INTRODUCTION

Level/Scale of Measurements
Statistics - practice or science of collecting and  Nominal - categorical
analyzing numerical data in large quantities, purpose of  Ordinal - rank
inferring proportions  Interval – no absolute “zero”
 Ratio – has a “true zero”
Branches of Statistics
Descriptive – organizes, summarizes, and
PRESENTATION OF DATA
communicates
Frequency distribution - an organized tabulation of the
Inferential – to predict and uses sample data to make
number of individuals located in different categories in
general estimations
different levels of measurements.
Sample - observations are drawn from a population of
interest. It is described by a STATISTIC.
Role of Frequency Distribution in Research
 Subset of the population
 This is used to group scores together which
 Reports have a margin of error and confidence
allow researchers to get a glance among the set
interval
of scores
Population - All possible observations about which we
Types of Frequency Distribution
would like to know. It is described by a PARAMETER.
 Categorical Frequency Distribution
 Complete set
o Used to organize categorical-level type
 Reports are a true representation of opinion
of data.
o Nominal or Ordinal
Sampling Techniques
 Grouped Frequency Distribution
Random/Probability Sampling – equal chance of being
o The data are sorted and separated into
selected.
 Systematic Sampling – nth element from the groups called classes.
given list. o Interval or Ratio
 Stratified Sampling – division according to Steps in constructing a Group Frequency Distribution
categories. 1. Arrange the data to ascending/descending.
2. Determine the classes (range, no. of classes,
 Cluster Sampling – divided into clusters
interval, CB)
Non-Random/Non-Probability Sampling – recruitment
3. Tally the raw data
of participants
4. Convert the data into numerical frequencies.
 Convenience Sampling – direct selection
5. Determine the relative frequency
 Quota Sampling – equal representatives
6. Determine the percentage
 Snowball Sampling - recommendations
7. Determine the cumulative frequency
 Purposive Sampling - criteria
8. Determine the midpoints
 Self-selected Sampling – identify themselves
Given: k=5 i=11 n=30

Variables - It is any observation of a physical,

attitudinal, or behavioral characteristic that can take on
different values
 Discrete – countable, digital
 Continuous – infinite, analog

Variables and Research

1. Independent
2. Dependent
3. Confounding
  Graphing Frequency Distributions  Pareto chart – A categorical data and
frequencies are displayed by the heights of
vertical bars which are arranged in order from
highest to lowest.

Types of Graph
 Pie Graph - A circle divided into portions that
 Histogram - a graph in which the classes are
represent relative frequencies (percentages) of
marked on the horizontal axis (x-axis) and the
the data belonging to different categories. Data
class frequencies on the vertical axis (y-axis).
should be categorical.
(Interval or Ratio)

 Scatter Plot – used to examine possible

 Frequency Polygon - a graph that displays data
relationships between 2 numerical variables.
using points which are connected by lines.
Represented by the heights of the points at the
midpoints of the classes

 PictoGraph – represents data through pictures

arranged in a row/column.

 Bar Graph - Distribution for a nominal or ordinal

data where the heights of the bar represent the
frequency of members under that category.
THE MEAN, MEDIAN, MODE
 Mean - “average”
o Add up all the numbers and then divide
by the number of numbers.
o interval and ratio
o higher statistical computations
 Median - “middle”
o Listed in numerical order.
o ordinal or ranked
o extreme cases
o If ‘even’ get the mean
 Mode – “repeated”
o nominal or categorical
o most popular or most typical

Variability - the measure of the spread of a data set.

Three Measures of Variability

1. Range - defined as the difference between the
highest and lowest scores in the distribution
 Range = Highest score – Lowest score
2. Variance - the mean or average of the squares
of the deviation of each measurement from the
mean.
ss
 σ2
N −1
3. Standard Deviation - the square root of the
variance.

Deviation Score
SS=∑ ¿ ¿

´
X́ =∑ X ÷ N