Syllabus: Application of nuclear techniques: Application in medical science (e.g.

, MRI, PET,
Projection Imaging Gamma Camera, radiation therapy), Archaeology, Art, Crime detection,
Mining and oil. Industrial Uses: Tracing, Gauging, Material Modification, Sterization, Food
preservation.

Introduction: Nuclear medicine, along with nuclear energy production, are the best known and
widely accepted applications of nuclear techniques. Use of radiation and radioisotopes in medicine
particularly for diagnosis (identification) and therapy (treatment) of various medical conditions are
known to many of us.

Radioisotopes: Isotopes are variants of a given chemical element that have nuclei with the same
number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons. Some isotopes are referred to as 'stable' as
they are unchanging over time. Others are 'unstable' or radioactive since their nuclei change over
time through the loss of alpha and beta particles. The attributes of naturally decaying atoms, known
as ‘radioisotopes’, give such atoms several applications across many aspects of modern day life.

“Story: The firrst practical application of a radioisotope was made by a Hungarian man named
George de Hevesy in 1911. At the time de Hevesy was a young student working in Manchester,
studying naturally radioactive materials. Not having much money he lived in modest
accommodation and ate his meals with his landlady. He began to suspect that some of the meals that
appeared regularly might be made from leftovers from the preceding days or even weeks, but he
could never be sure. To try and confirm his suspicions de Hevesy put a small amount of radioactive
material into the remains of a meal. Several days later, when the same dish was served again, he
used a simple radiation detection instrument – a gold leaf electroscope –to check if the food was
radioactive. It was, and de Hevesy's suspicions were confirmed.
He won the Nobel prize in 1943 and the Atoms for Peace award in 1959.”

Diagnosis: Diagnostic techniques in nuclear medicine use radiopharmaceuticals (or radiotracers)

which emit gamma rays from within the body. These tracers are generally short-lived isotopes
linked to chemical compounds which permit specific physiological processes to be scrutinised.

Dependent on the type of examination, radiotracers are either injected into the body, swallowed, or
inhaled in gaseous form. The emissions from the radiotracers are detected by the imaging device,
which provides pictures and molecular information. The superimposition of nuclear medicine
images with computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans can provide
comprehensive views to physicians to aid diagnosis.

An advantage of nuclear over X-ray techniques is that both bone and soft tissue can be imaged very
successfully.

Radioisotopes such as Carbon-11, Zirconium-89 and Fluoride-18 are used for PET (Proton
Emission Tomography) scans, Cripton-81m is used to obtain images from lung performance,
Strontium-89 for bone cancer therapy, Iodine-131 for thyroid cancer,

The most widely used diagnostic radioisotope is technetium-99m, with a half-life of six hours, and
which gives the patient a very low radiation dose. Such isotopes are ideal for tracing many bodily
processes with the minimum of discomfort for the patient. They are widely used to indicate tumours
and to study the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, blood circulation and volume, and bone structure.
 Some Commonly Used Radioisotopes in Medicine

*SPECT -Single Photon Emission Computerized Tomography

Radio-Therapy: This is a medical specialty that uses the application of ionizing radiations with
curative means for the destruction of malignant tissue and tumors. Most commonly, radioactive
iodine (I-131) is used in small amounts to treat cancer and other conditions affecting the thyroid
gland.

The uses of radioisotopes in therapy are comparatively few, but important. Cancerous growths are
sensitive to damage by radiation, which may be external (using a gamma beam from a cobalt-60
source), or internal (using a small gamma or beta radiation source). Short-range radiotherapy is
known as brachytherapy, and this is becoming the main means of treatment. Many therapeutic
procedures are palliative, usually to relieve pain.

A new field is targeted alpha therapy (TAT), especially for the control of dispersed cancers. The
short range of very energetic alpha emissions in tissue means that a large fraction of that radiative
energy goes into the targeted cancer cells via a carrier, such as a monoclonal antibody which takes
the alpha-emitting radionuclide to exactly the right places.

Gammagraphy: Once the radiopharmaceutical has been administered to the patient, and thanks to
its special affinity, it fixes itself to the organ that is to be studied and then emits gamma radiation,
which is then detected by a gammachamber via a detector placed over the organ under exploration.
These signals are transformed by a computer attached to the equipment, which permits the spatial
representation of the organ. Diagnosis by nuclear images provides unique information on the
performance of diverse organs, such as the heart, thyroid gland, kidneys, liver and the brain, and it
also makes it possible to diagnose a wide range of tumors.

Sterilisation: Hospitals use gamma radiation to sterilise medical products and supplies such as
syringes, gloves, clothing, and instruments that would otherwise be damaged by heat sterilisation.

Many medical products today are sterilised by gamma rays from a cobalt-60 source, a technique
which generally is much cheaper and more effective than steam heat sterilisation. The disposable
syringe is an example of a product sterilised by gamma rays. Because it is a 'cold' process, radiation
can be used to sterilise a range of heat-sensitive items such as powders, ointments, and solutions, as
well as biological preparations such as bone, nerve, skin, etc, used in tissue grafts.
The benefit to humanity of sterilisation by radiation is tremendous. It is safer and cheaper because it
can be done after the item is packaged. The sterile shelf life of the item is then practically inde nite
provided the package is not broken open. Apart from syringes, medical products sterilised by
radiation include cotton wool, burn dressings, surgical gloves, heart valves, bandages, plastic and
rubber sheets, and surgical instruments.

Characteristics of some radioisotopes:

a) Cobalt-60: Cobalt-60 is an emitter of energetic γ photons, and is produced by bombarding

(stable) cobalt-59 with neutrons:

The neutron flux is obtained inside a nuclear reactor, where some of the absorber bars are replaced
by cobalt-59 bars. Cobalt-60 is unstable and decays into nickel-60.

In this reaction, gamma photons are emitted with energies of 1.3 MeV and 1.1 MeV in equal
propotions.

b) Technetium-99m: Technetium-99m is a γ emitter, obtained from the decay of molybdenum-99;

this is a product of uranium-235 fission in nuclear reactors:

Molybdenum-99 is chemically separated from other fission products and decays into metastable
technetium:

The metastable tecnetium 99mTc emits gamma photons with 140 keV and decays with a half-life of 6
hours to the ground state of technetium-99.

Technetium-99 further decays into ruthenium-99 with a beta emission, the helf-life of this emission
is long (2.11 x 103 years), therefore radioactivity is very low.
c) Iodine-131: Iodine 131 decyas into xenon-131 (excited state) by emission of beta particle, with
energy of 6060 keV, then xenon decays into ground state by emission of a gamma photon
with energy of 364.5 keV and half-life of 12 days.

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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI):

What is MRI?

MRI is a non-invasive medical imaging technique that uses a magnetic field and computer-
generated radio waves to create detailed images of the organs and tissues in our body. MRI is also
called Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR). It can give different kinds of images based on the
pulse sequence. MRI is capable of complete body scans, but commonly used for brain.

How does MRI work?

The human body is mostly water. Water molecules (H2O) contain hydrogen nuclei (protons), which
become aligned in a magnetic field. An MRI scanner applies a very strong magnetic field (about 0.2
to 3 teslas), which aligns the proton "spins."
The scanner also produces a radio frequency (typically 40-130 MHz) a current that creates a
varying magnetic field. The protons absorb the energy from the magnetic field and flip their spins.
When the field is turned off, the protons gradually return to their normal spin, a process called
precession. The return process produces a radio signal that can be measured by receivers in the
scanner and made into an image.

The time it takes for the protons to realign with the magnetic field, as well as the amount of energy
released, changes depending on the environment and the chemical nature of the molecules.
Physicians are able to tell the difference between various types of tissues based on these magnetic
properties.
To obtain an MRI image, a patient is placed inside a large magnet and must remain very still during
the imaging process in order not to blur the image. Contrast agents (often containing the element
Gadolinium) may be given to a patient intravenously before or during the MRI to increase the speed
at which protons realign with the magnetic field. The faster the protons realign, the brighter the
image.

Youtube link on understanding MRI principle.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1CGzk-nV06g
What is MRI used for?
MRI scanners are particularly well suited to image the non-bony parts or soft tissues of the body.
The brain, spinal cord and nerves, as well as muscles, ligaments, and tendons are seen much more
clearly with MRI than with regular x-rays and CT scan; for this reason MRI is often used to image
knee and shoulder injuries.
In the brain, MRI can differentiate between white matter and grey matter and can also be used to
diagnose aneurysms and tumors. Because MRI does not use x-rays or other radiation, it is the
imaging modality of choice when frequent imaging is required for diagnosis or therapy, especially
in the brain. However, MRI is more expensive than x-ray imaging or CT scanning.
One kind of specialized MRI is functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI.) This is used to
observe brain structures and determine which areas of the brain “activate” (consume more oxygen)
during various cognitive tasks. It is used to advance the understanding of brain organization and
offers a potential new standard for assessing neurological status and neurosurgical risk.

MRI Safety and Risks:

Unlike other imaging forms like X-rays or CT (Computed Tomography) scans, MRI doesn't use
ionizing radiation. MRI is also increasingly being used to image fetuses during pregnancy, and no
adverse effects on the fetus have been demonstrated. Still, the procedure can have risks, and
medical societies don't recommend using MRI as the first stage of diagnosis.

Because MRI uses strong magnets, any kind of metal implant, such as a pacemaker, artificial joints,
artificial heart valves, cochlear implants or metal plates, screws or rods, pose a hazard. The implant
can move or heat up in the magnetic field.

Also the constant flipping of magnetic fields can produce loud clicking or beeping noises, so ear
protection is necessary during the scan.