PL+ Q)i+ Rit Stetk 47CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS (Notice the form of the k-component here. ‘This is necessary because of the form of the complementary function.) Differentiating, we obtain at pin se —ok di Substituting into the given differential equation, we obtain Pit Se" = tk -+ (P+ Qhi+ Rj + Ste‘k = ti +2j+e-'k Comparing i-components, we have: Pr+P+Q=t = P=1,Q0= Comparing Fcomponents, we have: R= 2 Comparing k-components, we have: Se'=e' => S= The P1 is, therefore, = (1~ Ii+ 2+ sek r= Hence, the general solution is r=(t—Di+2j+retk+eta Example 24 Find the particular solution of the equation dr. dr - SE 4224 Sr = 2eos ri + 3sinsj+k tty ts cost + i+ given that when ¢ = 0, r= 2i+j and * SOLUTION The auxiliary equation is nr” + 2n+ 5 = 0, giving m= —1 + 2i. The CF is, therefore, r=e'(Acos2r + Bsin 21) where A and B are arbitrary vector constants. Our trial solution for the PI is r= (Peost+ Qsins)i + (Reost+ Ssinoj+ Tk Differentiating, we obtain dr w (Qcost ~ Psins)i + (Scost— Rsint)j and a —(Peost + Qsins)i — (Roost + Ssing)j a it Substituting into the differential equation and simplifying, we have [(4P + 20) cos + (40 — 2P)sin t]i + [(4R + 25) cost + + (4S = 2R)sin lj + Tk = 2cos i+ 3sinej+k 68EXERCISE 3u Comparing i-components, we have: 4P +20 =2 and 4Q—2P =0 SP=04.0=02 Comparing jcomponents, we have: 4R +25 = 0 and 45-28 = 3 R= -03,5=0.6 Comparing k-components, we have: T= 1 Adding the CF and the PI, we obtain the general solution r= e-'(Acos2r-+ Bsin20) + (O4cos¢ + 0.2sinr)i + + (O.6sins —O.3cosj+k Differentiating, we obtain te = e"'[(2B — A) cos 2¢ ~ (24 + B)sin 2] + + O.2cost— 0.4sin fi + (O.6coss + 0.3 sin.) Substituting the initial conditions, we have AFO04)-O03)+k=2i+] > A=16i+13j)-k and (2B-A)+0.2i4+06j)=k + B=0.7i+0.35j So, the particular solution is f= [e“(L.Geos 22 + 0.7 sin 21) + 0.4c081+ + [e“(1.3 cos 2 + 0.35 sin 27) + 0.6 + (1 ef cos 2k sin }i+ 4 = 0.3 cos t]j + Exercise 3L 1 Use an integrating factor to find the general solution of cach of the following differential equations, oy 3p ak by Eee = ip ark di dr Or tL 42 4k +) Es 264 y By finding the complementary function and a particular integral, solve each of the following first-order equations, Hence find the particular solution which satisfies the given ini conditions. oy > qu (t+ Wit 37 + rk, given that c= 4i —j whens = 0, dr ps Act + LBee {6 ‘The pair of equations [5] and [6] is the general solution to the problem. Notice that a pair of first-order equations is equivalent to a single second-order equation and that solving them generates two arbitrary constants, To find the particular solution, we use the initial conditions ¢ = 0, x = y=0: From [3]: 6=4+8 From {6}: 0= 4442 giving A = —6 and B = 12. The particular solution is, therefore, x= —6e%+12e" and y= —be + 6e¥ The graph, at the top of the next page, shows the solution with both x and y plotted against ¢. a”CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS We can also investigate the relationship between x and y. From [1] and (2), we obtain dy vide dx dx/dr 4y—2y ‘The tangent field representing the family of solutions is shown in the diagram below, together with the particular solution VILA ss eeerrs VASSAL AA 2277+ VISAS oe oon LEAL AA off cee SLE OA Oooo AO ee re eee ener / | weer err ref Sf IN, wore ref LENS wore rr’ LL IANS sere tL LILIAN SoG! ‘ ~“ | uy IN iN cell A LSE | AN We can also obtain in a direct relationship between x and y, either by eliminating 1 from equations [5] and [6], which gives 6(x — yf = (x — 29) or by solving the equation (though this leads to some awkward integration in this case). 72SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Example 26 a) Find the general solution of the system of equations: dx —=x+4)-6 1 a iy ) ay pret (2) b) Find the particular solution if x = 0 and y = ~2 when ¢) Sketch the graphs of both x and y against 1. d} Plot the tangent field representing the relationship between x and y for the interval x € [-8, 8], » € {-4, 4] e) Sketch the particular solution from part ¢ on the tangent field. 0. sours a} From [1] we have ae _ dx) dy de de de Substituting from [2], we obtain 2 Be Be ge pay 4 28 de de Substituting from [1], we obtain SEB gy 3(Bh- nee) 428 di de dr which gives y de => +2—+5r=10 3) dea 8) The ausiliary equation is a? + 2m +$ =, giving a = ~1 42. The complementary Funetion is x = €°'(4 eos 20 + Bsin 24). The trial solution is x = P, giving we a0. Substituting in [3}, we obtain SP=10 => P Hence, the general solution for x is x= eA cos + Bsin 21) +2 i] Differentiating [4], we have ax di “(A + 2B)c0s 2¢-+ (-24 = B)sin 24] 73CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS From [1], we have Lfdx yo t(B ax +6) = ps dfe'[(—A + 2B)cos2r + (-24 — B)sin 21] — x + 6} and substit ing from [4], we get the general solution for y: r [4 — B)cos2t-+ (A + B)sin 21] +1 (3} Hence, the pair of equations [4] and [5] is the general solution. b) Applying the initial conditions, we have O=A+2 giving A= -2 -MaA~B)+1 giving B= —8 The particular solution is, therefore, x= e-'(—2eos 21— 8sin 2x) +2 (6) yee (—3eos2r+ Ssin21) +1 i] ¢) The graphs show the pair of equations (6) and [7]. @), e) Graphing the tangent field is only practicable if you have access to suitable graphing software, although it is possible to graph the parametric particular solution on most graphic calculators. From [I] and [2], we have dy _ -2x-3y 47 dx x e4y-6 This gives the tangent field shown at the top of the next page 74EXERCISE aM LLL POS AHN SASS ARRAS SSE SAAS SSNS NAAN ANANSI RRR PCOEPAOLLY AO mm VLSLLDL ET Oo SLOP LL LY Oe mm CALL LLL foam VOSA Com | In this solution, as time increases the transient terms will diminish and both x and y will converge to the constant values x = 2, y= 1. The solution curves plotted of y against x form spirals converging to the point (2, 1). Seesereescenceessemseunaasecenmnseeene Exercise 3M In Questions 1 to 6: a) Find the general solution of the system of equations. b) Find the particular solution using the given boundary conditions. e} Sketch the graphs of both x and y against ¢. In addition, if you have suitable software, you should plot the tangent field showing the relationship between x and y (suggested intervals x € [~8,8], » € [—4,4]) and/or sketch the particular solution from part e. dx dy 1 Sax-2y 2a xt -4 koe Watt dy dy —=-2x+y4+3 —=-2x+y43 ao do y= Oand y= 1 when =0 x= 2and y= 0 when r= 0 dx de 3 Za-x-pes 4-6-3 a de ’ dy dy =—=5x-dr-1 ==3x=12 dr “ de w= and y= —S whens =0 x=Jand y= I whens =0 1sCHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS da dx 5 a2 ye 6 Sav-ypel a x Ip t att dy dy Saat 2-9 aay e3y-3 dr re dr * x= Sand y = 2 whens =0 w=2and y= 0 when r=0 7 Given the system of equations Sas tby te Ba deter+s show that you obtain the same auxiliary equation whether you eliminate x or y in forming a second-order differential equation. Numerical methods The importance of differential equations and the fact that they are often very difficult, if not impossible, to solve by analytical methods, have led to the development of many numerical techniques for selving them. By solving numerically, we mean finding a series of points, starting from a known point, which correspond (o the particular solution through that point, By their nature, numerical methods are approximate, and the further we get from the known point, the greater will be the error. Onc of the simplest numerical techniques is Euler's method, which we examine here. Euler's method This can be adapted for differential equations of higher orders but we will look at the method applied dy , : fx, y) If we know that the curve passes through the point P(x,¥), we need to find the coordinates of the ‘next’ point, R, on the curve, whose x-coordinate is (x + /). We cannot find R exactly, but provided the step size, A, is small we can obtain a good approximation by finding the point Q on the tangent to the curve at P and with the same x-coordinate as R. The gradient of PQ is f(x,y) from the differential equation. From the diagram, we see that BS tes.9) > QS =hitxy) Hence, the coordinates of Q are (x + A, y + f(x,y). to first-order equations of the form 768NUMERICAL METHODS ‘Thus, we have a pair of recurrence relations Xapp =X, th Jet = Int An dad which we can use to find successive points (x,,y,) on the curve, Of course, every time we apply the method, we introduce an error (the length QR in the diagram). Eventually, the total error will be unacceptable and so we must take care when applying this method. We can reduce the error by making A smaller. We can also apply a correction technique (described later) or use other, more accurate methods which are outside the scope of this book. Numerical methods are well suited to spreadsheet work, and you are encouraged to solve the exercises by this approach. Example 27 Use Euler's method with a step size of 0.1 to find y(0.5) for the equation dy x+y dx ; where (0) = 1. soLuTION The recurrence relations are xy O.1 nt O.1(2%q + Ya) Matt Unt The results are given in the spreadsheet table below. 1,100 00 1.30000 1.23000 1.63000. 03 1.39300 1,993.00 04 1.592 30 2.39230 0.5 1.831 53 2.83153 Thus Euler's method gives (0.5) = 1.83 (to 3 sf) Note The differential equation in Example 27 can be solved analytically. Its solution is y= 3e%—2x—2 7CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS To get an idea of the way the errors build up, we can compare the values obtained by Euler's method with the true values shown in the table on the right. The accuracy can be improved by reducing the step size. For example, taking / = 0.01 results in y(0.5) = 1.9339, and A = 0.001 gives ¥(0.5) = 1.9449, 1.67547 0.5 1.94616 Exercise 3N Use Euler's method to solve each of the following questions using the step length given. dy dys Vater za ety Find }(2) if y(Q) = 2 and h=0.2. Find p(1)if »(0) = Zand A = 0.2. dy dey Find y(1) if y(0) = Land k= 0.1. Find y(1) if y(0) = | and A= 0.2 5 Bx sin +e08 6 Wasp 4 de Find )(1) if y(0) = Land # = 0.2. Find y(2) if (0) = | and A = Improving the accuracy In Example 27, we used Euler's method to solve +9. where y(0) = 1. dx ically, is 1,946 16 (lo 5 dp). The results obtained by Euler's method for various step sizes are ‘The correct solution, obtained am a 30.3) Error ol 18315 0.1147 0.01 1.9339 -0.0123 0.001 1.9449 -0,0013 ‘We can sce that the result is gradually getting closer to the correct value, and that the error is approximately proportional to h. If we plot a graph of the calculated (0.5) values against these, and other, ft values, we can see how our result approaches the correct one. (See graph at the top of the next page.) 78NUMERICAL METHODS ys) a ons ar k In general, the error in Euler's method is proportional to the step size, f, provided that A is small cnough. We can use this fact to address the accuracy problem in two ways. ‘The first approach is to estimate }(0.5) for two values of fh, then find the intercept of the line defined by these two points on the vertical axis. ‘The equation of this line will be yo ¥+kh where Y is the intercept, y is the calculated value and X is the gradient of the line. Using the values of y for fi = 0.002 and f = 0.001, we get 1.9436946 = Y + 0.002k 1.9449282 = Y + 0.001k We solve these to give Y= 19461618 and k= —1.2336 This resull is now accurate to five decimal places, a good improvement over the two calculated values in the table, The second approach is to calculate the step size required to obtain the result to a desired degree of accuracy. If we required a result with an error of less than 10-7, we would need [y= py) <107 => [kal < 10-7 lo? he * 1.2336 = fh < 0,000 000 081 0636 A sensible value would be / = 0.000000 08. This would take = 6250000 steps. Note that we chose a value of f so that the number of steps is an integer. It is clear that Euler's method is not practicable if we required this degree of accuracy. We would need to use a more efficient method. 79CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Exercise 30 1 Euler’s method was used to solve the differential equation & x ~ xy to find the value of (2), given that y(L) = 0, using various values of step length A. The results are shown in the table. A #2) 0.100 0,500 502.219 0.489 094 562 | 0.480389706 | 0.479 326271 | 0478479345 | a) Find an improved estimate of the solution. b) Choose a suitable value of # so that Euler's method would find the value of y(2) with an error of less than 10-*. 2 A reflecting dish is built so that a signal travelling in the direction of the negative y- reflected by the surface of the dish and then passes through the origin where the receiver is placed. The position of poinis (x.¥) on the surface of the dish satisly the differential equation dy yt VTE? dv x Euler's method was used to solve the differential equation in order to design a dish with an edge radius of 10m. y(8) was chosen to be zero and the value of (0.2) was found using various values of the step length f, The results are shown in the tal —2. 570800477 —2.514672905 2.499 733 353 =2.497 866603 = 2,496 373 309 2) Show that the differential equation given does satisfy the conditions of the problem. b) Find an improved estimate of the solution, correct to four decimal places. c) Choose a suitable value of 4 so that Euler's method can be used without correcting the estimate to find the value of (0.2) with an error of less than 10. #04 General motion in one dimension I don't know who's ahead ~ it's either Oxford or Cambridge. JOHN SNAGGE Motion with variable mass Newton's second law (the equation of motion) is the basic model for mechanical systems. In the situations we have encountered so far (see Introducing Mechanics, pages 76-8), the law is stated as F=ma In applying this, we have made the implicit assumption that the mass of the body involved is constant. This is usually a safe assumption. Even with a motor vehicle, which burns fuel and so gets fighter as it travels, the change of mass is so small and so slow that it can effectively be ignored. However, in some circumstances large and rapid changes of mass can occur, and for these we need to modify our approach. Newton originally stated his second law as ‘The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the force applied, and is in the direction of the force’ (except that he wrote it in Latin). With the usual choice of units, the constant of proportionality is 1, so we can say Applied force = Rate of change of momentum Suppose that a body of mass m, moving with velocity v, gains a small amount of mass den during a small time interval d1, after which it is travelling with velocity v + dv. Suppose further that, prior to its being incorporated into the body, the mass dnt was travelling with velocity u. Let F be the average resultant force acting on the system during 5f, We then have __ Change of momentum or The initial momentum of the system is mv + dmu The final momentum of the system is (nt + 6m)(v + 5v) F Hence, we have Fx a bdmyy + dv) — (nv — Sn) or bv bm. émdy => Fame + wat i When we let ¢ — 0, this becomes dv dim [ Pam +h-oF i] Notice that v — is the velocity of the body relative to the mass increment. a4CHAPTER 4 GENERAL MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION In simple cases, such as a raindrop falling through a slow moving cloud, the velocity u is effectively zero. Equation [1] then becomes Notice that equation [2] is equivalent to F = dev) | Example 1 A raindrop is formed when a small droplet falls through a cloud of water vapour. Small particles of water, initially stationary, attach themselves to the droplet so that its mass increases at a constant rate of 0.0002 kgs~!, The droplet takes 10 seconds to full through the cloud. Assuming that initially the droplet has zero mass and velocity, and ignoring air resistance, find the speed of the drop as it leaves the cloud, soumon Take downwards to be the positive direction. Motion takes place in a straight linc, and the velocity of the droplet at time sis » downwards. The only force acting in the direction of motion is the weight of the droplet. The rate of change of the mass is dm = 0.0002. t At time s, the mass of the droplet is m = 0.00020. As the cloud is stationary, the equation of motion is dv dat _ driv) Fom—+¥—= nu dt = 0.00021 = sco = 0.00021 = 00026 de When 1 = 0, » = 0, and so C = 0, Hence, we have velig When the drop leaves the cloud, f= 10, and so v = 5g. The drop therefore leaves the cloud with a speed of S5gms-! Note The equation of motion is a vector equation. Therefore, in Example 1, strictly we should have written the velocity as v and the force as 0.0002/gi. However, as all the motion tukes place in a straight line, we can safely write the solution as shown, and we will adopt this practice in the rest of the chapter. a2MOTION WITH VARIABLE MASS Extending the raindrop model Example | involved the simplest assumption: namely, that the rate of change of the mass of the droplet was constant. We will first generalise this situation and then examine other, more realistic, assumptions. Mass increases at a constant rate Suppose that a = k, Suppose further that the droplet starts with zero mass i and velocity. We have, at time ¢, mass m = ke and velocity = v downwards. Our equation of motion is mt yal _ dln) Garde which gives ceev) kg = SE ede Ss v= Jecas > w=flgee The ini conditions give C = 0, Therefore, we have v=tig This model therefore implies that the droplet has a constant acceleration of 4g, independent of the rate at which its mass is increasing. Other models It is more realistic to suppose that a large raindrop will acquire extra water more rapidly than a small raindrop. Two ways in which we may model this are to assume that the rate of increase of mass is proportional either to the radius or to the surface area of the raindrop. We will now explore these two models. In each, we will assume that air resistance can be ignored, © Rate of increase proportional to radius, 2 wr This can be written as am ae ‘We will assume that the raindrop is a sphere of water of density 1000 kgm~*. This gives kr 40002r° m — SMa” 3 dnt adr Se = 400000? a a aaCHAPTER 4 GENERAL MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION As 2" kr, we have de ork di 4000nr => [eon ars fica 2000nr? = kr+ If, as before, r = 0 when ¢ = 0, we have C = 0, and hence The equation of motion is lt yg slin _ dlrnvy Fema a dt _ dts) oar > > m= [omar ~ Rp 2 eee de ‘3 V 20002 }3 V 20000 which gives wid = tev +c When 1 = 0, v= 0, and so C, = 0. Hence, we have vedgr ‘This model therefore implies that the droplet has a constant acceleration of 2, independent of the constant of proportionality linking the mass and the radius of the raindrop. Rate of increase proportisnsl to surface area, fa oA This can be written as a = 4k ‘We will assume that the raindrop is a sphere of water of density 1000 kgm~?. This gives 4000ar7 m= 3 d. 2 ort ggo0ne? SE de drMOTION WITH VARIABLE MASS As 2! = ankr®, we have dt dr ok dr 1000 Ae 2 r=Tyt?e If, as before, r = 0 when t = 0, we have C = 0, and hence At ~ 1000 _ dak ~ 3000000 The equation of motion is r > m = mS 4 _ om) Fema} ar ar mg = Hed ~ dr > m= Josear 438 | arkgn 4, 3000000 3.000 000 which gives wh=ter+C When 0, ¥ = 0. and so C, = 0. Hence, we have v=tgr This model therefore implies that the droplet has a constant acceleration of ‘4g, independent of the constant of proportionality linking the mass and the surface area of the raindrop. Modelling the motion of a rocket Asa rocket moves, burnt fuel is ejected. The mass of the rocket therefore decreases with time. The equation of motion is the same as for a raindrop gathering water, except that in the case of the rocket the rate of change of mass is negative. Example 2 A rocket of mass 2500kg, including its fuel, is in space and is at rest relative to a chosen frame of reference. The motor is then fired. The fuel burns at a rate of 20kgs~', and the material is emitted at a speed of 3000ms~!. If the rocket initially contains 2000 kg of fuel, find its speed when all the fuel has been used,CHAPTER 4 GENERAL MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION Porritt etre rrr treet retire t terre eee eee ees souvTION The equation of motion is _ ody dm Fomo 4-9 where v— wis the velocity of the rocket relative to the ejected material, In this case, v — a = 3000ms"! There are no external forces acting on the rocket. At time ¢, the mass of the rocket is m= 2500 = 204. The mass of the rocket is reducing by 20kgs"', hence we have =-20 dt ‘The equation of motion is. therefore, 0 = (2500 — 20% +. 3000 = (20) de dr 125-7 3000. = dr = ~3000In(125 - H+ y [= 1 = ~3000In (125 — 1) +C ‘The initial conditions are y = 0 when s = 0, which gives C = 3000In 125. Hence, we have v= 300010 135 ) 125 =1, The fuel will be exhausted when t= 100. This gives v= 30001n 5 = 4828.3 Hence, when the fuel is all used, the speed of the rocket is 4830 ms"! (to 3 sf). Exercise 4A 4 Ahailstone falls through a stationary cloud. I lly, it has mass 0.02 kg, and enters the cloud at a spoed of Sms™!. As it passes through the cloud, it accumulates mass at a rate of 0.001 kgs™!. If it takes $5 to fall through the cloud, at what speed will it be travelling when it emerges? 2 A rocket is launched vertically upwards from rest. It has an initial mass of S000kg, of which 4000 kg is fuel. The fuel is used at a rate of 40kgs”', and is emitted at a rate of 3000ms~! relative to the rocket. Find the speed of the rocket when all the fuel has been used. 3 A droplet of water, initially of radius zero, starts from rest and falls through a stationary cloud of mist, As it does so, water vapour condenses on the dropiet at a rate proportional to the 2 radius of the droplet, Show that y= 288" , Where & is the constant of proportionality,CHAPTER 4 GENERAL MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION Variable forces We now consider situations in which the force applied varies with time, with velocity or with displacement. If the mass is constant, we can use the familiar form of Newton's second law F=ma As we saw in Introducing Mechanics (pages 104-8), this can be written, for motion in one dimension, a3 a first- or second-order differential equation by expressing the acceleration as * : oe or a depending on the nature of the a’ dr function for the force. Example 3 A body of mass 2kg is moving in a straight line under the influence of a force given by F = 18sin 3v. Initially, the body is stationary at the origin. Find an expression for its displacement at time f. ‘The equation of motion is 1, dv 18 sin 37 = 2—— sin3r = 2 —3eos3t+C > r= [> sin 3rdt When s = 0, » = 0, which gives C = 3. Henee, we have = 3 = 3cos 31 = sa [3—Seostrdr=31—sin dt G ‘When s = 0, s = 0, which gives C, = 0. Hence, we have =h-sint Example 4 A particle of mass 3g is attached to an elastic string of stiffness 9Nm-', the other end of which is attached to a fixed point A. ‘The particle is held at rest vertically below A with the string just taut, and is then released. It falls through a resisting medium which gives a resistance of magnitude 12v, where v is the speed of the particle. Find an expression for the displacement of the particle below its starting point at time f seconds after release,VARIABLE FORCES Multiplying through by the integrating factor, we get 1 (4artva gtd » z (24a) = the =| pig, — 8e “8 @+a The initial conditions t= 0, v= 0 give C = 0, so we have —_#! +4) Impulse of a variable force Suppose that the force acting on a particle of constant mass m is a function of time. That is, Foree = F(n) Suppose that the force acts for a period T, during which the velocity of the particle changes from w to v. The equation of motion is dy mr =F) => [imar= [roa le lo r > j FO) ds = mv — one a The right-hand side of this equation represents the change of momentum of the particle, which is the impulse of the force. Hence, for a variable force, we have r [ Impulse = { F(pdt 0 Example 7 A ball of mass 0.5kg, travelling at 20ms~", is struck head on by a bat. The contact between the bat and ball lasts for 0.2 seconds, during which time the force exerted on the ball is F = 375007(1 — 58). Find the speed of the ball after impact. ‘souuTION The magnitude of the impulse exerted by the bat on the ball is 2 BS 0.2 37300 [ (P= separ = 3700/5 — 5] =25Ns a 0 a1CHAPTER & GENERAL MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION The equation of motion is then Pym tt ¥ di > fa-] mm. dv P—ky? > t= F inp kv+C When 1 = 0, v = 0, which gives C = 5 P. Hence, we have inf: P ) “kN P= kv? i am P Therefore, the time needed to reach a speed of FV is F0(=). Note that this is only possible if V < /E- Exercise 4B 1 A body of mass 1 kg moves along a straight line under the influence of a force, F(1), which varies with time. When ¢ = 0, the velocity of the body is vp. In each of the following cases, find the relationship between v and 1. a) Fr) = 3-41, ro = 0. b) F(t) =1— ¢) F(t) = 18sin 37, my = —6, 1 +h ™ 2. A body of mass 2kg moves along a straight line under the influence of a force, F(v), which varies with velocity. When ¢ = 0, the velocity of the body is vp. In each of the following cases, find the relationship between v and 1. a) Fo=p. w= 4, b) FW) =3-—1 1 =6. v e) Flv) = 9 —4y?, d) F(x) = 120 — 607, v9 = 10. 3 A body of mass I kg moves along a straight line under the influence of a force, F. When t = 0, the velocity of the body is va and its displacement is 5. In each of the following cases, find the relationship between y and s, a) Fat yy 24.5 =0 b) F=3—, 1%) =6, 5 =0. > ce) F= 5-307, vy = 3,59 = 0. a) F= 4,19 =0,55=12. 5 vo = 0, 59 = 24. a4