Biosphere

Ecology

• Everything around us belongs to the environment.

• The scientific study of the relations that living organisms have with respect to each other

and their natural environment is called as ecology.

Environmental equilibrium/Ecological balance

• The organisms and the physical environment have a balanced relationship. This favourable

relationship is referred to as the environmental equilibrium.

• Even a small change in the environment can affect its existence.

• But human influence has adversely impact on the environmental ecological balance.

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Organizational levels of the environment

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 Organizational levels of the environment

Biosphere is organized from the simplest level to complex level. This organization can be shown

in the following flow chart.

Species

• A species is a group of organisms that share common characteristics, are able to interbreed,

and to create offspring that are also fertile.

• They are capable of existing naturally.

• A species differs from any other species at least by single characteristic.

• Different species are separated from each other by reproductive barriers.

E.g. - Coconut plant, Elephant, Tiger, Lion

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Produce fertile off springs by interbreeding. Produce fertile off springs by interbreeding.
Exist naturally. Exist naturally

Lion Tiger

• By intra-breeding between a lion and a tiger, Liger is formed. But Liger is unable to make

fertile offspring on its own by interbreeding.

• Therefore, Liger is not considered as a species.

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Individual organism

One member of a given species. Individual organisms interact with environment for most of its
needs.

• Interaction among the organisms within the species.

• Interactions among species
• Interactions with environment

Population

• A group of individuals of the same species which live interacting with each other in a
defined area in a given time.

E.g: Elephant population in Yala National Park in 2019

A population has following features

• Growth rate
• Density
• Interspecific competition etc.

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Population growth

Two basic forms of growth curves can be identified.

(1). S shaped /sigmoidal curve (2) J shaped curve

• Sigmoidal curve describes a situation in which the population density increases slowly
initially, and then as they reproduce rapidly approaching an exponential growth rate.

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 • The number of organisms in a natural population changes with time according to the
sigmoidal pattern.

Phase I - Slow growth phase (Lag phase)

Reasons for slow growth phase

• Organisms are not well adapted to the environment

• Number of mature organisms that can reproduce are less.

• Less chance for mating

Phase II - High growth phase (Exponential phase)

Reasons for increased growth rate

• Organisms are well adapted to the environment

• Number of organisms that reproduce is high.

• Presence of favourable environmental conditions

• Abundance of food

• Birth rate increases than death rate

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Phase III - Decelerating phase

Reasons for reducing growth rate

• Competition for resources

• Food shortage

• Spreading of diseases

• Predation and parasitism

Phase IV - Stationary phase/ Stabilized phase

• It then shows a declining rate until a zero-population growth rate is achieved where rate of

reproduction (naturally equals rate of death (mortality) where a population adapted to

environmental conditions which the environment can bear.

• This type of population growth is said to be density dependent.

• The point of stabilization or zero growth rate is the maximum carrying of the environment

for the organism concerned.

Carrying capacity

• The maximum density of population at dynamic equilibrium stage that could be

accommodated over a long period by the resources of a particular environment.

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Growth curve of human population

• Although the growth curve of a natural population is S shaped, it takes J shape for human

population.

• That means the human population is still in exponential phase.

There are two reasons for this rapid growth.

• Increase of birth rate

• Decrease of death rate

The development of technology, progress in medical field and high rate of food production are
some of the reasons for high population growth.

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Population Density

The number of organisms of a species, living in a unit area of a selected habitat is called the

population density.

The density of a population is dependent on

i. Death rate - Number of organisms die in the population

ii. Birth rate - Number of new born organisms added to the population
iii. Immigration - Number of organisms add to the population from outside
iv. Emigration - Number of organisms leave the population

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Community

Populations of different species in a particular area interacting with each other

E.g, Animal community of Yala National Park

Interactions among populations include

• Predatory,
• Herbivorous
• Competition
• Symbiotic relationships (mutualism, commensalism and parasitism)

E.g. - Animal and plant community in Yala national park

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Plant and animal community in a pond

Ecosystem

The functional / dynamic unit comprising all living organisms in a community and the abiotic

environment which interact with each other.

• Biotic factors – living organisms

• Abiotic factors – nonliving organisms

Abiotic Factors
Biotic Factors
+ Ecosystems
(Sunlight, Soil,
(Plants and animals)
Water, Air)

Example: Pond Ecosystem, A decaying log

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Abiotic factors of an Ecosystem

Air
Sunlight

Soil

Water

Biotic factors in an Ecosystem

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A decaying log (Biotic and abiotic factors)

Biosphere

• The large functional system comprising all ecosystems on earth.

• But it comprises only from the living part.

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The biosphere is composed of three components.

1. Lithosphere - The crust and the upper mantle of the earth.

2. Hydrosphere - The region that includes all the oceans and fresh water bodies. 70% of the

earth surface is covered with water.

3. Atmosphere - The region that contains air around the earth

Structure and functions of ecosystems

Components of ecosystems

All ecosystems are composed of two main components.

• Abiotic (non-living)

• Biotic (living)

Abiotic components

Many important physical and chemical properties of the major components including air, soil and

water which influence on living systems.

E.g: Light, temperature, rainfall, salinity, pH

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Trophic level

• Every organism belongs to a certain trophic level according to their mode of nutrition.

Grass Grasshopper Frog Snake Eagle

1 2 3 4 5
Biotic component
Trophic Level Trophic Level Trophic Level Trophic Level Trophic Level

Biotic Factors

The major biotic components of an ecosystem include

• Primary producers

• Consumers (primary and secondary)

• Detrivores including decomposers

The biotic components of an ecosystem are interconnected on the basis of feeding and energy

transfer relationships

Producers

Autotrophic organisms forming the food source or potential chemical energy supply for all other

organisms in the ecosystem.

Eg: Green plants, Algae, cyanobacteria, photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria

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Consumers

• Organisms unable to synthesize organic food from inorganic materials therefore depending

on the primary products of producers.

• And all consumers are heterotrophs.

Three levels can be identified

a) Primary consumers

b) Secondary consumers

c) Tertiary consumers

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a) Primary consumers

Feed on autotrophs (plants) considered as herbivores

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b. Secondary consumers

Feed on primary consumers. Either carnivores or omnivores

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c. Tertiary consumers

Feed on secondary consumers. Either carnivores or omnivores

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Decomposers

• Organisms feed on bodies of dead organisms by converting complex organic compounds

into simple compounds are known as decomposers.

• Saphrophytes like bacteria and fungi belong to this group. This process is called

decomposition.

Eg: Fungi, Bacteria, Earthworms, Millipeds

• Complex organic compounds are breakdown into simple compounds by decomposers.

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 Food chain

• Food chain is a sequence of feeding relationships through which the energy flows in the

ecosystem.

Grass Grasshopper Frog Snake Hawk

1 2 3 4 5

Trophic Level Trophic Level Trophic Level Trophic Level Trophic Level

Primary Secondary Tertiary

Producers
Consumers Consumer Consumer

Types of food chains

a. Grazing food chains

Begins with a primary producer and end in a herbivore or predator

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b. Parasitic food chains

Begin with a host and end in a parasite

Human Mosquito Dengue Virus

c. Detritus food chains (decomposing food chains)

Begin with dead organic matter

Leaf litter→ earthworm→ bird(mynah)→ hawk

Dead animal→ blow flies→ frog→ snake

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Food webs

• Consumers in a community do not depend only on one type of food.

• Food webs are food chains, interconnected at different trophic levels in an ecosystem/
community.

Energy dissipation

• The loss of energy during transferring energy from one trophic level to the next, is called

energy dissipation. There are several reasons for the energy lost.

1) Energy lost during cellular respiration as heat

2) Energy lost as fecal matter

3) Energy lost as excretory matter

4) The parts not eaten by the consumers

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 Energy stored
in tissues

Energy taken from

food and beverages Energy lost as
excretory materials
and fecal matter

Heat dissipated during

cellular respiration

Energy flow through a food chain

90 % 90 % 90 % 90 %

Heat lost Heat lost Heat lost Heat lost

10 % 10 % 10 % 10 %

Grass Grasshopper Frog Snake Hawk

1 2 3 4 5

Trophic Level Trophic Level Trophic Level Trophic Level Trophic Level

10 000 J 1000 J 100 J 10 J 1J

Producer Primary Secondary Tertiary

Consumer Consumer
Consumer

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 • The amount of energy fixed at a trophic level is only 10% and the difference of 90%

• In this way at each transfer is a 90% loss of energy making the links of food chain limited

to 4/5 trophic levels.

• Flow of energy is a uni-directional process.

Cycling of elements in nature by ecosystems

• Materials in an ecosystem is a limited resource, therefore it should be recycled.

• Materials will be used by organisms to derive energy and to build up their body mass.

• But at each trophic level some amount of these materials are return to the environment as

waste and dead materials.

• All dead remains of organisms and other waste products are decomposed by decomposers

and return the materials to the environment as reusable inorganic end products.

Major cycles include,

• Hydrological cycle

• Carbon cycle

• Nitrogen cycle

• Phosphorous cycle

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 Carbon cycle

Cycling of C atoms in the biosphere through abiotic and biotic components and short term and

long-term cycles.

o Cycling take place in aquatic and terrestrial environment.

o C is present in atmosphere mainly in the form of CO2

• Atmosphere acts as the major pool of CO2

• Atmosphere CO2 is fixed by photosynthesis in plants, algae and bacteria

(photosynthetic) into organic compounds

• The organic C compounds thus formed are passed into heterotrophic organisms/animals by

feeding directly or indirectly. When organisms respire to obtain energy the organic carbon

is converted to CO2 and released to atmosphere.

• When organisms die C in dead bodies are decomposed by microorganisms, bacteria and

fungi. CO2 is released to atmosphere in decomposition.

• If decomposition is not completed the decay in organic matter under anaerobic conditions

will be converted to peat or fossil fuel such as oil or coal over millions of years.

• Combustion of fossil fuel in industry, automobiles, house-hold and organic materials bring

back carbon to atmosphere as CO2.

• C (in dead plant and organisms’ especially in aquatic organism form CaCO3 deposits).

• On combustion or volcanic activity, the carbonate sediments decomposed to release CO2

to atmosphere.

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 Sunlight

CO2
(Inorganic Carbon) CO2

CO2
CO2
CO2
Fossil Fuel
Photosynthesis Plant
Burning
Animal Respiration
Respiration

Organic Carbon

Dead
Decomposing
CO2
Dead Plant and
Animal matter Dissolving in water
Fossil Fuel
CaCO3

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 Nitrogen cycle

• Though 78%of atmosphere is formed by N2, but most organisms cannot directly use this.

There are 5 major steps of nitrogen cycle.

➢ Proteolysis

➢ Ammonification

➢ Nitrogen fixation

➢ Nitrification

➢ Denitrification

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Nitrogen Fixation

The fixation of atmospheric nitrogen takes place in three main methods.

a. Biological fixation

Free living bacteria in soil (Azotobacter) fix atmospheric nitrogen.

Symbiotic bacteria like Rhizobium live inside root nodules of leguminous plants are also
capable of convert atmospheric nitrogen into NH4+

Root Nodules

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b. Atmospheric fixation

• During lightning atmospheric nitrogen is converted to nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide.

• Nitrogen ¤ Oxygen Nitric Oxide (NO)

• Nitric Oxide ¤ Oxygen Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

c. Industrial fixation

Atmospheric nitrogen converts to nitrate during industrial production of chemical

fertilizers.

Hydrogen
Ammonia

Nitrogen

Ammonia
Hydrogen

Nitrogen + Hydrogen Ammonia

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 • The atmospheric N2 is converted to NH4+ by these bacteria and conversion of NH4+ to

proteins is called assimilation.

• The plants and microbes have proteins in their bodies.

• When the plants are eaten by animals, they become the proteins of animals.

• Deaths of plants and animals or excreta of animals or secretions of plants will bring organic

N compounds to soil in inanimate forms.

Proteolysis

• Proteins in animal bodies are broken down by proteolytic enzymes. It produces amino

acids.

Ammonification

• Amino acids are broken down to NH4+ ions by ammonification by bacteria.

Nitrification

• Nitrifying bacteria like Nitrosomonas first convert Ammonium compounds into nitrites

Nitrosomonas
NH4 +
NO2 –

Ammonium Ion Nitrite Ion

• Nitrifying bacteria like Nitrobacter bacteria convert nitrite to nitrates.

Nitrobactor
NO2 -
NO3 –

Nitrite Ion Nitrate Ion

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 Ecological pyramids

Graphical / diagrammatical representation of feeding relationships of an ecosystem.

Three types can be identified

1. Pyramids of biomass

• Biomass of organisms of each trophic level is represented. Each rectangle will represent

the total dry weight at a tropic level in terms of weight per unit area / volume

• The biomass at the time of sampling is as standing bio mass / standing crop biomass. These

figures do not indicate the rate of production or productivity.

• Due this reason pyramids of biomass too may appear inverted at certain instances.

• Eg:-in the ocean and lakes at certain seasons, the biomass of primary consumers exceed

the biomass of primary producers.

400 g

1600 g

8000 g

15000 g

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2. Pyramids of numbers

Represent the no of individuals in each trophic level

• The no.of organism in each level is represented by a proportionately dawn rectangle and

when successive levels are arranged a pyramid is constructed.

• In constructing pyramid of numbers true pyramid shape is often not obtained because size

of the organism is not considered.

• Therefore, it can be even inverted.

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 Pyramids of energy

• Represent total energy fixed at each trophic level.

• Each bar of a pyramid energy represents the amount of energy per unit area / volume that

flows through that tropic level in a given time period.

• Therefore pyramids of energy are never inverted.

• Pyramids of energy are the most useful of the 3 pyramids as it indicates the information of

productivity of an ecosystem.

Example 1

Tertiary Consumers

Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumer

Producer

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 Pollution

When material and energy is present in a particular environment in potentially harmful amounts,
it is said that pollution has occurred.

The concept of pollution

Release in to the environment of substances or energy in such quantities and for such duration that
they cause harm to people or other organisms or the environment.

Pollution can affect all aspects of environment, man-made and natural ecosystems, abiotic and
biotic components

Soil Pollutants their sources and impacts

• Pesticides
• Chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT, Aldrin, Endrin etc)
• Polychlorinated biphenyls
• Heavy metals (Pb, Hg, Cd, As)
Cadmium
Emitted by metal plating and combustion of plastics.
Cause softening of the bones and kidney failure.
Mercury
Paint industry Fungicides and paper industry
Causes nervous system diseases
Lead
Printing industry petroleum residues and discarded batteries
Causes Pb poisoning
• Radioactive Material
• Polythene and plastics

Water pollutants, their major sources and their impacts

• Nitrates and Phosphates

• Oil
• Heavy metals; Lead, Mercury, Cadmium, Arsenic,

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 • Pesticides
• Non-degradable material (polythene)

Air pollution

Deterioration of the quality of air by releasing substances or energy in such quantities which
prevent smooth/ balanced functioning of natural processes and produce undesirable environmental
and health effects.

Main sources air pollutants

Sulphur dioxide, Nitrogen Oxides, Carbon monoxide, Hydrocarbons, Particulate matter,

Chlorofluorocarbon, Carbon dioxide, Ozone

Major Global Problems

Acid rains

• Rain water is usually acidic. But if the pH level falls below 5.6 it is considered as acid rain.
• Causing agents include NO2, SO2, SO3
• Burning of fossil fuels and coal is a major causative factor for acid rains

The impacts of acid rain

1. Destruction of vegetation
2. Acidifying of soil and affect absorption of nutrients by plants
3. Corrode metals
4. Erode limestone/ buildings
5. Increase up take of heavy metals from soil by plants
6. Reduce soil organisms responsible for N2 fixation
7. Decrease photosynthesis due to yellowing/ scorching of leaves
8. Decrease the abundance of aquatic organisms due to decrease in pH
9. Decrease soil fertility

Global warming

The average temperature of the atmosphere is increasing

Contributory factors

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Atmosphere gases such as CO2, oxides of nitrogen, Methane, water vapor and Ozone prevent a
part of the radiation that reaches the earth’s surface being radiated back in to space. And they
reradiate them to earth and it warm up the environment.

CO2 is the principal greenhouse gas but CH4, CFC, H2O vapour, O3, is also important as
greenhouse gasses.

Impacts of global warming

1. Increase in volume of the ocean leading to gradual rise in sea level.

2. In the longer term rising temperature can cause the melting of glaciers and polar ice caps
contributing further to sea level rise.
3. Changes in pattern of atmospheric flow. Wind patterns, climatic factors will change and
rainfall pattern may alter.
4. Affect to the agricultural production, composition of vegetation and its distribution can be
changed.
5. May alter limits of forests, grass lands and deserts.
6. Increase drought conditions, Increase irrigation demand
7. Increase of flood may result in loss of habitats, extinction of certain species
8. Increase of forest fires may change vegetation patterns
9. Expansion of water may cause beach erosion and disruption of coastal fisheries
10. Affect human population and health through increased deaths by heat diseases
11. Increase of migration may cause spread of tropical diseases to temperate areas

Depletion of the Ozone layer

The stratospheric Ozone layer is a very effective screen which prevents a major part of the ultra-
violet radiation coming from the sun from reaching the surface of the earth.

It plays a very important part in the maintenance of life on earth.

Contributory factors

• Release of chlorofluorocarbon compounds

• Release of nitric oxides - NO

Impact of Ozone depletion

1. Increased risk of cataracts and skin cancer in people (UV radiation is a mutagenic agent).
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 2. Lowering crop yields through interference with photosynthesis
3. Reduced immunity
4. Increased mutations

Measures to minimize ozone depletion

1. Minimizing burning of fossil fuels

2. Stop of destruction of forests
3. Agreements and conventions

Eutrophication

Accumulation of phosphates and nitrates in water bodies in excess over a long period of time due
to use of excess use of fertilizers and release of sewage.

Causes of eutrophication

• overgrowth of algae/ algae bloom

• Photosynthesis become limited as light penetration decreases
• BOD level increases
• Bad odor due to ammonia, H2S

Biodiversity

Biological diversity is the variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial,
marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part of.

This includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems

Loss of Biodiversity

Reduction of the number of species in the biosphere is known as loss of biodiversity.

Reasons for the loss of biodiversity

1. Environmental pollution
2. Deforestation
3. Global warming

Strategies to overcome the loss of biodiversity

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1. Use of conservation methods
2. Minimizing of environmental pollution

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