Ad Hoc Networks:#

Architectures & Protocols

Dr Ljiljana Simić
iNETS, RWTH Aachen University
SS2016

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1
 – MAC for Ad Hoc Networks [II]
#

Balanced MAC
[Ozgur  et  al.,  “Balanced  media  access  methods  for  wireless  networks,”  in  Proc.  
MobiCom  1998.]  

§  varia7on  on  p-­‐persistent  protocol  

§  a  link  access  probability  p_ij    is  assigned  to  each  link  (i,j)  
from  node  i  to  node  j  
§  p_ij    is  a  func7on  of  the  1-­‐hop  neighbors  of  node  j  and  1-­‐hop  
neighbors  of  all  neighbors  of  node  i    
§  node  i  picks  a  back-­‐off  interval,  and  when  it  counts  to  0,  
node  i  transmits  with  probability  p_ij  
§  otherwise,  it  picks  another  backoff  interval,  and  repeats  

2
 Balanced MAC

                   degree  of  node  j    

§   p_ij  is  typically    =    -­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐  
                       maximum  degree  of  all  neighbors  of  node  i  

§  with  an  excep7on  for  the  node  whose  degree  is  highest  
among  all  neighbors  of  i  
§  for  this  neighbor  k,  link  access  probability  is  set  to    
 min  (1,degree  of  i/degree  of  k)  

Balanced MAC

2/3   E   2/5  
3   3/5  
K   2/3   2/3  
D   B   2  
2/5  
1/2   3/4   2/5  
3/5  
2/3   1/2  
5   C  
J   1/5  
3/5   4   4/5  
1/3   1/4  
3/4   1   A  
1/4   F   1/2  
L   4/5   1  
1/5   2/5  
1/4   2/5  
H   G  
2  

3
 Balanced MAC

§  results  show  that  it  can  some7mes  (not  always)  improve  
fairness  

§  fairness  defini7on  used  here:  max  throughput  /  min  throughout  

§  large  fairness  index  indicates  poor  fairness  

§  does  not  seem  to  be  based  on  a  mathema,cal  argument    
§  not  clear  what  proper7es  it  sa7sfies  (approximates)  
in  general  

Estimation-based fair MAC

[Bensaou,  “Fair  medium  access  in  802.11  based  wireless  ad-­‐hoc  networks,”  in  
Proc.  MobiHoc,  2000]  
 
§  aeempts  to  equalize  throughput/weight  ra7o  for  all  nodes  

§  two  parts  of  the  algorithm  

§  fair  share  esEmaEon  
§  window  adjustment  

§  each  node  esEmates  bandwidth  (W)  

required  for  itself  &  nodes  in  its  vicinity  
§  es7ma7on  based  on  overheard  RTS,  CTS,  DATA  packets  
 

4
 Estimation-based fair MAC
§  fair  share  esEmaEon:  node  es7mates  how  much  bandwidth  
(Wi)  it  is  able  to  use,  and  the  amount  of  bandwidth  (Wo)  
used  by  by  all  other  neighbors  combined  
 

§  define:  
§  Ti  =  Wi/weight  of  i  
§  To  =  Wo/weight  assigned  to  the  group  of  neighbors  of  i  
§  fairness  index  =  Ti  /To  

§  window  adjustment:    

§  if  fairness  index  is  too  large,  cw  =  cw*2  
§  else  if  fairness  index  is  too  small,  cw  =  cw/2  
§  else  no  change  to  cw  (conten7on  window)  

Proportional Fair Contention Resolution

(PFCR)
[Nandagopal  et  al,  “Achieving  MAC  layer  fairness  in  wireless  packet  
networks,  in  Proc.  ACM  MobiCom,  2000]  
§  proporEonal  fairness:  allocate  bandwidth  Ri  to  node  i  
such  that  any  other  alloca7on  Si    has  the  following  
property:  Σi      (Si-­‐Ri)  /  Ri  <  0    

§  link  access  probability  is  dynamically  changed  depending  

on  success/failure  at  transmiKng  a  packet  
§  on  success:  link  access  probability  is  increased  by  an  
addi7ve  factor  α
§  on  failure:  link  access  probability  is  decreased  by  a  
mul7plica7ve  factor  (1-­‐β)    

5
 PFCR
§  comparison  with  Balanced  MAC  
§  both  dynamically  choose  link  access  probability,  but  
balanced  MAC  chooses  it  based  on  connec7vity,  while  
PFCR  bases  it  on  link  access  success/failure  
§  balanced  MAC  does  not  aeempt  to  achieve  any  
par7cular  formal  defini7on  of  fairness,  unlike  PFCR  

§  comparison  with  EsEmaEon-­‐based  MAC  

§  es7ma7on-­‐based  MAC  needs  an  es7mate  of  
bandwidth  used  by  other  nodes  
§  es7ma7on-­‐based  MAC  chooses  conten7on  window  
dynamically,  while  PFCR  chooses  link  access  probability  

Energy conservation

§  since  many  mobile  hosts  are  operated  by  baReries,  

MAC  protocols  which  conserve  energy  are  of  interest  

§  two  approaches  to  reduce  energy  consump7on  

§  power  save:  turn  off  wireless  interface  when  desirable  
§  power  control:  reduce  transmit  power  

6
 Power Aware Multi-Access Protocol#
with Signalling (PAMAS)
[Singh  and  Ranghavendra,  “PAMAS—power  aware  mul7-­‐access  protocol  with  
signalling  for  ad  hoc  networks,”  ACM  SIGCOMM  Computer  Communica7on  
Review,  1998]  
 

§  a  node  powers  off  its  radio  while  a  neighbor  is  

transmimng  to  someone  else  

node  A  sending  to  B  

B   node  C  stays  powered  off  

A   C  

PAMAS
§  what  should  node  C  do  when  it  wakes  up  and  finds  that  D  
is  transmimng  to  someone  else?  
§  node  C  does  not  know  how  long  the  transfer  will  last  

node  D  sending  to  E  

node  A  sending  to  B  

node  C  stays  powered  off  

B  
C  wakes  up  and  
A   C   finds  medium  busy  
D   E  

7
 PAMAS
§  uses  a  control  channel  separate  from  the  data  channel  

§  node  C  on  waking  up  performs  a  binary  probe  to  

determine  the  length  of  the  longest  remaining  transfer  
§  C  sends  a  probe  packet  with  parameter  L  
§  all  nodes  which  will  finish  transfer  in  interval  [L/2,L]  
respond  
§  depending  on  whether  node  C  sees  silence,  collision,  
or  a  unique  response,  it  takes  varying  ac7ons  

§  node  C  (using  procedure  above)  determines  the  duraEon  

of  Eme  to  go  back  to  sleep  

PAMAS: Disadvantages

§  use  of  a  separate  control  channel  

§  nodes  have  to  be  able  to  receive  on  the  control  channel  
while  they  are  transmimng  on  the  data  channel  
§  and  also  transmit  on  data  and  control  channels  
simultaneously  

§  a  node  (such  as  C)  should  be  able  to  determine  when  
probe  responses  from  mul7ple  senders  collide  

8
 PAMAS: another proposal
§  to  avoid  the  probing,  a  node  should  switch  off  the  
interface  for  data  channel,  but  not  for  the  control  channel  
(which  carries  RTS/CTS  packets)  

§  Advantage:  each  sleeping  node  always  knows  how  long  to  
sleep  by  watching  the  control  channel  

§  Disadvantage:  this  may  not  be  useful  when  hardware  is  
shared  for  the  control  and  data  channels  
§  may  not  be  possible  turn  off  much  hardware  due  to  
the  sharing  

Power save in IEEE 802.11 ad hoc mode

§  7me  is  divided  into  beacon  intervals  

ATIM  
window  

beacon  interval  

§  each  beacon  interval  begins  with  an  ATIM  window  

§  ATIM  =  Announcement  Traffic  Indica7on  Message    

9
Power save in IEEE 802.11 ad hoc mode
§  if  host  A  has  a  packet  to  transmit  to  B,  A  must  send  an  
ATIM  Request  to  B  during  an  ATIM  Window  

§  On  receipt  of  ATIM  Request  from  A,  B  will  reply  by  
sending  an  ATIM  Ack,  and  stay  up  during  the  rest  of  the  
beacon  interval  

§  if  a  host  does  not  receive  an  ATIM  Request  during  an  
ATIM  window,  and  has  no  pending  packets  to  transmit,  it  
may  sleep  during  rest  of  the  beacon  interval  

Power save in IEEE 802.11 ad hoc mode

Node  A  

ATIM   ATIM   Data   Ack  

Req   Ack  

Node  B  

Node  C   Sleep  

10
Power save in IEEE 802.11 ad hoc mode
§  size  of  ATIM  window  and  beacon  interval  affects  performance  
[Woesner,  1998]  

§  if  ATIM  window  is  too  large,  smaller  reducEon  in  energy  
consumpEon  (energy  consumed  during  ATIM  window)  

§  if  ATIM  window  is  too  small,  not  enough  Eme  to  send  ATIM  
request  

Power save in IEEE 802.11 ad hoc mode

§  how  to  choose  ATIM  window  dynamically?  
§  based  on  observed  load  [Jung,  INFOCOM  2002]  

§  how  to  synchronize  hosts?  

§  if  two  hosts’  TIM  windows  do  not  overlap  in  7me,  they  
cannot  exchange  ATIM  requests  
§  coordina7on  requires  that  each  host  stay  awake  long  
enough  (at  least  periodically)  to  discover  out-­‐of-­‐sync  
neighbours  [Tseng,  INFOCOM  2002]  

ATIM  
ATIM  

11
Power save in IEEE 802.11 ad hoc mode
§  impact  on  upper  layers:  
§  if  each  node  uses  the  802.11  power-­‐save  mechanism,  
each  hop  will  require  one  beacon  interval  
§  this  delay  may  be  intolerable  
§  allow  upper  layers  to  dictate  whether  a  node  should  
enter  the  power  save  mode  or  not  
[Chen,  MobiCom  2001]  

Energy conservation

§  power  save  

§  power  control  

12
 Power control

§  power  control  has  two  poten7al  benefits:  

§  reduced  interference  &  increased  spaEal  reuse  
§  energy  saving  

Power control
§  when  C  transmits  to  D  at  a  high  power  level,  B  cannot  
receive  A’s  transmission  due  to  interference  from  C  
 
 

A   B   C   D  

13
 Power control
§  if  C  reduces  transmit  power,  it  can  s7ll  communicate  with  D  
§  reduces  energy  consump7on  at  node  C  
§  allows  B  to  receive  A’s  transmission  (spaEal  reuse)  
 
 
 

A   B   C   D  

Power control
§  received  power  level  is  propor7onal  to  1/d  α    ,  α >= 2  

§  if  power  control  is  u7lized,  energy  required  to  transmit  to  a  
host  at  distance  d  is  propor7onal  to      
α
   d      +  constant  
 
§  shorter  hops  typically  preferred  for  energy  consumpEon  
(depending  on  the  constant)    [Rodoplu,  1999]  
§  transmit  to  C  from  A  via  B,  instead  of  directly  from  A  to  C  

A   C  
B  

14
 Power control with IEEE 802.11
§  transmit  RTS/CTS/DATA/ACK  at  lowest  power  level  
necessary  to  communicate  with  the  receiver  

A   B   C   D  

problem:  
§  A/B  do  not  receive  RTS/CTS  from  C/D  &  do  not  sense  C’s  data  
transmission  
§  B’s  transmission  to  A  at  high  power  interferes  with  recep7on  of  
ACK  at  C  

Power control with IEEE 802.11

 
 
 
 
  A   B   C   D  
 
  RTS   Data  
  Ack  
plausible  soluEon:  
§  RTS/CTS  at  highest  power  &  
DATA/ACK  at  lowest  necessary  power  level  

15
 Power control with IEEE 802.11
§  transmimng  RTS  at  the  highest  power  level  also  reduces  
spaEal  reuse  

§  nodes  receiving  RTS/CTS  have  to  defer  transmissions  

Power control with IEEE 802.11

beware:  
§  energy  saving  by  power  control  is  limited  to  savings  in  
transmit  energy  

§  other  energy  costs  may  not  change  

§  for  some  802.11  devices,  the  energy  consump7on  of  the  
wireless  interface  reduces  only  by  a  factor  of  2  when  
transmit  power  reduced  from  max  to  min  possible  for  the  
device  

16
Power Controlled Multiple Access (PCMA)
[Monks,  Bharghavan  and  Wu,“A  power  controlled  mul7ple  access  protocol  for  
wireless  packet  networks,”  in  Proc.  IEEE  INFOCOM,  2001]  

§  if  receiver  node  R  can  tolerate  noise  E,  it  sends  a  busy  
tone  at  power  level    C/E,  where  C  is  an  appropriate  
constant  
§  when  some  node  X  receives  a  busy-­‐tone  at  power  level  Pr,  
it  may  transmit  at  power  level  Pt  <=  C/Pr  

busy  tone  
R   X   Pt  
data   C/E  
Y  
S  

PCMA
 
§  explana7on:  
§  gain  of  channel  RX  =  gain  of  channel  XR  =  g  
§  busy  tone  signal  level  at  X:  Pr  =  g  *  C/E  
§  node  X  may  transmit  at  level:  Pt  =  C/Pr  =  E/g  
§  interference  received  by  R  =  Pt*g  =  E  

busy  tone  
R   X   Pt  
data   C/E  
Y  
S  

17
 PCMA

§  Advantage:  
§  allows  higher  spa7al  reuse,  as  well  as  power  saving  
using  power  control  

§  Disadvantages:  
§  need  a  separate  channel  for  the  busy  tone  
§  since  mul7ple  nodes  may  transmit  the  busy  tones  
simultaneously,  spa7al  reuse  is  less  than  op7mal  

18