Ad Hoc Networks:#

Architectures & Protocols

Dr Ljiljana Simić
iNETS, RWTH Aachen University
SS2016

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1
 which way
do I go?

– Routing for Ad Hoc Networks (II)

#

DSR: route error (RERR)

RERR  [J-­‐D]  
S   E  
F  
B  
C   M   L  
J  
A   G  
H   D  
K  
I   N  

§  J  sends  a  route  error  to  S  along  route  J-­‐F-­‐E-­‐S  when  its  aAempt  to  
forward  the  data  packet  S  (with  route  SEFJD)  on  J-­‐D  fails  
§  nodes  hearing  RERR  update  their  route  cache  to  remove  link  J-­‐D  

2
 DSR: Advantages
§  routes  maintained  only  between  nodes  who  need  
to  communicate  (on-­‐demand  reac,ve  rou,ng)  
§  reduces  overhead  of  route  maintenance  

§  route  caching  can  further  reduce  control  overhead  of  

route  discovery    

§  single  route  discovery  may  yield  many  routes  to  the  
des7na7on,  due  to  intermediate  nodes  replying  from  
local  caches  

§  source  rouLng  guarantees  loop-­‐free  routes  

DSR: Disadvantages
§  packet  header  size  grows  with  route  length  due  to  
source  rou7ng  

§  flood  of  route  requests  may  potenLally  reach  all  nodes  
in  the  network  

§  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  collisions  between  route  
requests  propagated  by  neighbouring  nodes  
§  inser7on  of  random  delays  before  forwarding  RREQ  

§  increased  conten7on  if  too  many  route  replies  come  back  
due  to  nodes  replying  using  their  local  cache  
§  RREP  storm  problem  
§  may  be  eased  by  preven7ng  a  node  from  sending  RREP  if  it  hears  
another  RREP  with  a  shorter  route  

3
 DSR: Disadvantages
§  intermediate  node  may  send  RREP  using  a  stale  cached  
route,  thus  polluLng  other  caches  
§  problem  can  be  eased  if  some  mechanism  to  purge  (potenLally)  
invalid  cached  routes  is  incorporated  
§  for  some  proposals  for  cache  invalida7on,  see  
Y.  Hu  and  D.  Johnson,  “Caching  Strategies  in  On-­‐Demand  Rou7ng  Protocols  for  Wireless  Ad  
Hoc  Networks,”  in  Proc.  MobiCom,  2000  
§  sta7c  7meouts  
§  adap7ve  7meouts  based  on  link  stability  

Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector routing

(AODV)
 

[Perkins  and  Royer,  “Ad  hoc  on-­‐demand  distance  vector  rou7ng,”  in  Proc.  IEEE  Wmcsa,  ‘99.]  
[hAp://www.ie\.org/rfc/rfc3561.txt]  or  [hAp://tools.ie\.org/pdf/rfc3561.pdf]  
 
 

§  DSR  includes  source  routes  in  packet  headers  

§  resul7ng  large  headers  can  some7mes  degrade  performance  
§  par7cularly  when  data  contents  of  a  packet  are  small  

§  AODV  aAempts  to  improve  on  DSR  by  maintaining  rouLng  tables  
at  the  nodes,  so  that  data  packets  do  not  have  to  contain  routes  

§  AODV  retains  the  desirable  reac7ve  feature  of  DSR  

i.e.  routes  maintained  only  between  nodes  which  need  to  communicate  

4
 AODV
§  Route  Requests  (RREQ)  forwarded  in  a  manner  similar  to  DSR  

§  when  a  node  re-­‐broadcasts  a  RREQ,  it  sets  up  a  

REVERSE  PATH  (rouLng  table  entry)  poinLng  
towards  the  source  
§  AODV  assumes  symmetric  (bi-­‐direc7onal)  links  

§  when  the  intended  des7na7on  receives  a  RREQ,  it  replies  by  
sending  a  Route  Reply  (RREP)  

§  RREP  travels  along  reverse  path  set  up  by  RREQ  forwarding  

AODV: route requests

Y  

Z  
S   E  
F  
B  
C   M   L  
J  
A   G  
H   D  
K  
I   N  

represents  a  node  that  has  received  RREQ  for  D  from  S  

5
 AODV: route requests
Y  
Broadcast  transmission  
[hop_count=0]  
Z  
S   E  
F  
B  
C   M   L  
J  
A   G  
H   D  
K  
I   N  

represents  transmission  of  RREQ  

AODV: reverse path set-up

Y  

[hop_count=1]   Z  
S   E  
F  
B  
C   M   L  
J  
A   G  
H   D  
K  
I   N  

represents  links  on  Reverse  Path  

§  nodes  B,  C,  E  forward  RREQ  received  from  C  &  increment  RREQ  hop_count  

6
 AODV: reverse path set-up
Y  

Z  
S   [hop_count=2]  
E  
F  
B  
C   M   L  
J  
A   G  
H   D  
K  
I   N  

§  node  C  receives  RREQ  from  G  and  H,  but  does  not  forward  it  again,  because  
node  C  has  already  forwarded  RREQ  once  

AODV: reverse path set-up

Y  

Z  
S   E  
[hop_count=3]  
F  
B  
C   M   L  
J  
A   G  
H   D  
K  
I   N  

7
 AODV: reverse path set-up
Y  

Z  
S   E   [hop_count=4]  
F    
B  
C   M   L  
J  
A   G  
H   D  
K  
I   N  

§  node  D  does  not  forward  RREQ,  because  it  is  

itself  the  intended  target  of  the  route  discovery  

AODV: route reply

Y  

[hop_count=4]  [hop_count=3]  
Z  
    [hop_count=2]  
S   E  
  [hop_count=1]  
F  
B    
C   M   L  
J  
[hop_count=0]  
A   G  
 
H   D  
K  
I   N  

represents  links  on  path  taken  by  RREP  

8
 AODV: forward path set-up
Y  

Z  
S   E  
F  
B  
C   M   L  
J  
A   G  
H   D  
K  
I   N  

§  forward  links  (ROUTING  TABLE  ENTRIES  USED  TO  FORWARD  DATA)  
are  set  up  when  RREP  travels  along  reverse  path    
represents  links  on  the  forward  path  

AODV: data delivery

Y  
DATA  
Z  
S   E  
F  
B  
C   M   L  
J  
A   G  
H   D  
K  
I   N  

§  rouLng  table  entries  used  to  forward  data  packet  

§  route  is  not  included  in  packet  header  

9
 AODV: route reply
§  intermediate  node  (not  the  des7na7on)  may  also  send  a  
Route  Reply  (RREP)  provided  that  it  knows  a  more  recent  
path  than  one  previously  known  to  sender  S  

§  to  determine  whether  the  path  known  to  an  intermediate  

node  is  more  recent,  desLnaLon  sequence  numbers  used  

§  likelihood  that  an  intermediate  node  will  send  a  RREP  when  
using  AODV  not  as  high  as  in  DSR  
§  new  RREQ  by  node  S  for  a  desLnaLon  is  assigned  
last  valid  desLnaLon  sequence  number  
§  intermediate  node  which  knows  a  route,  but  with  a  
smaller  sequence  number  (i.e.  older),  cannot  send  RREP  

AODV: RREQ & DestSeqNum

Y  
Broadcast  transmission  
[hop_count=0]  
DestSeqNum=3   Z  
S   E  
F  
B  
C   M   L  
J  
A   G  
H   D  
K  
I   N  

represents  transmission  of  RREQ  

assume  last  valid  DestSeqNum  for  D  at  S  is  3  

10
 AODV: RREQ & DestSeqNum
Y  
[hop_count=1]  
DestSeqNum=3   Z  
 
S   E  
F  
B  
C   M   L  
J  
A   G  
H   D  
K  
I   N  

represents  links  on  Reverse  Path  

AODV: RREQ & DestSeqNum

Y  

[hop_count=2]   Z  
S   DestSeqNum=3  
E  
 
F  
B  
C   M   L  
J  
A   G  
H   D  
K  
I   N  

§  node  C  receives  RREQ  from  G  and  H,  but  does  not  forward  it  again,  because  
node  C  has  already  forwarded  RREQ  once  

11
 AODV: RREQ & DestSeqNum
Y  

Z  
S   E   [hop_count=3]  
DestSeqNum=3  
F  
B    
C   M   L  
J  
A   G  
H   D  
K  
I   N  

AODV: RREQ & DestSeqNum

Y  

Z  
S   E   [hop_count=4]  
DestSeqNum=3  
F  
B    
C   M   L  
J  
A   G  
H   D  
K  
I   N  

§  node  D  does  not  forward  RREQ,  because  it  is  

itself  the  intended  target  of  the  route  discovery  

12
 AODV: RREQ & DestSeqNum
Y  

Z  
S   E  
F  
B  
C   M   L  
J  
A   G  
H   D  
K  
I   N  
[hop_count=4]  
DestSeqNum=3  
 
represents  links  on  path  taken  by  RREP  

AODV: RREQ & DestSeqNum

Y  

Z  
S   E  
F  
B  
C   M   L  
J  
A   G  
H   D  
K  
I   N  
[hop_count=4]  
DestSeqNum=3  
 
§  all  intermediate  nodes  receiving  RREP  update  their  route  tables  with  
latest  des7na7on  sequence  number  &  also  update  rou7ng  informa7on  
if  it  leads  to  a  shorter  path  

13
 AODV: RREP & DestSeqNum
RREQ,   @F  stored  rouLng  table  entry  for  D:  
DestSeqNum=3   next  hop  J,  hop_count=2,  DestSeqNum=2  
(<DestSeqNum  in  RREQ  from  S)  
S   E   èF  fw’s  RREQ  only  
F  
B  
C   M   L  
J  
A   G   D’s  own  
H   D   current  
K   SeqNum=5  
I   @G  stored  rouLng  table  entry  for  D:  
next  hop  K,  hop_count=2,  DestSeqNum=4  
(>DestSeqNum  in  RREQ  from  S)  
 èG  sends  back  RREP  

§  what  about  intermediate  nodes:  

forward  RREQ  or  send  back  RREP?  

AODV: RREP & DestSeqNum

RREQ,   @F  stored  rouLng  table  entry  for  D:  
DestSeqNum=3   next  hop  J,  hop_count=2,  DestSeqNum=2  
(<DestSeqNum  in  RREQ  from  S)  
S   E   èF  fw’s  RREQ  only  
F  
B  
C   M   L  
J  
A   G   RREQ  from  S  fw’d  by  J,  
sends  back  RREP  to  S  via  J,  
H   D   with  DestSeqNum=5  
K  
I   @G  stored  rouLng  table  entry  for  D:  
next  hop  K,  hop_count=2,  DestSeqNum=4  
(>DestSeqNum  in  RREQ  from  S)  
 èG  sends  back  RREP  

§  mulLple  RREP  packets  reach  source  (from  G  &  D)  

§  RREP  from  node  D  freshest,  source  node  S  adopts  this  route  
{hext  hop  E,  cost  4}    with  DestSeqNum=5  
§  all  intermediate  nodes  receiving  a  RREP  (here,  node  C    &  nodes  J,  F,  E)  
update  their  route  tables  with  latest  des7na7on  sequence  number  

14
 AODV: RREP & DestSeqNum
RREQ,   @F  stored  rouLng  table  entry  for  D:  
DestSeqNum=3   next  hop  J,  hop_count=2,  DestSeqNum=2  
(<DestSeqNum  in  RREQ  from  S)  
S   E   èF  fw’s  RREQ  only  
F  
B  
C   M   L  
J  
A   G   RREQ  from  S  fw’d  by  J,  
sends  back  RREP  to  S  via  J,  
H   D   with  DestSeqNum=5  
K  
I   @G  stored  rouLng  table  entry  for  D:  
next  hop  K,  hop_count=2,  DestSeqNum=4  
(>DestSeqNum  in  RREQ  from  S)  
 èG  sends  back  RREP  

§  mulLple  RREP  packets  reach  source  (from  G  &  D)  

§  RREP  from  node  D  freshest,  source  node  S  adopts  this  route  
{hext  hop  E,  cost  4}    with  DestSeqNum=5  
§  all  intermediate  nodes  receiving  a  RREP  (here,  node  C    &  nodes  J,  F,  E)  
update  their  route  tables  with  latest  des7na7on  sequence  number  

AODV: timeouts

§  rou7ng  table  entry  maintaining  a  reverse  path  is  purged  

amer  a  Lmeout  interval  
§  should  be  long  enough  to  allow  RREP  to  come  back  

§  rou7ng  table  entry  maintaining  a  forward  path  is  purged  

if  not  used  for  a  ac6ve_route_6meout  interval  
§  if  no  data  being  sent  using  a  par7cular  rou7ng  table  
entry,    that  entry  will  be  deleted  from  the  rou7ng  table  
(even  if  the  route  may  actually  s7ll  be  valid)  

15
 AODV: link failure reporting

§  neighbour  of  node  X  is  considered  acLve  for  a  rouLng  table  
entry  if  within  ac6ve_route_6meout  interval  the  neighbour  
sent  a  packet  which  was  forwarded  using  that  entry  

§  when  the  next  hop  link  in  a  rouLng  table  entry  breaks,  all  
acLve  neighbours  are  informed  

§  link  failures  are  propagated  by  means  of  Route  Error  
messages,  which  also  update  desLnaLon  sequence  numbers  

AODV: route error (RERR)

§  when  node  X  unable  to  forward  packet  P  (from  S  to  D)  on  
link  (X,Y),  it  generates  RERR  message  

§  node  X  increments  the  desLnaLon  sequence  number  for  D  

cached  at  node  X  
§  incremented  sequence  number  N  is  included  in  the  
RERR  

§  when  node  S  receives  the  RERR,  it  iniLates  a  new  route  
discovery  for  D  using  des7na7on  sequence  number  N  

§  when  node  D  receives  the  route  request  with  des7na7on  

sequence  number  N,  it  sets  its  sequence  number  to  N  
(unless  it  is  already  larger  than  N)  

16
 AODV: link failure detection
§  neighbouring  nodes  periodically  exchange  hello  messages  

§  absence  of  hello  message  used  as  indica7on  of  link  failure  

§  alterna7vely,  failure  to  receive  several  MAC-­‐level  ACKs  may  be  
used  as  indica7on  of  link  failure  

AODV: why sequence numbers?

§  to  avoid  using  old/broken  routes:  to  determine  which  route  is  newer  
§  to  prevent  formaLon  of  loops:  
A   B   C   D  

  E  
§  C  detects  broken  link,  increments  des7na7on  sequence  number  for  D,  
invalidates  known  route  to  D,  and  propagates  RERR  
§  assume  RERR  sent  by  C  is  lost  (A  doesn’t  know  about  failure  of  link  C-­‐D)  
§  now  C  performs  a  route  discovery  for  D  
§  node  A  receives  the  RREQ  (say,  via  path  C-­‐E-­‐A)  
§  without  sequence  numbers,  node  A  would  reply  since  it  knows  a  route  to  D  
via  node  B  &  this  would  result  in  a  loop  (e.g.  C-­‐E-­‐A-­‐B-­‐C  )  
§  BUT  A  will  not  reply  to  the  RREQ  (&  C  will  not  use  the  route  loop),  because  
the  DestSeqNum  for  route  to  D  stored  at  A  is  lower  than  that  in  C’s  RREQ  

17
AODV: Maintining DestSeqNum & Routing Table Entries

•  RFC  3561  (AODV  RouLng)  

hqps://www.ies.org/rfc/rfc3561.txt  
Sec7on  6.1  Maintaining  Sequence  Numbers  
Sec7on  6.2.  Route  Table  Entries  and  Precursor  Lists  

AODV optimization:#
expanding ring search

§  RREQ  are  ini7ally  sent  with  small  TTL  (7me  to  live)  field,  
to  limit  their  propaga7on  
§  DSR  also  includes  a  similar  op7miza7on  

§  if  no  RREP  received,  then  try  larger  TTL  

18
 AODV: summary

§  routes  not  included  in  packet  headers  (cf.  DSR)  

§  nodes  maintain  rou7ng  tables,  but  containing  entries  only  for  
routes  that  are  in  ac7ve  use  (cf.  DSDV)  

§  sequence  numbers  used  to  ensure  fresh,  loop-­‐free  routes  

§  at  most  one  next-­‐hop  per  des7na7on  maintained  at  each  node  
§  DSR  may  maintain  several  routes  for  a  single  des7na7on  

§  unused  routes  expire  even  if  topology  does  not  change  

AODV: Advantages

§  routes  established  on-­‐demand  (reac7ve)  

§  does  not  use  source  rou7ng,  but  maintains  rou7ng  tables  at  
each  node  à  lower  packet  header  O/H    

§  des7na7on  sequence  numbers  used  to  find  the  latest  route  
to  des7na7on  

19
 AODV: Disadvantages

§  mul7ple  RREP  in  response  to  single  RREQ  can  lead  to  heavy  
control  O/H  
 

§  periodic  beaconing  (“hello”)  leads  to  unnecessary  bandwidth  

consump7on  

Flooding of control packets

20
 Flooding of control packets

§  how  to  reduce  the  scope  of  the  route  request  flood  ?  
§  LAR  
§  query  localiza7on  
 
§  how  to  reduce  redundant  broadcasts  ?  
§  broadcast  storm  problem  

Location-Aided Routing (LAR)

[Ko  and  Vaidya,  “Loca7on-­‐aided  rou7ng  (LAR)  in  mobile  ad  hoc  networks,”  
Wireless  Networks,  2000.]  

§  exploits  locaLon  info  to  limit  scope  of  route  request  flood  
§  loca7on  informa7on  may  be  obtained  using  GPS  

§  Expected  Zone  =  region  expected  to  contain  the  current  

loca7on  of  the  des7na7on  
§  determined  based  on  poten7ally  old  loca7on  informa7on,  
and  knowledge  of  the  des7na7on’s  speed  

§  route  requests  limited  to  a  Request  Zone  that  contains  the  
Expected  Zone  and  loca7on  of  the  sender  node  
 

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 LAR: Expected Zone
X  =  last  known  loca7on  of  node  D,  at  7me  t0  
 

Y  =  loca7on  of  node  D  at  current  7me  t1,  unknown  to  node  S  
 

r  =  (t1  -­‐  t0)  *  esLmate  of  D’s  speed  

r   X  

Y  

Expected  Zone  

LAR: Request Zone

Network  Space  

Request  Zone  

r   X  

B   Y  
A  

S   Expected  Zone  

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 LAR
§  only  nodes  within  Request  Zone  forward  route  requests  
§  e.g.  node  A  does  not  forward  RREQ,  but  node  B  does  
 

§  Request  Zone  explicitly  specified  in  the  RREQ  

 

§  each  node  must    know  its  physical  locaLon  to  determine  
whether  it  is  within  the  request  zone  
 

§  if  route  discovery  using  a  given  request  zone  fails  to  find  a  
route,  sender  iniLates  another  route  discovery  (aper  a  
7meout)  using  a  larger  request  zone  
§  larger  request  zone  may  be  the  en7re  network  
 

§  rest  of  route  discovery  protocol  similar  to  DSR  

LAR variations: Adaptive Request Zone

§  each  node  may  modify  the  request  zone  included  in  the  
forwarded  request  

§  modified  request  zone  may  be  determined  using  more  

recent/accurate  informaLon,  and  may  be  smaller  than  
the  original  request  zone  

B  
Request  Zone  adapted  by  B  
S  
Request  Zone  defined  by  sender  S  

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LAR variations: Implicit Request Zone
§  in  the  previous  scheme,  a  route  request  explicitly  specified  a  
request  zone  

§  alternaLve  approach:  node  X  forwards  a  route  request  

received  from  Y,  if  node  X  is  deemed  to  be  closer  to  the  
expected  zone  as  compared  to  Y  

§  mo7va7on  is  to  aAempt  to  bring  the  route  request  physically  
closer  to  the  des7na7on  node  aper  each  forwarding  

LAR
§  basic  proposal  assumes  that,  iniLally,  loca7on  informa7on  for  
node  X  becomes  known  to  Y  only  during  a  route  discovery  
§  this  loca7on  informa7on  is  used  for  a  future  route  
discovery  
§  each  route  discovery  yields  more  updated  informa7on  
which  is  used  for  the  next  discovery  
 

VariaLons  
 

§  locaLon  informaLon  can  be  piggybacked  on  any  message  

from  Y  to  X  
§  Y  may  also  proacLvely  distribute  its  locaLon  informaLon  
(similar  to  other  protocols  discussed  later  e.g.  DREAM,  GLS)  

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 LAR: Advantages

§  reduces  scope  of  route  request  flood  

 
§  reduces  overhead  of  route  discovery  

LAR: Disadvantages

§  nodes  need  to  know  their  physical  locaLons  

§  does  not  take  into  account  possible  existence  of  

obstrucLons  for  radio  transmissions  

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