Sports Med

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0907-3

CURRENT OPINION

Change of Direction Speed: Toward a Strength Training

Approach with Accentuated Eccentric Muscle Actions
Helmi Chaabene1,2 • Olaf Prieske1 • Yassine Negra3 • Urs Granacher1

Ó Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract There is growing evidence that eccentric
strength training appears to have benefits over traditional
strength training (i.e., strength training with combined
concentric and eccentric muscle actions) from muscular,
neuromuscular, tendinous, and metabolic perspectives.
Eccentric muscle strength is particularly needed to decel-
erate and stabilize the body during the braking phase of a
jump exercise or during rapid changes of direction (CoD)
tasks. However, surprisingly little research has been con-
ducted to elucidate the effects of eccentric strength training
or strength training with accentuated eccentric muscle
actions on CoD speed performance. In this current opinion
article, we present findings from cross-sectional studies on
the relationship between measures of eccentric muscle
& Urs Granacher
urs.granacher@uni-potsdam.de
Helmi Chaabene
chaabanehelmi@hotmail.fr
Olaf Prieske
prieske@uni-potsdam.de
Yassine Negra
yassinenegra@hotmail.fr
1
Division of Training and Movement Sciences, Research
Focus Cognition Sciences, University of Potsdam, Am Neuen
Palais 10, 14469 Potsdam, Germany
2
High Institute of Sports and Physical Education, Kef,
University of Jendouba, Jendouba, Tunisia
3
Research Unit ‘‘Sport Performance, Health and Society’’,
Higher Institute of Sports and Physical Education of Ksar
Said, Cleopatre city B54, Menzah9B, Tunis, Tunisia
strength and CoD speed performance. In addition, we
summarize the few available studies on the effects of
strength training with accentuated eccentric muscle actions
on CoD speed performance in athletic populations. Finally,
we propose strength training with accentuated eccentric
muscle actions as a promising element in strength and
conditioning programs of sports with high CoD speed
demands. Our findings from five cross-sectional studies
revealed statistically significant moderate- to large-sized
correlations (r = 0.45–0.89) between measures of eccentric
muscle strength and CoD speed performance in athletic
populations. The identified three intervention studies were
of limited methodological quality and reported small- to
large-sized effects (d = 0.46–1.31) of strength training with
accentuated eccentric muscle actions on CoD speed per-
formance in athletes. With reference to the available but
preliminary literature and from a performance-related point
of view, we recommend strength and conditioning coaches
to include strength training with accentuated eccentric
muscle actions in training routines of sports with high CoD
speed demands (e.g., soccer, handball, basketball, hockey)
to enhance sport-specific performance. Future comparative
studies are needed to deepen our knowledge of the effects
of strength training with accentuated eccentric muscle
actions on CoD speed performance in athletes.

123

Key Points
There is growing evidence from basic research
indicating that eccentric strength training produces
specific muscular, neuromuscular, tendinous, and
metabolic adaptations that could be beneficial for
change of direction (CoD) speed performance.
Eccentric muscle strength is especially needed to
decelerate and stabilize the body during CoD tasks.
Moderate- to large-sized correlations were found
between measures of eccentric muscle strength and
CoD speed performance in athletes.
Strength training with accentuated eccentric muscle
actions showed small- to large-sized effects on CoD
speed performance in athletes.
Future comparative studies are needed to deepen our
knowledge on the effectiveness of strength training
with accentuated eccentric muscle actions on CoD
speed performance.
1 Introduction
The capacity to quickly change direction while sprinting,
also well known as a cutting maneuver or change of
direction (CoD) speed, is an important performance
determinant in many team sports (e.g., [ice] hockey, soccer,
handball, basketball, etc.) [1]. CoD speed predominately
characterizes the ability of the athletes during running to
decelerate in the shortest possible time and to re-accelerate
quickly in a new direction [2, 3]. In this context, CoD
speed represents the physical quality of agility while per-
ceptual and decision-making factors constitute the under-
lying cognitive components of agility [4]. Previous studies
have examined whether CoD speed is related to other
physical fitness components such as speed, muscle
strength, and muscle power [4, 5]. In this context, research
findings are inconsistent with some studies showing non-
significant and low correlations between CoD speed and
measures of linear sprint and lower limb muscle strength
and power and others showing significant and high asso-
ciations between these physical qualities (for more detail
see Paul et al. [1], Sheppard & Young [4], and Brughelli
et al. [5]). In other words, the major physical determinants
of CoD speed are unresolved, which is why more research
is needed.
123
H. Chaabene et al.
In terms of the role of muscle strength and power with
CoD speed, heterogeneity in findings might be due to the
fact that studies did not explicitly differentiate between the
respective muscle actions needed to successfully perform
CoD tasks. During CoD tasks, two distinct forms of muscle
actions are required to quickly decelerate (eccentric action)
and accelerate (concentric action) the body during move-
ment. More specifically, eccentric muscle strength may
influence CoD speed performance to a high degree because
it allows athletes to quickly decelerate the body during high
movement velocities which is an important prerequisite for
the subsequent acceleration phase of the body and the
overall performance of CoD tasks [2, 6–9]. Therefore, if
the goal is to specifically enhance CoD speed performance,
researchers, strength and conditioning coaches, and prac-
titioners working with athletes strive to identify training
regimes with a practically relevant impact on CoD speed
performance. With reference to previously published study
findings [6, 7], eccentric strength training may constitute a
promising approach.
This hypothesis relates to findings from eccentric
strength training studies that elucidated specific muscular,
neuromuscular, tendinous, and metabolic adaptations,
which could be beneficial for CoD speed performances
[10, 11]. However, knowledge from these studies was not
translated to strength and conditioning professionals and
researchers. This might be due to the fact that single-mode
eccentric strength training is difficult to implement in daily
training routines because specific training machines and/or
equipment are needed. Consequently, there are no studies
available that examined the effects of single-mode eccen-
tric strength training on CoD speed performance [12–14].
The few available studies followed an approach which
applied strength training with accentuated eccentric muscle
actions. In other words, this type of training contains both
concentric and eccentric muscle actions with a specific
focus on eccentric actions. This can be achieved by over-
loading the muscle during the eccentric phase of an exer-
cise using specific eccentric overload apparatus (e.g.,
isoinertial flywheel device) [12, 14]. Thus, we postulate in
this opinion article that strength training with accentuated
eccentric muscle actions should be implemented in strength
and conditioning programs of athletic populations to sys-
tematically develop CoD speed performance.
2 Methodological Approach
A literature search was conducted in the electronic data-
bases PubMed and Google Scholar using the following
Boolean search strategy: ‘‘eccentric strength’’ OR action
OR activity AND ‘‘change of direction speed’’ OR agility.
Studies were eligible for inclusion if they examined youth,
Eccentric Strength Training Impacts Change of Direction Speed
sub-elite, or elite athletes, tested measures of eccentric
muscle strength and CoD speed performance, and applied a
form of eccentric strength training or strength training with
accentuated eccentric muscle actions. Risk of bias of the
included studies was assessed using the Physiotherapy
Evidence Database (PEDro) scale and the methodological
quality of studies was rated on a scale from 0 (high risk of
bias) to 10 (low risk of bias) with C 6 representing a cut-
off score for studies with low risk of bias [15].
3 Physiological Characteristics of Eccentric
Muscle Actions
During eccentric muscle actions, force production is higher
(20–60%) when compared with isometric or concentric
muscle actions [16, 17]. This is likely due to an increased
number of active cross-bridges which is realized through
the activation of the second (i.e., partner) myosin head to
the actin filament [18]. More specifically, Linari et al. [18]
suggested that during isometric and concentric actions only
one myosin head is bound, whereas the elevated strain
during eccentric muscle actions on a single myosin head
may facilitate the activation and subsequent docking of the
second head. In addition, it is well-documented from ani-
mal studies that an increased stiffness of the myofilament
titin is responsible for high forces during eccentric muscle
actions [19, 20].
It is noteworthy that the higher forces during eccentric
muscle actions are accompanied by lower electromyo-
graphic activity compared with concentric muscle actions
[21]. This is mainly due to a lower number of actively
recruited motor units together with lower discharge rates
during eccentric compared with concentric actions [22, 23].
In addition, there is evidence for a selective recruitment of
fast-twitch motor units during maximal eccentric muscle
actions [24, 25]. Interestingly, this recruitment strategy was
also observed during rapid and powerful CoD movements
[26]. Taken together, these neurophysiological mechanisms
suggest a unique neural control strategy underpinning
eccentric muscle actions [27]. Finally, in terms of meta-
bolic demands, eccentric muscle actions require less energy
per unit work and are therefore less demanding than con-
centric muscle actions [28–31].
4 Effects of Eccentric Strength Training
on Muscle and Tendon Tissue
It is well-documented that eccentric strength training
induces greater concentric muscle power, better stretch–
shortening cycle performance [32–34], and larger gains in
muscle mass compared with concentric strength training or
combined concentric and eccentric strength training [10].
Of note, these findings are irrespective of the participants’
training background. More specifically, it has been
demonstrated that eccentric strength training stimulates the
addition of sarcomeres in series which results in greater
muscle fascicle length [35, 36]. In addition, following
eccentric strength training, selective increases in fast-
twitch muscle fiber size have been reported [37]. More
importantly, studies even revealed selective damage of
fast-twitch muscle fibers following repetitive eccentric
muscle actions [38–40]. This may activate muscle stem
cells, i.e., satellite cells that are required for muscle repair,
regeneration, and hypertrophic growth [41]. A training-
induced increase in the cross-sectional area of fast-twitch
muscle fibers may improve the mechanical properties of
the muscle to perform rapid CoD tasks [42–44]. It has to be
noted though that a recent study [45] challenged the role of
muscle damage and satellite cell activation in muscle
hypertrophy following strength training. Therefore, more
research is needed in this area.
With respect to the training-induced adaptations in the
muscle–tendon unit, it has previously been shown that
single-mode eccentric versus single-mode concentric
strength training induces greater tendon stiffness in healthy
physical education students [46]. Of note, training-induced
adaptations of the tendon are important from a perfor-
mance- and health-related perspective. In terms of perfor-
mance, tendons play a critical role in transmitting forces
produced by the muscles to the skeletal system [47].
Waugh et al. [48] reported large-size negative correlations
of tendon stiffness with electromechanical delay and small-
to large-sized positive correlations of tendon stiffness with
rate of force development during maximal isometric con-
tractions of the plantar flexors in both youth and adults.
Therefore, greater stiffness of the tendon following
eccentric strength training [46, 49] may induce a better
transfer of forces from the muscle through the tendon to the
skeleton system [49]. This has been demonstrated to be
relevant when performing complex movements such as
CoD tasks [48]. In fact, 12 weeks of eccentric compared
with concentric strength training resulted in significant
increases in tendon cross-sectional area in recreationally
trained healthy males [49]. These training-induced adap-
tations in the tendon improve the storage and return of
elastic strain energy during performance of the stretch–
shortening cycle movement [10]. In terms of health, pre-
vious studies demonstrated imbalanced musculotendinous
adaptations due to mechanical loading (sports with high
plyometric demands) and/or maturation (i.e., growth spurt)
in adolescent athletes [47, 50, 51]. Such imbalances may
increase the risk of sustaining tendon overuse injuries (i.e.,
tendinopathies) [50]. As such, eccentric strength training
123

has proven to be an effective means for injury prevention
of the muscle–tendon unit, particularly in adolescent ath-
letes [46, 49].
5 Relationship Between CoD Speed Performance
and Eccentric Strength
It has previously been shown that high levels of eccentric
muscle strength are needed to decelerate the human body
from high movement velocities to allow rapid CoD
movements [52]. Other influencing factors of CoD speed
performance are dynamic balance, muscle power, and
reactive strength [52]. While there are conflicting findings
in the literature on the relationship between measures of
CoD speed, linear sprint ability, muscle strength, and
muscle power [1, 4, 5], there is consistent evidence for the
relationship between variables of eccentric muscle strength
and CoD speed performance [2, 6–8, 52]. For instance,
Jones et al. [8] demonstrated a significant and large-sized
correlation (r = 0.63; p \ 0.01) between maximal eccen-
tric muscle strength of the knee flexors and CoD speed
performance (i.e., 505 test) in physical education students
aged 21 years. In elite female basketball players aged
24 years, Spiteri et al. [7] studied the relationship between
measures of muscle strength (i.e., concentric one repetition
maximum [1RM] during a back squat exercise, eccentric
1RM during a back squat exercise, and maximal isometric
force of the quadriceps), muscle power (i.e., counter-
movement jump relative power) and CoD speed perfor-
mance (i.e., T test and 505 test) and found significant and
large-sized correlations between maximal eccentric
strength of the leg extensors and performance in the 505
test (r = - 0.89; p \ 0.001) and the T test (r = - 0.88;
p \ 0.001). Moreover, findings from regression equations
revealed a high predictive potential of maximal eccentric
leg muscle strength on 505 and T test performances (T test:
R2 = 79.5%; 505 test: R2 = 77.1%) [7]. With reference to
these findings, it can be concluded that eccentric muscle
strength is needed to tolerate braking loads or braking
capacity to optimize CoD performance.
In another study, Spiteri et al. [2] examined differences
in ground reaction forces and impulses using a triaxial
force plate during a 45° CoD speed test in recreationally
trained team sport players with high (males: 24 years,
females: 20 years) and low muscle strength levels (males:
23 years, females: 21 years). Results of this study showed
that players with high strength levels were able to produce
greater eccentric muscle strength during the braking phase.
Spiteri et al. [2] concluded that eccentric muscle strength
represents a major determinant of CoD speed performance.
It has to be noted though that the findings of the Spiteri
et al. [2] study have to be interpreted with caution because
123
H. Chaabene et al.
these authors did not clarify whether the reported between-
group differences (high vs. low strength levels) reached the
level of significance. In another study, Naylor and Greig
[6] examined the relationship between maximal eccentric
hamstring strength using an isokinetic dynamometer at
various angular velocities (i.e., 60°/s, 180°/s, and 300°/s)
and CoD speed performance (i.e., T test and deceleration
test) in male university-level team sport players aged
22 years. These authors found significant moderate- to
large-sized associations between maximal eccentric ham-
string strength and CoD speed performance (T test:
r = 0.56–0.78, p B 0.01; deceleration test: r = 0.45–0.56,
p B 0.05). More recently, Jones et al. [53] studied the
relationship between maximal eccentric muscle strength of
the knee flexors and extensors at 60°/s and CoD speed
performance (i.e., 180° CoD speed test) in female elite
soccer players aged 22 years. These authors observed sig-
nificant large-sized correlations of eccentric knee flexor
(r = 0.60, p \ 0.05) and extensor strength (r = 0.67,
p \ 0.01) with CoD speed performance.
Taken together, these findings clearly show associations
between measures of eccentric muscle strength and CoD
speed performance, which is why strength training with
accentuated eccentric muscle actions could be an adequate
means to improve CoD speed performance [2, 7, 8]. Thus,
longitudinal studies are needed to determine whether these
cross-sectional findings regarding eccentric muscle
strength and CoD speed performance truly reflect deter-
ministic/causative relationships.
6 Effects of Strength Training with Accentuated
Eccentric Muscle Actions on CoD Speed
Performance
Our literature search revealed three studies that examined
the effects of strength training with accentuated eccentric
muscle actions on CoD speed performance in athletes
[12–14]. The methodological quality of the included
studies was rather low with a median PEDro score of 4. For
instance, Lockie et al. [13] applied a training program with
elements of speed and agility training that specifically
afforded eccentric muscle actions during rapid decelera-
tions in recreationally trained male (23 years) and female
(25 years) team sport athletes. These authors demonstrated
significant CoD speed performance improvements (i.e.,
change of direction and acceleration test [CoDAT] and
T-test) after 6 weeks of training (CoDAT: effect size
[ES] = 1.31; T test: ES = 0.96), which is comparable to the
results that were found for traditional speed and agility
training (CoDAT: ES = 0.96; T test: ES = 0.51). Likewise,
de Hoyo et al. [12] studied the effects of a 10-week
strength training with accentuated eccentric muscle actions
Eccentric Strength Training Impacts Change of Direction Speed
Fig. 1 Model of change of
direction speed performance
determinants, modified from
Sheppard and Young [4]
using an isoinertial flywheel-training device on kinetic
parameters (e.g., vertical ground reaction force, eccentric
impulse, total impulse) during CoD tasks (i.e., cross-over
and side-step cutting maneuvers) in young soccer players
aged 17 years. Results from this study showed significant
improvements in CoD speed kinetics following training
(cross-over maneuver: ES = 0.46–1.34; side-step cutting
maneuver: ES = 0.48–1.24) with no substantial improve-
ments in the control group (cross-over maneuver: ES =
0.07–0.16; side-step cutting maneuver: ES = 0.03–0.32).
Similarly, Tous-Fajardo et al. [14] studied the effects of an
11 week strength training with accentuated isoinertial
eccentric muscle actions and additional whole body
vibration versus conventional combined training that
included plyometrics, linear speed, and weight-loaded
exercises on CoD speed performance (i.e., V cut test) in
elite young soccer players aged 17 years. Findings of this
study demonstrated that strength training with accentuated
eccentric muscle actions in combination with vibration
stimuli improved CoD speed performance (ES = 1.22)
more than conventional training (ES = 0.24).
Taken together, the few studies that examined the
effects of strength training with accentuated eccentric
muscle actions on CoD speed performance in athletes
consistently reported significant and practically relevant
training effects compared with active control groups.
Findings from the above-mentioned cross-sectional and
longitudinal studies afford that a well-established and
already published model on the main determinants of CoD
speed performance [4] needs a subtle revision. In their
model, Sheppard and Young [4] considered several ‘‘leg
muscle qualities’’ namely reactive muscle strength, con-
centric muscle strength, muscle power, and left–right
muscle imbalance as important CoD speed determinants. In
this opinion paper, we have identified substantial associa-
tions between variables of eccentric muscle strength and
CoD speed performance. Moreover, we have summarized
evidence (albeit limited) from strength training studies
using accentuated eccentric muscle actions that clearly
show the potential of this type of training to improve CoD
speed performance. Therefore, we attempted to include
findings from these studies in the existing model of
Sheppard and Young [4] (Fig. 1).
7 Toward a Strength Training Approach
with Accentuated Eccentric Actions
To optimize CoD speed performance, the capacity to
rapidly accelerate and decelerate the human body through
concentric and eccentric muscle actions is paramount.
While the effects of traditional strength training programs
(i.e., strength training with combined concentric and
eccentric muscle actions) or isometric strength training on
CoD speed performance have been studied extensively in
the past, there is a void in the literature on the role of
eccentric strength training and/or strength training with
accentuated eccentric muscle actions on CoD speed per-
formance in athletes. This is somewhat surprising because
findings from basic research proved the effectiveness of
eccentric strength training on muscular, neuromuscular,
tendinous, and metabolic adaptations. However, these
findings have not been translated into applied research.
With reference to the available (albeit preliminary) litera-
ture, it seems reasonable to consider strength training with
accentuated eccentric muscle actions as an important
means to improve athletes’ ability to stop, cut and go. From
a practitioner’s point of view, strength training with
accentuated eccentric muscle actions can be realized using
specific eccentric overload apparatus such as isoinertial
flywheel devices [12, 14]. However, strength training with
concentric muscle actions should not be ignored as it is
needed to accelerate the body during CoD tasks.
8 Conclusion
This current opinion article calls for more research in the
field of strength training and how it impacts and optimizes
CoD speed performance. More specifically, we identified a
lack of studies and/or ignorance of researchers on the role
of eccentric muscle strength for the development of CoD
speed performance. Therefore, we strongly recommend
that more attention be paid to the potential effects of
strength training with accentuated eccentric muscle actions
on CoD speed performance in athletes. In view of the
promising findings from the identified cross-sectional and
123

intervention studies, we recommend that researchers
devote more attention to this field of research by con-
ducting comparative studies on the effects of strength
training with accentuated eccentric muscle actions versus
traditional strength training on CoD speed performance in
youth and adult athletes.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Funding No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation
of this article.
Conflicts of Interest Helmi Chaabene, Olaf Prieske, Yassine Negra,
and Urs Granacher declare that they have no conflicts of interest
relevant to the content of this article.
Author Contributions All authors met the authorship criteria for
this journal and each author made a significant contribution to the
final version of this paper.
References
1. Paul DJ, Gabbett TJ, Nassis GP. Agility in team sports: testing,
training and factors affecting performance. Sports Med.
2016;46(3):421–42.
2. Spiteri T, Cochrane JL, Hart NH, Haff GG, Nimphius S. Effect of
strength on plant foot kinetics and kinematics during a change of
direction task. Eur J Sport Sci. 2013;13(6):646–52.
3. Chaabene H. Change of Direction Tasks: does the eccentric
muscle contraction really matter. Sci Pages Sports Med.
2017;1(1):1–2.
4. Sheppard JM, Young WB. Agility literature review: classifica-
tions, training and testing. J Sports Sci. 2006;24(9):919–32.
5. Brughelli M, Cronin J, Levin G, Chaouachi A. Understanding
change of direction ability in sport: a review of resistance training
studies. Sports Med. 2008;38(12):1045–63.
6. Naylor J, Greig M. A hierarchical model of factors influencing a
battery of agility tests. J Sports Med Phys Fit.
2015;55(11):1329–35.
7. Spiteri T, Nimphius S, Hart NH, Specos C, Sheppard JM, Newton
RU. Contribution of strength characteristics to change of direc-
tion and agility performance in female basketball athletes.
J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(9):2415–23.
8. Jones P, Bampouras TM, Marrin K. An investigation into the
physical determinants of change of direction speed. J Sports Med
Phys Fit. 2009;49(1):97–104.
9. Green BS, Blake C, Caulfield BM. A comparison of cutting
technique performance in rugby union players. J Strength Cond
Res. 2011;25(10):2668–80.
10. Douglas J, Pearson S, Ross A, McGuigan M. Chronic adaptations
to eccentric training: a systematic review. Sports Med.
2017;47(5):917–41.
11. Franchi MV, Reeves ND, Narici MV. Skeletal muscle remodeling
in response to eccentric vs. concentric loading: morphological,
molecular, and metabolic adaptations. Front Physiol. 2017;8:447.
12. de Hoyo M, Sanudo B, Carrasco L, Mateo-Cortes J, Dominguez-
Cobo S, Fernandes O, et al. Effects of 10-week eccentric overload
training on kinetic parameters during change of direction in
football players. J Sports Sci. 2016;34(14):1380–7.
13. Lockie RG, Schultz AB, Callaghan SJ, Jeffriess MD. The effects
of traditional and enforced stopping speed and agility training on
123
H. Chaabene et al.
multidirectional speed and athletic function. J Strength Cond Res.
2014;28(6):1538–51.
14. Tous-Fajardo J, Gonzalo-Skok O, Arjol-Serrano JL, Tesch P.
Enhancing change-of-direction speed in soccer players by func-
tional inertial eccentric overload and vibration training. Int J
Sports Physiol Perform. 2016;11(1):66–73.
15. Maher CG, Sherrington C, Herbert RD, et al. Reliability of the
PEDro scale for rating quality of randomized controlled trials.
Phys Ther. 2003;83(8):713–21.
16. Hollander DB, Kraemer RR, Kilpatrick MW, Ramadan ZG,
Reeves GV, Francois M, et al. Maximal eccentric and concentric
strength discrepancies between young men and women for
dynamic resistance exercise. J Strength Cond Res.
2007;21(1):34–40.
17. Hortobagyi T, Katch FI. Eccentric and concentric torque-velocity
relationships during arm flexion and extension. Influence of
strength level. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol.
1990;60(5):395–401.
18. Linari M, Lucii L, Reconditi M, Casoni ME, Amenitsch H,
Bernstorff S, et al. A combined mechanical and X-ray diffraction
study of stretch potentiation in single frog muscle fibres. J Phys-
iol. 2000;01(526 Pt 3):589–96.
19. Herzog W. The role of titin in eccentric muscle contraction. J Exp
Biol. 2014;217(Pt 16):2825–33.
20. Hessel AL, Lindstedt SL, Nishikawa KC. Physiological mecha-
nisms of eccentric contraction and its applications: a role for the
giant titin trotein. Front Physiol. 2017;8:70.
21. Bigland-Ritchie B, Woods JJ. Integrated electromyogram and
oxygen uptake during positive and negative work. J Physiol.
1976;260(2):267–77.
22. Duchateau J, Enoka RM. Neural control of lengthening con-
tractions. J Exp Biol. 2016;219(Pt 2):197–204.
23. Pasquet B, Carpentier A, Duchateau J, Hainaut K. Muscle fatigue
during concentric and eccentric contractions. Muscle Nerve.
2000;23(11):1727–35.
24. Nardone A, Romano C, Schieppati M. Selective recruitment of
high-threshold human motor units during voluntary isotonic
lengthening of active muscles. J Physiol. 1989;409:451–71.
25. Howell JN, Fuglevand AJ, Walsh ML, Bigland-Ritchie B. Motor
unit activity during isometric and concentric-eccentric contrac-
tions of the human first dorsal interosseus muscle. J Neurophys-
iol. 1995;74(2):901–4.
26. ter Haar Romeny BM, Denier van der Gon JJ, Gielen CC.
Changes in recruitment order of motor units in the human biceps
muscle. Exp Neurol. 1982;78(2):360–8.
27. Douglas J, Pearson S, Ross A, McGuigan M. Eccentric exercise:
physiological characteristics and acute responses. Sports Med.
2017;47(4):663–75.
28. Dufour SP, Lampert E, Doutreleau S, Lonsdorfer-Wolf E, Billat
VL, Piquard F, et al. Eccentric cycle exercise: training applica-
tion of specific circulatory adjustments. Med Sci Sports Exerc.
2004;36(11):1900–6.
29. Penailillo L, Blazevich A, Numazawa H, Nosaka K. Metabolic
and muscle damage profiles of concentric versus repeated
eccentric cycling. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45(9):1773–81.
30. Perrey S, Betik A, Candau R, Rouillon JD, Hughson RL. Com-
parison of oxygen uptake kinetics during concentric and eccentric
cycle exercise. J Appl Physiol. 2001;91(5):2135–42.
31. Hoppeler H. Moderate load eccentric exercise: a distinct novel
training modality. Front Physiol. 2016;7:483.
32. Gross M, Luthy F, Kroell J, Muller E, Hoppeler H, Vogt M.
Effects of eccentric cycle ergometry in alpine skiers. Int J Sports
Med. 2010;31(8):572–6.
33. Elmer S, Hahn S, McAllister P, Leong C, Martin J. Improvements
in multi-joint leg function following chronic eccentric exercise.
Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2012;22(5):653–61.
Eccentric Strength Training Impacts Change of Direction Speed
34. Liu C, Chen CS, Ho WH, Fule RJ, Chung PH, Shiang TY. The
effects of passive leg press training on jumping performance,
speed, and muscle power. J Strength Cond Res.
2013;27(6):1479–86.
35. Blazevich AJ, Cannavan D, Coleman DR, Horne S. Influence of
concentric and eccentric resistance training on architectural
adaptation in human quadriceps muscles. J Appl Physiol.
2007;103(5):1565–75.
36. Franchi MV, Atherton PJ, Reeves ND, Fluck M, Williams J,
Mitchell WK, et al. Architectural, functional and molecular
responses to concentric and eccentric loading in human skeletal
muscle. Acta Physiol (Oxf). 2014;210(3):642–54.
37. Vogt M, Hoppeler HH. Eccentric exercise: mechanisms and
effects when used as training regime or training adjunct. J Appl
Physiol. 2014;116(11):1446–54.
38. Linnamo V, Bottas R, Komi PV. Force and EMG power spectrum
during and after eccentric and concentric fatigue. J Electromyo-
graphy Kinesiol. 2000;10(5):293–300.
39. Fridén J, Sjöström M, Ekblom B. Myofibrillar damage following
intense eccentric exercise in man. Int J Sports Med.
1983;4(3):170–6.
40. Felici F, Colace L, Sbriccoli P. Surface EMG modifications after
eccentric exercise. J Electromyography Kinesiol.
1997;7(3):193–202.
41. Blaauw B, Reggiani C. The role of satellite cells in muscle
hypertrophy. J Muscle Res Cell Motil. 2014;35(1):3–10.
42. Mohr M, Thomassen M, Girard O, Racinais S, Nybo L. Muscle
variables of importance for physiological performance in com-
petitive football. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2016;116(2):251–62.
43. Thorstensson A, Larsson L, Tesch P, Karlsson J. Muscle strength
and fiber composition in athletes and sedentary men. Med Sci
Sports. 1977;9(1):26–30.
44. Bosco C, Komi PV. Mechanical characteristics and fiber com-
position of human leg extensor muscles. Eur J Appl Physiol
Occup Physiol. 1979;41(4):275–84.
45. Damas F, Libardi CA, Ugrinowitsch C. The development of
skeletal muscle hypertrophy through resistance training: the role
of muscle damage and muscle protein synthesis. Eur J Appl
Physiol. 2018;118(3):485–500.
46. Malliaras P, Kamal B, Nowell A, Farley T, Dhamu H, Simpson
V, et al. Patellar tendon adaptation in relation to load-intensity
and contraction type. J Biomech. 2013;46(11):1893–9.
47. Mersmann F, Bohm S, Schroll A, Marzilger R, Arampatzis A.
Athletic training affects the uniformity of muscle and tendon
adaptation during adolescence. J Appl Physiol.
2016;121(4):893–9.
48. Waugh CM, Korff T, Fath F, Blazevich AJ. Rapid force pro-
duction in children and adults: mechanical and neural contribu-
tions. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45(4):762–71.
49. Farup J, Rahbek SK, Vendelbo MH, Matzon A, Hindhede J,
Bejder A, et al. Whey protein hydrolysate augments tendon and
muscle hypertrophy independent of resistance exercise contrac-
tion mode. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2014;24(5):788–98.
50. Mersmann F, Bohm S, Arampatzis A. Imbalances in the devel-
opment of muscle and tendon as risk factor for tendinopathies in
youth athletes: a review of current evidence and concepts of
prevention. Front Physiol. 2017;8:987.
51. Mersmann F, Bohm S, Schroll A, Boeth H, Duda GN, Arampatzis
A. Muscle and tendon adaptation in adolescent athletes: a lon-
gitudinal study. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2017;27(1):75–82.
52. Kovacs MS, Roetert EP, Ellenbecker TS. Efficient deceleration:
the forgotten factor in tennis-specific training. Strength Cond J.
2008;30(6):58–69.
53. Jones PA, Thomas C, Dos’Santos T, McMahon JJ. Graham-Smith
P The role of eccentric strength in 180° turns in female soccer
players. Sports. 2017;5(2):42.
123