Sourdough

History[edit]
In the Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology, Michael Gaenzle writes: "The origins of bread-making
are so ancient that everything said about them must be pure speculation. One of the oldest
sourdough breads dates from 3700 BCE and was excavated in Switzerland, but the origin of
sourdough fermentation likely relates to the origin of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent several
thousand years earlier", which was confirmed a few years later by archeological evidence. [3] ...
"Bread production relied on the use of sourdough as a leavening agent for most of human
history; the use of baker's yeast as a leavening agent dates back less than 150 years." [4]
Pliny the Elder described the sourdough method in his Natural History:[5][6]
Generally however they do not heat it up at all, but only use the dough kept over from the day
before; manifestly it is natural for sourness to make the dough ferment... (Nat. His. 18:26 §104) [5]
Sourdough remained the usual form of leavening down into the European Middle Ages[7] until
being replaced by barm from the beer brewing process, and after 1871 by purpose-cultured
yeast.
Bread made from 100% rye flour, popular in the northern half of Europe, is usually leavened with
sourdough. Baker's yeast is not useful as a leavening agent for rye bread, as rye does not
contain enough gluten. The structure of rye bread is based primarily on the starch in the flour as
well as other carbohydrates known as pentosans; however, rye amylase is active at substantially
higher temperatures than wheat amylase, causing the structure of the bread to disintegrate as
the starches are broken down during cooking. The lowered pH of a sourdough starter, therefore,
inactivates the amylases when heat cannot, allowing the carbohydrates in the bread to gel and
set properly.[8] In the southern part of Europe, where panettone is still made with sourdough as
leavening,[7] sourdough has become less common in the 20th century; it has been replaced by
the faster-growing baker's yeast, sometimes supplemented with longer fermentation rests to
allow for some bacterial activity to build flavor. Sourdough fermentation has re-emerged as a
major fermentation process in bread production in the past 10 years although it is commonly
used in conjunction with baker's yeast as leavening agent. [9]
French bakers brought sourdough techniques to Northern California during the California Gold
Rush, and it remains a part of the culture of San Francisco today. (The nickname remains in
"Sourdough Sam", the mascot of the San Francisco 49ers.) Sourdough has long been
associated with the 1849 gold prospectors, though they were more likely to make bread with
commercial yeast or baking soda.[10] The "celebrated"[11] San Francisco sourdough is a white
bread characterized by a pronounced sourness, and indeed the strain of Lactobacillus in
sourdough starters is named Fructilactobacillus sanfranciscensis (previously Lactobacillus
sanfranciscensis), [12] alongside the sourdough yeast Kasachstania humilis (previously Candida
milleri) found in the same cultures.[11]
The sourdough tradition was carried into Alaska and the Yukon territories of Canada during
the Klondike Gold Rush of 1898. Conventional leavenings such as yeast and baking soda were
much less reliable in the conditions faced by the prospectors. Experienced miners and other
settlers frequently carried a pouch of starter either around their neck or on a belt; these were
fiercely guarded to keep from freezing. However, freezing does not kill a sourdough starter;
excessive heat does. Old hands came to be called "sourdoughs", a term that is still applied to
any Alaskan or Klondike old-timer. [13] The significance of the nickname's association with Yukon
culture was immortalized in the writings of Robert Service, particularly his collection of "Songs of
a Sourdough".[citation needed]
In English-speaking countries, where wheat-based breads predominate, sourdough is no longer
the standard method for bread leavening. It was gradually replaced, first by the use of barm from
beer making,[14] then, after the confirmation of germ theory by Louis Pasteur, by cultured yeasts.
  Although sourdough bread was superseded in commercial bakeries in the 20th century, it has
[15]

undergone a revival among artisan bakers and, more recently, in industrial bakeries. [9][16]
Manufacturers of non-sourdough breads make up for the lack of yeast and bacterial culture by
introducing into their dough an artificially-made mix known as bread improver or flour improver.[17]

Preparation[edit]

How to make and maintain firm sourdough

Starter[edit]
The preparation of sourdough begins with a pre-ferment (the "starter" or "leaven", also known as
the "chief", "chef", "head", "mother" or "sponge"), a fermented mixture of flour and water,
containing a colony of microorganisms including wild yeast and lactobacilli.[18] The purpose of the
starter is to produce a vigorous leaven and to develop the flavour of the bread. In practice there
are several kinds of starters, as the ratio of water to flour in the starter (hydration) varies. A
starter may be a liquid batter or a stiff dough.[citation needed]
Flour naturally contains a variety of yeasts and bacteria. [19][20] When wheat flour comes into contact
with water, the naturally occurring enzyme amylase breaks down the starch into the
sugars glucose and maltose, which sourdough's natural yeast can metabolize. [21] With sufficient
time, temperature, and refreshments with new or fresh dough, the mixture develops a stable
culture.[18][22] This culture will cause a dough to rise.[18] The bacteria ferment starches that the yeast
cannot metabolise, and the by-products, chiefly maltose, are metabolised by the yeast, which
produces carbon dioxide gas, leavening the dough. [23][24][25][26][27][note 1]
Obtaining a satisfactory rise from sourdough takes longer than a dough leavened with baker's
yeast because the yeast in a sourdough is less vigorous. [29][30] In the presence of lactic acid
bacteria, however, some sourdough yeasts have been observed to produce twice the gas of
baker's yeast.[31] The acidic conditions in sourdough, along with the bacteria also producing
enzymes that break down proteins, result in weaker gluten and may produce a denser finished
product.[32]
Refreshment of the starter[edit]

Recently refreshed sourdough

As it ferments, sometimes for several days, the volume of the starter is increased by periodic
additions of flour and water, called "refreshments". [33] As long as this starter culture is fed flour
and water regularly, it will remain active.[34][35][36]
The ratio of fermented starter to fresh flour and water is critical in the development and
maintenance of a starter. This ratio is called the refreshment ratio.[37][38] Higher refreshment ratios
are associated with greater microbial stability in the sourdough. In San Francisco sourdough,
the ratio[39] is 40% of the total weight, which is roughly equivalent to 67% of the new-dough's
weight. A high refreshment ratio keeps acidity of the refreshed dough relatively low. [36] Acidity
levels of below pH 4.0 inhibit lactobacilli and favour acid-tolerant yeasts. [citation needed]
A starter prepared from scratch with a salted wheat-rye dough takes about 54 hours at 27 °C
(81 °F) to stabilise at a pH between 4.4 and 4.6.[40] 4% salt inhibits L. sanfranciscensis, while C.
milleri can withstand 8%.[41]
A drier and cooler starter has less bacterial activity and more yeast growth, which results in the
bacterial production of more acetic acid relative to lactic acid. Conversely, a wetter and warmer
starter has more bacterial activity and less yeast growth, with more lactic acid relative to acetic
acid.[42] The yeasts produce mainly CO2 and ethanol.[43] High amounts of lactic acid are desired in
rye and mixed-rye fermentations, while relatively higher amounts of acetic acid are desired in
wheat fermentations.[44] A dry, cool starter produces a sourer loaf than a wet, warm one. [42] Firm
starters (such as the Flemish Desem starter, which may be buried in a large container of flour to
prevent drying out) tend to be more resource-intensive than wet ones. [citation needed]

Intervals between refreshments[edit]

A stable culture in which F. sanfranciscensis is the dominant bacterium requires a temperature
between 25–30 °C (77–86 °F) and refreshments every 24 hours for about two weeks.
Refreshment intervals of longer than three days acidify the dough and may change the microbial
ecosystem.[28]
The intervals between refreshments of the starter may be reduced in order to increase the rate of
gas (CO2) production, a process described as "acceleration." [45] In this process, the ratio of yeasts
to lactobacilli may be altered.[46] Generally, if once-daily refreshment-intervals have not been
reduced to several hours, the percentage amount of starter in the final dough should be reduced
to obtain a satisfactory rise during proof.[47]
Faster starter processes, requiring fewer refreshments, have been devised, sometimes using
commercial sourdough starters as inoculants.[48] These starters generally fall into two types. One
is made from traditionally maintained and stable starter doughs, often dried, in which the ratios of
microorganisms are uncertain. Another is made from microorganisms carefully isolated from Petri
dishes, grown into large, homogeneous populations in fermentors, and processed into combined
baker's products with numerically defined ratios and known quantities of microorganisms well
suited to particular bread styles.[49][36]
Maintaining metabolically active sourdough with high leavening activity typically requires several
refreshments per day, which is achieved in bakeries that use sourdough as sole leavening
agents but not by amateur bakers that use the sourdough only weekly or even less frequently.
[citation needed]

Local methods[edit]
Bakers have devised several ways of encouraging a stable culture of micro-organisms in the
starter. Unbleached, unbromated flour contains more micro-organisms than more processed
flours. Bran-containing (wholemeal) flour provides the greatest variety of organisms and
additional minerals, though some cultures use an initial mixture of white flour and rye or whole
wheat flour or "seed" the culture using unwashed organic grapes (for the wild yeasts on their
skins). Grapes and grape must are also sources of lactic acid bacteria, [50][51] as are many other
edible plants.[52][53] Basil leaves are soaked in room-temperature water for an hour to seed
traditional Greek sourdough. [54] Using water from boiled potatoes is said to increase the activity of
the bacteria by providing additional starch.[citation needed]
The piped drinking water supplied in most urban areas is treated
by chlorination or chloramination, adding small amounts of substances that inhibit potentially
dangerous micro-organisms but are harmless to animals. Some bakers recommend
unchlorinated water for feeding cultures.[18]:353 Because a sourdough fermentation relies on
microorganisms, using water without these agents may produce better results. Bottled drinking
water is suitable; chlorine, but not chloramines, can be removed from tap water by boiling it for a
time, or simply by leaving it uncovered for at least 24 hours. Chlorine and chloramines can both
be removed by activated carbon filters[55] and other methods.[56]
Adding a small quantity of diastatic malt provides maltase and simple sugars to support the
yeasts initially.[57]
Bakers often make loaves with fermented dough from a previous batch (which they call "mother
dough",[note 2] "mother sponge", "chef", or "seed sour") rather than making a new starter every time
they bake. The original starter culture may be many years old. Because of their pH level and the
presence of antibacterial agents, such cultures are stable and able to prevent colonization by
unwanted yeasts and bacteria. For this reason, sourdough products inherently keep fresh for a
longer time than other breads, and are good at resisting spoilage and mold without the additives
required to retard spoiling of other types of bread. [60]
The flavour of sourdough bread varies from place to place according to the method used, the
hydration of the starter and the final dough, the refreshment ratio, the length of the fermentation
periods, ambient temperature, humidity, and elevation, all of which contribute to the microbiology
of the sourdough.[citation needed]

Baking[edit]
The starter must be fed 4 to 12 hours prior to being added to dough, by mixing flour and water to
the starter. This creates an active leaven, which should grow in size and is ready to use when it
is bubbly and floats in water. The leaven is mixed with flour and water to make a final dough of
the desired consistency. The starter weight is usually 13% to 25% of the total flour weight,
though formulas may vary.[49][61][62] The dough is shaped into loaves, left to rise, and then baked. A
number of 'no knead' methods are available for sourdough bread. Due to the length of time
sourdough bread takes to proof, many bakers may refrigerate their loaves prior to baking. This
process is known as 'retardation' to slow down the proofing process. This process has the added
benefit of developing a richer flavoured bread.[citation needed]
Because the rise time of most sourdough starters is longer than that of breads made with baker's
yeasts, sourdough starters are generally unsuitable for use in a bread machine. However,
sourdough that has been proved over many hours, using a sourdough starter or mother dough,
can then be transferred to the machine, utilizing only the baking segment of the bread-making
program, bypassing timed mechanical kneading by the machine's paddle. This may be
convenient for single loaf production, but the complex blistered and slashed crust characteristics
of oven-baked sourdough bread cannot be achieved in a bread making machine, as this usually
requires the use of a baking stone in the oven and misting of the dough to produce steam.
Furthermore, ideal crust development requires loaves of shapes not achievable in a machine's
loaf tin.[citation needed]

Biology and chemistry of sourdough[edit]

Sourdough starter made with flour and water refreshed for three or more days

See also: Lactic acid fermentation

Sourdough is a stable culture of lactic acid bacteria and yeast in a mixture of flour and water.
Broadly speaking, the yeast produces gas (carbon dioxide) which leavens the dough, and the
lactic acid bacteria produce lactic acid, which contributes flavor in the form of sourness. The
lactic acid bacteria metabolize sugars that the yeast cannot, while the yeast metabolizes the by-
products of lactic acid fermentation.[63][64] During sourdough fermentation, many cereal enzymes,
particularly phytases, proteases and pentosanases, are activated through acidification and
contribute to biochemical changes during sourdough fermentation. [1]

Lactic acid bacteria[edit]

Main article: Lactic acid bacteria

Lactic acid bacteria are aerotolerant anaerobes, which means that though they are anaerobes,
they can multiply in the presence of oxygen. [citation needed]
Major lactic acid bacteria in sourdough are heterofermentative organisms and convert hexoses
by the Phosphoketolase pathway to lactate, CO2 and acetate or ethanol; [63] heterofermentative
lactic acid bacteria are usually associated with homofermentative lactobacilli,
particularly Lactobacillus and Companilactobacillus species.[citation needed]

Yeasts[edit]
The most common yeast species in sourdough are Kazachstania exigua (Saccharomyces
exiguous), Saccharomyces cerevisiae, K. exiguus and K. humilis (previously Candida
milleri or Candida humilis).[65][66]

Type I sourdough[edit]
Traditional sourdoughs used as sole leavening agent are referred to as Type I sourdough,
examples include sourdoughs used for San Francisco Sourdough Bread, Panettone, and rye
bread.[67] Type I sourdoughs are generally firm doughs,[66] have a pH range of 3.8 to 4.5, and are
fermented in a temperature range of 20 to 30 °C (68 to 86 °F). Fructilactobacillus
sanfranciscensis was named for its discovery in San Francisco sourdough starters, though it is
not endemic to San Francisco. F sanfranciscensis and Limosilactobacillus pontis often highlight a
lactic-acid bacterial flora that includes Limosilactobacillus fermentum, Fructilactobacillus
fructivorans, Levilactobacillus brevis, and Companilactobacillus paralimentarius.[54][67][68][9] The
yeasts Saccharomyces exiguus, Kasachstania humilis, or Candida holmii[67] usually populate
sourdough cultures symbiotically with Fructilactobacillus sanfranciscensis.[41] The perfect yeast S.
exiguus is related to the imperfect yeasts C. milleri and C. holmii. Torulopsis holmii, Torula
holmii, and S. rosei are synonyms used prior to 1978. C. milleri and C. holmii are physiologically
similar, but DNA testing established them as distinct. Other yeasts reported found include C.
humilis, C. krusei, Pichia anomaola, C. peliculosa, P. membranifaciens, and C. valida.[69][70] There
have been changes in the taxonomy of yeasts in recent decades.[69][70] F.
sanfranciscensis requires maltose,[71] while C. milleri is maltase negative and thus cannot
consume maltose.[23][24][25][26][27] C. milleri can grow under conditions of low pH and relatively high
acetate levels, a factor contributing to sourdough flora's stability. [72]
In order to produce acetic acid, F. sanfrancisensis needs maltose and fructose.[73] Wheat dough
contains abundant starch and some polyfructosanes, which enzymes degrade to "maltose,
fructose and little glucose."[74] The terms "fructosan, glucofructan, sucrosyl fructan, polyfructan,
and polyfructosan" are all used to describe a class of compounds that are "structurally and
metabolically" related to sucrose, where "carbon is stored as sucrose and polymers of fructose
(fructans)."[75] Yeasts have the ability to free fructose from glucofructans which compose about 1–
2% of the dough. Glucofructans are long strings of fructose molecules attached to a single
glucose molecule. Sucrose can be considered the shortest glucofructan, with only a single
fructose molecule attached.[72] When L. sanfrancisensis reduces all available fructose, it stops
producing acetic acid and begins producing ethanol. If the fermenting dough gets too warm, the
yeasts slow down, producing less fructose. Fructose depletion is more of a concern in doughs
with lower enzymatic activities.[8]
A Belgian study of wheat and spelt doughs refreshed once every 24 hours and fermented at
30 °C (86 °F) in a laboratory environment provides insight into the three-phase evolution of first-
generation-to-stable sourdough ecosystems. In the first two days of refreshment, atypical
genera Enterococcus and Lactococcus bacteria highlighted the doughs. During days 2–5,
sourdough-specific bacteria belonging to the genera Lactobacillus, Pediococcus,
and Weissella outcompete earlier strains. Yeasts grew more slowly and reached population
peaks near days 4–5. By days 5–7, "well-adapted" Lactobacillus strains such as L.
fermentum and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum had emerged. At their peaks, yeast populations
were in the range of about 1–10% of the lactobacilli populations or 1:10–1:100. One
characteristic of a stable dough is that the heterofermentative have outcompeted
homofermentative lactobacilli.[22] F. sanfranciscensis has typically not been identified in
spontaneous sourdoughs, even after multiple cycles of back-slopping; it was rapidly introduced in
wheat sourdoughs, however, when plant materials were used to start the fermentation. [76]
Investigations of wheat sourdough found that S. cerevisiae died off after two refreshment cycles.
[72]
 S. cerevisiae has less tolerance to acetic acid than other sourdough yeasts.[69] Continuously
maintained, stable sourdough cannot be unintentionally contaminated by S. cerevisiae.[28]

Type II sourdough[edit]
In Type II sourdoughs, baker's yeast or Saccharomyces cerevisiae[77] is added to leaven the
dough; L. pontis and Limosilactobacillus panis in association with Lactobacillus species are
dominant members of type II sourdoughs.[66][67][68][9] They have a pH less than 3.5, and are
fermented within a temperature range of 30 to 50 °C (86 to 122 °F) for several days without
feedings, which reduces the flora's activity.[78] This process was adopted by some in industry, in
part, due to simplification of the multiple-step build typical of Type I sourdoughs. [79]
In Type II sourdoughs, yeast growth is slowed or stopped due to higher fermentation
temperatures. These doughs are more liquid and once fermented may be chilled and stored for
up to a week. They are pumpable and used in continuous bread production systems. [66]

Type III sourdough[edit]

Type III sourdoughs are Type II sourdoughs subjected to a drying process, usually
either spray or drum drying, and are mainly used at an industrial level as flavoring agents. They
are dominated by "drying-resistant [lactic acid bacteria] such as Pediococcus pentosaceus, L.
plantarum, and L. brevis." The drying conditions, time and heat applied, may be varied in order to
influence caramelization and produce desired characteristics in the baked product. [66]

Types of bread[edit]

Slices of sourdough bread paired with vinegar and oil for dipping

There are many breads that use techniques similar to that used in the making of sourdough
bread. Danish rugbrød (rye bread) is a dense, dark bread best known from its use in the
Danish smørrebrød (open-faced sandwiches).[80][81] The Mexican birote salado started out in the
city of Guadalajara as a short French baguette that replaces the yeast with a sourdough
fermentation process, yielding a bread that is crunchy outside but soft and savory inside. [82] Amish
friendship bread uses a sourdough starter that includes sugar and milk. It is also leavened with
baking powder and baking soda. An Amish sourdough is fed with sugar and potato flakes every
3–5 days. German pumpernickel is traditionally made from a sourdough starter,[83] although
modern pumpernickel loaves often use commercial yeasts, sometimes spiked with citric
acid or lactic acid to inactivate the amylases in the rye flour. Flemish desem bread (the word
means 'starter') is a whole-wheat sourdough. [84] In Azerbaijan, whole-wheat sourdough flatbreads
are traditionally eaten.[85] In Ethiopia, teff flour is fermented to make injera.[86] A similar variant is
eaten in Somalia, Djibouti, and Yemen (where it is known as lahoh).[87] In India, idlis and dosa are
made from a sourdough fermentation of rice and Vigna mungo.[88]

Qualities affecting health[edit]

Sourdough fermentation and lactic acid bacteria may be useful to improve the quality of gluten-
free breads, such as by enhancing texture, aroma, and shelf life, which can be extended by
inhibition of mycotoxins associated with fungal contamination.[89][90]
Sourdough bread has a relatively low glycemic index compared with other types of bread. [91]
   The activity of cereal enzymes during sourdough fermentation hydrolyses phytates, which
[92] [93]

affect the absorption of some dietary minerals.[93] Sourdough bread made from whole grains was

recommended as a key daily food in the Italian Mediterranean diet.[92]
Sourdough fermentation also reduces fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides,
monosaccharides, and polyols (FODMAPs) as well as the amylase trypsin inhibitor (ATI), wheat
components that are thought to contribute to non-celiac wheat sensitivity and irritable bowel
syndrome, and increases the concentration or bio-availability of bioactive compounds,
particularly phenolic compounds. [93][94][95][96]