Geographies of the Orchestra

Author(s): David B. Knight

Source: GeoJournal , 2006, Vol. 65, No. 1/2, Geography & Music (2006), pp. 33-53
Published by: Springer

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41148021

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 GeoJournal (2006) 65: 33-53 © Springer 2006
DOI 10.1007/810708-006-0011-3

Geographies of the Orchestra

David B. Knight
1384, Elora, Ontario, NOB ISO, Canada; Autho

Key words: Orchestra, performance, scale, spat

Abstract

Chamber and symphony orchestras are considered from four scales of generalization. The macro scale outlines the
origins and dispersals of the institution, from ancient times to the present. The meso scale identifies locations for
performance, principally halls and their space needs, but also outdoor locations. The mini scale identifies con-
trasting orchestral spatial organizations, interactions among the musicians, between players and conductor, and
issues of gender and race. The micro scale explores the individual musician's use of space, which becomes a personal
place. The interplay between these scales is complex.

Introduction Geographies of the mind, and sources

An orchestra is an organized group of musicians thatTo some extent, this paper is concerned with geogra-
performs music written for the individual instruments or
phies of the mind. This implies perceptions of space and
groups of instruments that comprise the orchestra. this pertains most certainly to how we approach the
Orchestral music makes sense only when performed as ageography of orchestras at the two smallest scales. I
whole by the group in the manner required by thedraw on several sources, especially participant obser-
composer. It is generally performed with direction fromvation, since I have played in orchestras of one kind or
a conductor. This examination of the orchestra tackles another for more than 45 years. My first university
an aspect of geosophy hitherto untouched by geogra- appointment was to a Department of Music; geography
phers.1 came later. Insights are drawn from countless perform-
Four scales of generalization are used to uncover the ing experiences and personal interactions with hundreds
"geographies of the orchestra". At a macro scale, I of instrumentalists and numerous conductors.
consider some historical and distributional aspects of
the institution of the orchestra. At a meso scale, I con- The orchestra: two sizes
sider the performance spaces of orchestras. At the mini
scale, I look at interactions between players and the The term orchestra when used to describe any non-
conductor, among players, and between the orchestras western group (e.g., a gamelan orchestra or an orchestra
and the audience as well as ways in which some com- composed of traditional Chinese instruments) is exclu-
posers demand that the internal geography of both the ded from the discussion. My concern is with the Western
orchestra and the performing space itself are to be orchestra. The Baroque orchestra of about 15 players
manipulated to attain a particular effect. Issues of gen- (strings and two or three woodwinds and brass led from
der and race are also identified. Finally, at the micro a harpsichord, or continuo gave way to the first of two
scale, attention is given to performers as individuals, orchestras considered here: the chamber orchestra fol-
noting how they organize themselves within "their" lowed, in time, by the larger symphony orchestra.
space and in relation to others in the orchestra. Scale is a Chamber orchestras have normally have between 24 and
tricky concept to use when discussing orchestras, as it 35 members with between 11 and 22 string players, 12
can be defined in so many ways. For example, the micro woodwinds and brass, and timpani. This composition
space of a flute player cannot be understood without also forms the core of the modern symphony orchestra,
reference to other players and the whole orchestra, at which normally has between 70 and 110 members,
the mini scale. Clearly, scale is arbitrary, but it is a usually towards the larger end, though some orchestras
useful device to assist this discussion of orchestra lie between the chamber and symphony sizes. A full-
geographies. sized symphony orchestras have over 60 string players

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34

and there are more many woodwinds and brass, large ensembles of players. From 1725 on, when not
including instruments such as piccolo, cor anglais, tubainvolved with opera, the Paris orchestra performed the
or harp, that are not usually found in a chamber famous Concerts spirituel to great public adulation.
orchestra. The specific composition of an orchestraAudiences for orchestral performances across Europe
varies according to the demands of the individual were initially aristocrats but, by the end of the 17th
composer, who may call for additional or unconven- century, also anyone who could pay for the privilege of
tional instruments, necessitating employing aditionalhearing a performance.
musicians for a performance. Many royal and princely courts with orchestras
became important nodes of musical performance,
notably those in Paris (Lully), Hanover and London
Macro scale (Handel), Mannheim (Stamitz), and Vienna (Haydn,
Mozart). Performances also occurred in churches, the-
Origins and dispersals atres, musicians' homes, and "music rooms" (some of
which could seat 1000), organized by church and musi-
Many cultural geographers delight in tracing the cians' groups, notably in Leipzig (J.S. Bach) and Ham-
origins
and dispersals of aspects of culture (Wagner and burg
Mi-(Telemann, C.P.E. Bach). Two broad regions
kesell, 1962) but while the history of music and developed. In the Protestant North there occurred a
orchestras is extensive (e.g., Hindley, 1971; Hurd, 1980; uniting of the intellectual and emotional drives of the
Kruckenberg, 1993; Peyser, 2000; Sadie, 2001; Scholes,human spirit and the remarkable use of counterpoint,
1970; Stauffer, 2000; Struble, 1995; Weaver, 2000) thecarried to its zenith in the works by J.S. Bach. In con-
historical geographic study of orchestras has yet to betrast, in the Catholic South, there developed a light,
written. Mere hints are possible here. elegant style of composition, by Corelli and Vivaldi,
Performances by groups of musicians are ancient,among others, that reflected the courtly style of the
dating from pre-Biblical times (Braun, 2002). Orchestra,French and Italians and the high baroque style found in
of Greek derivation, connotes the large semicircular all of the arts (painting, poetry, and architecture). It was
area in front of the stage in which the chorus sang andin the South that there later arose the great Viennese
danced. Instrumentalists were also located there. In the schools led by Haydn and Mozart.
early 1700s, the term orchestra was transferred from the The transition from the Baroque period to the Clas-
space - by then in a theatre or concert hall - to the
sical period, epitomised by a more or less consciously
assemblage of instrumentalists who occupied it. accepted formalistic scheme of design and an emphasis
During the Middle Ages in Europe groups of min-on elements of proportion and of beauty, was rapid due
strels went from town to town or were employed to bya set of factors. First, Johann Stamitz in Mannheim
towns. Guilds of town musicians existed from the 13th set a new standard by collecting the best musicians from
century on. These players performed from town hall across Europe; the basso continuo was jettisoned, which
led to new harmonic structures; and players were made
towers, staircase entrances to civic buildings, and exte-
to pay attention to tuning. Second, there was a marked
rior and interior balconies. During the 16th century the
size and composition of such groups grew due to the improvement in the quality of string instruments, radical
addition of members of the viol family. From the mid- changes in string bows, and new fingering systems,
nth century, groups of just strings were formed andenhancing
it control and virtuosity. Third, pistons for
was to them that woodwinds, brass, and timpani were trumpets and horns were invented, making them more
added. Until 1800, the composition of "the orchestra"reliable
in and flexible. Fourth, instruments with minimal
London and Vienna, for instance, differed from thosedynamics,
in such as the recorder or the harpsichord, in
Leipzig, Berlin, or Paris. Composers wrote or adapted which volume changes occurred only by the addition or
their scores to whatever instruments were available deletion of players, were replaced with better instru-
locally; accordingly, they wrote neither for posterity ments,norso that dynamics were affected by the way the
for another region. Giovanni Gabrieli (1557-1612), instruments were played, giving the orchestra a new
organist and choirmaster of St. Mark's Cathedral sound.in Fifth, timpani and percussion were invited from
Venice was the first to appreciate the orchestral the battlefield into the orchestra (Montagu, 2002). Fur-
"voice".
His motets and other works for orchestra utilized the ther, music began to overflow former territorial paro-
acoustical properties of the cathedral to great effect,chialisms. Music by Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven
even including the use of a second orchestra located became increasingly sophisticated, yet was also
outside, in the famous square, to achieve a polyphonic approachable by people across Europe. Mozart's music
effect. Gabrieli was followed at St. Mark's by Claudio "perfectly reflected the European culture of his age,
Monteverdi (1567-1643), who produced the landmark embodying the melodic line of the Italians, the elegance
of operatic development, Or feo. Opera became of prime and lucidity of the French, and Germanic orchestration
importance in Italy, the first opera house being openedand cohesiveness. It was music... which overrode
in 1637 in Venice.2 Other opera houses opened across national frontiers" (Rowley, 1980, p. 39).
Europe (e.g., Paris and London in 1671, Hamburg inEarly in the 1800s Classicism gave way to Roman-
1678, and Dresden in 1686) and they had increasingly ticism, in which musical form was subordinated to lit-

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 35

erary or pictorial themes. Though initially a composer in fantastique in 1830 essentially was a modern orchestra.
the classical style, Beethoven developed into one of the However, an ensemble of such size was costly to main-
early Romantics. His compositions, for example, tain with the result that sizes remained smaller for some
reflected his decidedly individualistic and strong-willedtime longer. With the turn of the 20th century, the large
convictions on moral and political issues and opened theforces called for by many composers, not least Stravin-
doors for others to be inspired by non-musical influences sky, led to a general increase in orchestras size, though
(literature, wars, nature). It was during the transition tothis was balanced throughout the century by cost-cut-
the Romantic period that the modern orchestra was ting and downsizing. In the second half of the century,
formed and 19th-century composers, aided by the there has been a state of flux: some orchestras have
assurance of fine performances by newly establishedflourished, new institutions have been formed and others
orchestras, took Romanticism to a high level. The threehave folded.
oldest music societies, which formed orchestras using The differences between chamber and symphony
the best players available, were the Leipzig Gewandhausorchestras is evident from Table 2. The Scottish Cha-
in 1781, the London Philharmonic Society in 1813, andmber Orchestra is clearly smaller than its symphonic
the New York Symphony Society in 1842. The foundingcounterparts. Many seemingly smaller orchestras (e.g.,
years for selected extant orchestras are identified inLondon's Philharmonia, Vancouver Symphony, and
Table I.3 even the larger Toronto Symphony) sometimes hire
As already noted, orchestras have grown in size over temporary players to expand their numbers to the size
time (Table 2). While in 1773, the orchestra for the maintained by some other major orchestras (e.g., Chi-
Concert spirituel in Paris had the ingredients of a cago and Suisse Romande). The Vienna Philharmonic
modern orchestra, minus trombones, tuba, percussion meets both symphonic concert and opera requirements
and harp, Berlioz's huge orchestra for the Symphonie and, as a consequence, it is much larger than normal.

Table 1. Founding years of selected extant orchestras

Europe North America Other

Orchestra Year Orchestra Year Orchestra Year

Paris Conservatory O 1828

Leipzig Gewandhaus O 1835
Royal Liverpool SO 1840
Vienna PO 1842 New York PO 1842

Hallé (Manchester) O 1858

Dresden PO 1858
Scottish NO 1874
Berlin PO 1882 Boston SO 1881
Helsinki PO 1882

Royal Concertgebouw O 1888 Chicago SO 1891

Bournemouth SO 1893

Czech PO 1896 Philadelphia O 1900

London SO 1904 Minnesota O 1903

Gothenburg SO 1905
Helsingborg SO 1912 San Francisco SO 1911
Royal Stockholm PO 1914 Detroit SO 1914
St. Petersburg PO 1917 Baltimore SO 1916
Suisse Romande SO 1918 Cleveland O 1918

Birmingham SO 1920 Los Angeles SO 1919

BBC SO 1930 Toronto SO 1921 NHK SO (Japan) 1926
Tampere PO 1930 Sydney SO 1932
London PO 1932 Montreal SO 1934 Melbourne SO 1934
Israel PO 1936
Brazilian SO 1940

Philharmonia O, London 1945 New Zealand SO 1946

Vancouver SO 1948 Tokyo SO 1946
Iceland SO 1950 Adelaide SO 1949
China National SO 1956

Nagoya SO 1966
Kwa-Zulu-Natal PO 1983

O = Orchestra; SO = Symphony Orchestra; PO = Philharmonic Orchestra; NO = National Orc

Source: Compiled by the author from orchestras' histories and web sites.

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36

Table 2. Composition and size of selected orchestras through the centuries

Date City and orchestra V Va C DB F O Cl B Ho Tr T/T Ti Pc K Ha Total

1607 Mantua, Palace, theatre (Orfeo) 44 22 2---2 4- --53 + 331
1634 London, King's Violins 474- ______ ____ 15
1670s/80s Paris, Opera orchestra 126 6- - 4 - - 2 2- --1- 32
1708 Rome, Court orchestra 23 4 66 4--21 1- ---1 47
1712 King of Prussia, Court orchestra 112 32 -4-3- 2- 1-1- 29
1730 Leipzig, for Bach's cantatas 6421 -3-2- 3- 1-2- 24
1773 Paris, Opera orchestra 22 5 96 23182 1- 1--- 57
1773 Paris, Concert spirituel orchestra 24 4 104 23242 2- 1--- 58
1777 Mannheim, Court orchestra 22 444 22242 2- 1-?- 49
1782 Vienna, Court orchestra 12 4 33 22-22 2- 1--- 33
1783 Regensburg, Court orchestra 12 2 22 22224 4- 1--- 35
1783 Eszterháza, Court orchestra 102 2 2-2-22?- ?--- 22?
1830 Paris, for Symph. Fantastique 30 10 11 9 2 2 2 4 4 4 3/2 4 3 2 92
1830 Vienna Philharmonie, concert 24 10 6 6 2 2 2 2 2 2 2/- 1 ? - - 61
1 865 Leipzig Gewandhaus, concert 30 8 95 22224 2 3/-1?-- 70
1900 Vienna Philharmonie, concert 3311 1010 44 4 48 4 5/1 1 4 1 - 104
1929 Dresden Philharmonie, concert 3311 11 11 6 6 6 6 10 6 6/1 1 5 - 1 120
1974 New York Philharmonie, concert 34 12 129 44 5 46 4 4/1 1 4 1 1 106
1970 National Arts Centre, Ottawa 167 64 22222 2- 1--1 47
2003 Scottish Chamber, concert 125 5 2 22222 2- 1--- 35
2003 Philharmonia, London 27 109 7 33444 3 3/113-2 84
2003 Vancouver Symphony, concert 217 86 33434 3 3/112 11 71
2003 New Zealand Symphony, concert 28 129 8 334 35 4 3/113-1 88
2003 Toronto Symphony 29 11 10 8 4 4 4 4 6 4 4/114-1 95
2003 Chicago Symphony 36 14 12 9 4 4 4 5 5 4 4/11412 109
2003 O. de Suisse Romande, concert 32 12 11 9 5 5 5 5 6 5 5/11411 108
2003 Berlin Philharmonie 42 16 13 12 5 5 5 5 8 5 5/124-1 129
2003 Vienna Philharmonie 46 17 14 13 5 6 6 6 11 6 6/12 5 - 1 145
V = Violin; Va = Viola; C = Cello; Db -Double Bass; F = Flute (and piccolo); O = Oboe (and cor
clarinet); B = Bassoon (and contrabassoon); Ho = Horn; Tr = Trumpet; T/T = Trombone/Tuba; T
(piano, celeste, harpsichord, organ); Ha = Harp; An orchestra's pianist may also play percussion.
Sources: Compiled by the author from, selectively, Peyser, Hurd, orchestra programs, histories, an

Some distributions own orchestra though Springfield, the capital of Illinois,

has none. In contrast, more than 20 orchestras are
In the contemporary Western world, most large cities located in the Chicago metropolitan region. Areal
and many smaller places have their own orchestras. variations
In also exist within other states; just over half of
the USA, for example, there are probably more than Massachusetts' 36 orchestras are in the Boston area.
1700 orchestras though it is difficult to be exact. The As in North America, orchestras are widespread
American Symphony Orchestra League (ASOL) has 802 throughout Europe. Germany has 141 professional
members in every US state and Washington, D.C., and orchestras; Finland, with a population of 5 million, has
Guam and provides the most useful data source on13 professional orchestras; the Iceland Symphony
orchestras. However, its membership does not include Orchestra is ranked as one of the Europe's finest. Today,
university, college, and youth orchestras (approximately orchestras are to be found throughout the world, and
600) or an unknown number of community orchestras. not only in those region with a direct connection with
Table 3, using population data and ASOL member- settlers from Europe. Orchestras are also in China,
ship data, shows the broad pattern of orchestral activity Japan, and other Asian countries.
in the USA. There are more orchestras than expected in
several states, including Colorado, Montana, Alaska, Radio orchestras
Connecticut, Iowa, Wyoming, Massachusetts, Vermont,
Idaho, Oregon, Kansas, and North Dakota. Georgia,Another issue affecting distributions is the existence of
Mississippi, Louisiana, Alabama, New Hampshire, radio orchestras. Radio orchestras are common
Hawaii, Arkansas, Delaware, and Missouri have fewer throughout Europe, perhaps an extension of a situation
than expected. Mapping revealed a Southern "negative" in former times when aristocratic courts employed
region, which contrasts with an extended "positive" orchestras. Germany has a large number of such
region that includes states in the Great Lakes, Upper orchestras (Figure 2), some of world-class standing,
Mid- West, Great Plains and Mountains, and the Pacific notably the Berlin Radio Symphony Orchestra and the
North West (Figure 1). Almost every state capital has its Bavarian Radio Orchestra. In Britain, the BBC Sym-

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 37

Table 3. US orchestras and state populations

Rank order by Rank order by No. of orchestras in ASOL Per cent of all orchestras in ASOL
population no. of orchestras in ASOL
1 California 1 77 9.60
2 Texas 3 44 5.49
2 New York 2 53 6.60
3 Florida 7 35 4.36
4 Illinois 5 37 4.61

5 Pennsylvania 4 41 5.11
6 Ohio 8 32 4.00

7 Michigan 10 25 3.11
8 New Jersey 11= 23 2.87
9 Georgia 22= 13 1.62
10 North Carolina 13 22 2.74

11 Virginia 9 30 3.74
12 Massachusetts 6 36 4.49
13 Indiana 17= 18 2.24

14 Washington 14 21 2.62
15 Tennessee 15 20 2.49
16 Missouri 22= 13 1.62
17 Wisconsin 16 19 2.40

18 Maryland 17= 18 2.24

19 Arizona 22= 13 1.62
20 Minnesota 19= 15 1.87
21 Louisiana 30= 8 1.12
22 Alabama 30= 8 1.00
23 Colorado 11= 23 2.87

24 Kentucky 29 9 1.12
25 South Carolina 26= 10 1.25

26 Oregon 21 14 1.75
27 Oklahoma 26= 10 1.25
28 Connecticut 19= 15 1.87
29 Iowa 22= 13 1.62

30 Mississippi 42= 3 0.37

31 Kansas 26= 10 1.25
32 Arkansas 38= 6 0.75
33 Utah 37= 5 0.62
34 Nevada 33= 6 0.75
35 New Mexico 32 7 0.87

36 West Virginia 40= 4 0.50

37 Nebraska 40= 4 0.50
38 Idaho 33= 6 0.75
39 Maine 37= 5 0.62

40 New Hampshire 48= 2 0.25

41 Hawaii 48= 2 0.25
42 Rhode Island 42= 3 0.37
43 Montana 33= 6 0.75
44 Delaware 50 1 0.13
45 South Dakota 42= 3 0.37
46 Alaska 37= 5 0.62
47 North Dakota 42= 3 0.37
48 Vermont 42= 3 0.37

49 Wyoming 42= 3 0.37

Source: Population ranking from O'Lea
Press, 2002), p. 420; the ASOL inform
Orchestras by State as of 1/1/2003," <h

phony, BBC Philharmonic, B

Scottish Symphony orchestra
of Wales and the Ulster Orche
In North America, the NBC

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38

Figure 1. Broad pattern of orchestral activity in the USA.

were responsible for educating a huge audience to clas- Though orchestras normally perform within a closed
sical music between 1927 and 1954 (Kolodin et al., 2001, container, it is not uncommon to have outdoor perfor-
p. 829). The remaining radio orchestra in North mances, especially at festivals, where the orchestra
America, the CBC Symphony, based in Vancouver, isusually performs on a stage with a shell-like backing
fully funded by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporationwhich projects sounds toward an audience. However,
and its numerous recordings are played regularly on thethe sounds that reach the audience may include exter-
CBC networks. There are also national radio orchestras nally-produced sounds of human and nonhuman origin.
in China (Shanghai) and Korea (Seoul). Depending on location relative to the sound source,
there may be peripheral or encircled listening. A bird on
a tree 20 m away, will give peripheral listening; a
Meso scale thunderstorm directly above the listener will give encir-
cled - and, surely, enriched - listening. Though people
The meso scale focuses on where orchestras perform. are not always aware of peripheral sounds that encircle
Most orchestras perform in halls, usually designed themspe-each day as our environment becomes common-
cifically for concert performance. These buildings place, are
with familiarity, some orchestral music played to
normally constructed to represent physically, if not coincide
alsowith Nature's varied moods can be instructive.
symbolically, a separateness from the outside world.
Like cathedrals and churches, concert halls are open "Orchestra
to Hall" and space needs
entry and exit but are intended to be closed containers
for short-term occupance while an event is taking The orchestra hall is more than just the building in
place.
As performance spaces, they house both performers which andthe orchestra performs. It is more than just an
audience. Performers are normally situated at oneacoustic end of vehicle through which the orchestra projects its
the hall facing an audience, which occupies most sound; of theit is also the means by which the public is granted
space. Within that space the audience experiences access. But thousands of amateur and semi-professional
directed, or focussed, listening since orchestra sounds orchestras
are do not have their own space and thus have to
intended to be received and absorbed by the audience. use other facilities in which to rehearse and perform.
The reverberation and redirection that are partAlthough of the this is vital to the health of an orchestra, using
acoustical process by which sounds reach a listener are space may be hampered by inflexibility due to
another's
part of the orchestral experience. the low priority for use.

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 39

Figure 2. Location of radio orchestras in Europe.

Whether a hall is privately or publicly funded, Whether its space is leased or owned, an orchestra
"orchestra halls" are nodes in most cities of conse- needs it to assemble its musicians for rehearsals and
performances. It is assumed that players will practise
quence and the buildings in which orchestras perform
are often expressions of the power of orchestral
on their
musicown time, mastering the scores the orchestra
on the landscape. For example, the Vienna Philhar-
will be playing, prior to a rehearsal of a section (e.g.,
monic has played at the Grosser Musikvereinsaal since
strings) or the full orchestra. Amateur orchestras usu-
1879, and the Boston Symphony moved to Symphony
ally rehearse on a weekly schedule, performing two to
four
Hall in 1900. There have been many other grand times in a season running from autumn to sum-
concert
halls, some of which have not survived. Both mer. Some long-standing civic orchestras (e.g., the
Liverpool
and Glasgow had fine concert halls, gutted byCivic Orchestra of Minneapolis) have rehearsal and
fire and
the acoustically and aesthetically superior Leipzig
storage spaces in converted schools and churches or
former
Gewandhaus, built in 1884, was destroyed during warehouses and controlling this space is
WWII.
On the whole, orchestra buildings are grand important
landscapein creating a feeling of autonomy. Some
"pick-up" orchestras assembled for particular jobs
statements of the period in which they were constructed.
Almost all major orchestral halls, old and new, are
(usually on a professional basis) may rehearse in the
located in downtown rather than peripheralperformance
areas of hall only once before a concert, so special
cities. space is not a concern. A fully professional orchestra

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40

with a fall-winter- summer concert schedule of between

particular spot on the shore of a lake; the musicians are
36 and 45 weeks a year, rehearses and performs several
hidden in the woods, in nearby coves, or placed on large
times a week and is clearly advantaged by havingcanoes its which move about the lake. Performances of The
own space. Princess of the Stars start at day break, just as birds
Orchestral space is multifaceted, and includesbegin dress-to sing. Sounds come from many sources, human-
ing rooms, toilets and relaxation facilities. Rehearsal made and from Nature, sometimes including howling
spaces (including some individual sound booths) wolves,
arebut since Nature's "contributors" cannot be
needed for the large number of orchestra members, identified
with in advance, each performance is unique
rooms designated for the conductor and guest(Knight, soloists.Chapter 8, 2006).
Storage space is needed for instruments (includingOutdoor large performances are hardly a 20th-century
instruments such as double basses, timpani, the innovation.
large On the contrary, a well-known outdoor
array of percussion equipment, as well as harps,performance pianos, occurred in 1717 when barges conveyed
and harpsichord), music stands, and chairs. Many over 50 musicians playing Handel's Royal Water Music
orchestras have libraries containing all the scores onowned
the Thames while King George I was rowed from
by the orchestra as well as for the temporary storage Whitehallof to Chelsea and back. In 1749, Music for the
music rented for a particular rehearsal and performance Royal Fireworks was performed in London by a large
period. Dressing areas for musicians may include orchestra comprising over 100 violins, 24 oboes, 12
clothes' lockers, allowing orchestra members to travel tobassoons, 9 trumpets, 9 horns, one contrabassoon, a
and from their work place in normal clothes. In addi-serpent and three pairs of timpani before the King and a
tion, major symphonies need space for large packing crowd of 12,000.4 In the USA, especially around July
boxes used to transport instruments and equipment 4th, many outdoor summer orchestral performances end
safely - including stands and sometimes also chairs - with fireworks, often accompanied by renditions of
when the orchestra performs out of town. Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture.
No orchestra functions without an administration. Some orchestras have been created specifically for
Whereas amateur community orchestras may use the
summer performances only, including Chicago's Park
homes of honorary officials for this, professional District-funded Grant Park Orchestra, which performs
orchestras require substantial space for many officials, annually in a park adjacent to Lake Michigan near
such as Board members, Artistic Director, artistic downtown Chicago. Some orchestras, such as the Ver-
administration, Principal Conductor, assistant conduc- mont Symphony Orchestra, play in locations through-
tor^], orchestra relations, building operations, finance, out the State, and the New York Philharmonic gives a
human resources, marketing and communications, series of free summer concerts in parks in different parts
development, education and community (to work espe- of the metropolitan region, weather permitting. These
cially with schools and other forms of outreach), com- concerts can be regarded as extensions of 1900s "revi-
puter services (as a support function to all other units), val" meetings in that the orchestras remove themselves
space for volunteer staff, loading dock, and, possibly, from the confines of their normal performance spaces
recording studio. A minor chamber orchestra may have and perform in public spaces for local populations, most
from two to seven support staff, whereas a major sym- of whom would otherwise never hear an orchestra.
phony orchestra may employ more than 200. Some summer festivals have a long-lasting, major
impact on the landscape. Tanglewood, in western
Out-of-doors performances Massachusetts, encompasses more than 200 acres. It has
expansive lawns, several buildings for rehearsals, per-
Not all orchestra performances are indoors. Sports formances and teaching, facilities for audiences, and
arenas have been used occasionally for music perfor- some residences. As the Boston Symphony's summer
mance. The huge crowds at rock concerts in Wembley location, Tanglewood is a special place for the nour-
Stadium in London have been mimicked in the orches- ishment of the BSO musicians, promising conductors,
tral world by the large audiences for concerts and at the
a selection of talented young players who are coa-
Hollywood Bowl or concerts associated with the ched Worldby BSO players and perform in the Tanglewood
Symphony. Five thousand people can be seated in The
Cup soccer Football finals. These are open air spectacles
at which the spatial organization of the orchestraShed, rela-the covered area near to the orchestra, and the
tive to the audience remains as if in a hall with the grounds beyond can take several times that number,
orchestra, led by a conductor, on a stage, and the suppers as they sit on blankets and await the
enjoying
audiences looking toward them from their seats performance.
located Most major orchestras in the USA have
in front of the stage and in the stands beyond.summer performance locations, including Ravinia
In marked contrast, R. Murray Schäfer, a pioneer (Chicago ofSymphony Orchestra), Mann Music Center
environmental music, places the audience in the (Philadelphia),
"cen- Blossom Music Center (Cleveland), and
tre" for the performance of The Princess of the Wolf Trap (National Symphony, Washington, D.C.).
Stars,
one of the twelve-parts of the cycle called Patria Other festivals use existing halls, the most famous
(Schafer, 2002). Performed on and around a remote being Salzburg and Edinburgh. Bayreuth, in Germany,
lake, the audience is seated at the prime nodalhouses point,thea immense structure deemed by many as the

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 41

idyllic place for the performance of Wagner'stheoperas audience, the first violins are normally at the front
(Sternberg, 1998). Although some of these summer left of the stage, and the cellos on the front right. The
festivals are designed to pander to elite tastes and stands at the front edge of the stage between
conductor
exclude people by virtue of programming and the first two violinists and the first two cellos. Second
pricing
policies, others are used as vehicles to attractviolins wider are also on the left side but farther from the front
audiences and recruit subscribers for the orchestra's of the stage, and violas are in a similar position behind
regular performance season (Waterman, 1998). the cellos on the right. Double basses are arrayed along
the back of the cellos and violas. In the centre, in two
rows, are flutes to the left and oboes to the right; behind
Mini scale them are clarinets to the left and bassoons to the right.
The four soloists on these instruments thus sit as a
At a mini scale, other aspects of the geography of
"square" so they can hear each other, for they often
orchestras assume importance, including the perform
spatial as a duo, trio, or quartet. Behind them are the
organization of and interactions between players hornsandto the left and the trumpets to the right. The
the conductor, among the orchestra members timpanist
them- may be located behind the latter instruments,
selves, and between an orchestra and its audience. Issues them, or beside the horns, near to the second
between
of gender and race also become apparent. violins.
While the "chamber orchestra" core of players also
The spatial organization of the orchestra sit within the symphony orchestra, the latter has many
additional players (Figure 3b). The larger units of five
There is no one absolute plan for the seating arrange- clusters of strings are evident. The critical square of four
ment, or the relative location, of the playersprincipal in an wind players sit in exactly the same locations in
orchestra. Size is one obvious factor influencing this; eachit orchestra,
is but in the symphony orchestra addi-
easier to seat the members of a small chamber orchestra tional players are arrayed to the left and right of the
of 20-30 players than to accommodate a large sym- principals. Horns are often centred, behind the wood-
phony orchestra in the performance of a Mahler sym- winds. Trumpets are generally located at right rear, with
phony that might call for up to 120 musicians on stage.trombones further to the right and the tuba at the right
And whereas a chamber orchestra can perform inofa that line of three, close to the double basses. The
small hall, a large symphony orchestra must necessarilytimpanist is usually at the centre back of the orchestra
for a classical symphony, with horns and trumpets on
engage larger, often dedicated, spaces. Nevertheless, the
spatial arrangements of both chamber and symphony either side; however, in a major Romantic or 20th cen-
orchestras are roughly similar. tury work, the timpanist will likely be either to the right
Elevation variations may exist. String players will
near to the trumpets and trombones or to the left of the
horns and woodwinds, behind the second violins. The
generally be at floor level with other players on risers,
especially in symphony orchestras: woodwinds are on percussion section - the "kitchen department" of the
one or two steps up from the floor level, with brass, orchestra - will normally be arrayed behind the timpa-
timpani, and percussion at other levels. Nevertheless, nist; the harp or harps will be in front of them, tucked in
some orchestras, even with over a hundred musicians behind
on the second violins. The displacement of "troops"
stage, do not use risers. The conductor, usually on a depend upon the shape of the stage and whether or
may
dais, stands at the front of the stage, the one person not
not there are fixed raised platforms.
facing the audience, so as to be seen by all players.
There may be constant spatial changes to the Principals: rank-order, spatial distribution, and purpose
orchestra in the course of a concert. The percussion
score may call for many tuned and untuned percussionBefore proceeding, a rank order of musicians and their
instruments for the first number in a concert, but onlydistribution needs to be noted. Three scales of seniority
snare drum and cymbals after the intermission, with allexist: principals, sub-principals, and rank-and-file (Del
unrequired equipment removed. A tuba player will onlyMar, 1987, pp. 195-196). An orchestra's principal
be present if there is a tuba part. A harp will normally bemusicians are section leaders, and are also the soloists of
placed on stage only when required but as the instru-the orchestra.
ment needs a time-consuming tuning check prior to a The primus inter pares is the first desk of the first
performance, it may be kept at the side of the per-violins, who is not only the principal of the first violins
forming space until used, to prevent it moving betweenand is known as the Concertmaster. This individual is
environments. Other changes occur when players (e.g., "the official link in rehearsal and performance between
horns) augment the orchestra for one work and leavethe conductor and the body of musicians" (Snyder,
upon its conclusion. 1979, p. 48), although a conductor may speak directly
The internal geography of an orchestra is fairlywith a section or a section's principal. The Concert-
standard. The seating arrangement of a chamber master calls for "the traditional sounding of the "A" by
orchestra is straightforward, following a pattern in use the oboe [so the musicians can tune, and gives the] signal
for three centuries (Figure 3a). From the standpoint of to musicians to disperse after final acknowledgement of

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42

Figure 3. Standard layout of (a) the chamber orchestra and (b) the symphony orchestra.

the listeners' applause" (Snyder, 1979, p. 69). The determined prior to the first rehearsal and placed in all
orchestra's other principals comprise the first-desk scores by the librarian and may be modified during
players of the second violins, violas, cellos, double bas-rehearsals - always in pencil.
ses, flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, horns, trumpets, Joseph Silverstein, concertmaster of the Boston
trombones, and percussion. As the orchestra's only Symphony Orchestra from 1962 to 1984, observed of
constant soloist, the timpanist is a principal. principals that "In the absence of a conductor capable
The spatial distribution of principals is fixed of making a strong musical statement, these artists can
(Figure 3a, b), with the exception of the horns. Onlyassert themselves and come to the rescue by reacting to
string players share music, one stand per pair with theone another with the best they have to give (cited in
inside player responsible for turning pages. The fiveSnyder, 1979, p. 70). This task is not always easy:
principal string players decide how their section's "Principal players face the challenging dual role of
members will play, marking "bowings" in their scores. orchestral performer on the one hand, and section leader
The main consequence of bowing marks is to ensure thatand soloist on the other" (Partington, 1995, p. 139). A
bow movements are co-ordinated. The bowing is principal thus "must be particularly in touch with, and

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 43

provide direction to his or her instrumental fellows,"
while knowing that at any time a solo may be required.
The ability "to shift the [personal] focus of concentra-
tion... toward individual output" can be taxing (Par-
tington, 1995, p. 139). In a sense, principals have to be
schizophrenic, for they at once can be "creative," as a
principal oboist put it, "yet within a split second... has to
shut up and blend in with everyone else" (Partington,
1995, p. 140).
Disposition of the orchestral forces
Various position plans for players have been passed
down through history as being best able to form the
necessary acoustical symbiosis to provide a combination
of the ensemble voice and yet also to permit soloists
within the orchestra to shine. However, some conduc-
tors have experimented to try and get "richer", "darker"
or "clearer" sounds, by having the cellos and violas
change places, or even by having the second violins and
the cellos switching places. Most conductors now com-
ply with the standard layouts.
Table 4 identifies the number of persons needed for
several compositions, (a) Beethoven's Symphony #6
(Pastoral), (b) Rimsky-Korsakov's Capriccio Espagnol,
(c) Haydn's Symphony No. 104 ("London"), and (d) two
of Mahler's Symphonies, #5 and the mammoth #2
("Resurrection") which calls for soprano, alto, full
chorus, and a huge orchestra.5
Challenges to the status quo
Some composers have called for specific seating
arrangements, some of which are markedly different
from the standard distribution of forces. Since the
1950s, there have been several inventive challenges to
the status quo of the orchestra's internal geography,
only a few highlights of which can be cited here.
In Wellington 's Victory, Beethoven directed that two
batteries of drums (each with both bass and field drums)
be located at the left front (the French camp) and right
front (the British army) of the orchestra. The work
opens as the troops in the two camps are wakened and,
in turn, challenge each other; battle is engaged, with
each side shooting at the other (these notes are all
recorded in the score, with bass drums - as cannons -
and rattles - as rifles).6 The work includes an exciting
cavalry charge and ends with a triumphant declaration
of victory by the British.
An unusual experimental distribution of "perform-
ers" relative to the audience was identified for a project
entitled Espace, on which Edgard Várese periodically
worked in the 1920s and 1930s. His notion was to have a
"montage in space" simultaneously broadcast from

Table 4. Instrumentation requirements for selected works

Beethoven Symphony #6 Rimsky-Korsakov Haydn Symphony Mahler Mahler Symphony

(Pastoral) Capriccio Espagnol #104 Symphony #5 #2(Resurrection)
Violins I and II x x x x x
Viola x x x x x
Cello x x x x x
Double Bass x x x x x
Flute 2 2 2 4 4
Piccolo 1* 1 - 2** 4***
Oboe 2 2 2 3 3

English Horn - - 1**** 2****

Clarinet 2 2 2 3 3
Bass clarinet - - - 1 1****
Bassoon 2 2 2 3 3
Contrabassoon - - - 1**** 1****

Horn 2 4 2 6 10 (4 offstage)
Trumpet 2 2 2 4 8-10 (4-6 offstage)
Trombone 2 3-34
Tuba - 1-11

Harp - - - 1 1
Timpani 1 (2 timpani) 1(3) 1(2) 1(4) 3(6 onstage; 1 off)
Percussion - 3 - 4 4*****

Organ - - - - 1
Voices 2 solo plus chorus
x denotes Sections of these instruments.
* denotes 2nd flute player also plays piccolo.
** denotes Two of the flute players also play piccolo.
*** denotes All 4 flutes double on piccolo.
**** denotes 3rd players of oboe/clarinet/bassoon also play English Horn/Bass clarinet/Contrabassoon.
***** denotes Three players onstage, one off, playing: 2 pairs of cymbals, one offstage; 2 triangles, one offstage; several side [snare] drums; 3 bells;
glockenspiel; 2 bass drums, one offstage; and 2 tarn tarns (one high, one low).
Source: compiled by the author.

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44

Figure 4. Two of Leopold Stokowski's experimental layouts for the orchestra.

various points on the earth to achieve "sound routes"
(Várese, 1959, p. 207). This may now seem mundane; it
was revolutionary when proposed. Still eliciting excited
responses are additional alternative ways to arrange
performers relative to their audience. Some are "old",
such as a brass quartet playing from the balcony during
the last movement of Resphigi's Pines of Rome, the use
of two orchestras onstage in Britten's War Requiem, or
the off-stage sounds from soloists or a group of musi-
cians during certain works by Mahler, Vaughan Wil-
liams, and others. These small challenges to 19th and
20th centuries conformity did not really upset the "safe"
square-notion of the "house", with audience at one end
(occupying perhaps three quarters of the space), and the
orchestra at the other, onstage, for the essential seating
pattern has remained the same to this day.
Berlioz also was concerned about placement, largely
because of the huge forces he used. Perhaps without
fully realizing the consequences of his design, he was a
true spatial pioneer in music, for in Grande messe des
morts (1867) he has four brass bands, each placed in a
different corner "of the grand group of choral singers
and instrumentalists,". When there is a balcony, con-
ductors often place the brass choirs there (or, as Berlioz
states in his score, to the north, south, east, and west). In
the Tuba mirum and Rex tremendae sections, it is as if
they are reaching out to each other as they play. The
remarkable harmonic texture that results seems to fill up
the whole hall and with eyes closed, the ear perceives the
sounds as coming from the upper (empty) middle area of
the hall. And when, in those sections the brasses are
joined by 16 timpani playing a series of chords in giant
volume - performed by 10 players - the sound is
breathtaking. The audience hears sounds from all
around. The brass choirs and massive timpani presence
are also heard in Lacrymosas, and, quietly in Agnus Dei,
again with remarkable effect.
Seeking the best sounds when conductor of the
Philadelphia Orchestra, Leopold Stokowski liked to
experiment with player seating arrangements. Some of
his arrangements were far from usual. He tried several
possibilities (two are shown in Figure 4), including an
interesting curve to the distribution of violas in the
middle of the orchestral layout. In a way, Stokowski
sought to imitate Beethoven, by trying layouts that
would be to the advantage of the music. But experi-
mentation in seating was surely just part of the explosive
experimentation in composition during the 20th century.
Some experimentation upsets audiences. In Cortège
(1977), R. Murray Schäfer calls for the musicians to
march on, off and back again, and around the empty
stage, repeated several times, playing as they march. For
the audience, the sounds come and go, from right and
left, from rear to front, and so on. The patterns are
reminiscent of an American college marching band at
half-time at a football game, creating a disjuncture
between what is being performed and what normally
occurs in that space, upsetting many in the audience.
Many of the musicians are also unhappy about what is
demanded of them.
Usually regarded as a pioneer in electronic music,
Karlheinz Stockhausen has also composed for orches-
tras, including Gruppen für drei Orchester (1957). This
work is scored for 109 musicians arranged in three
orchestras (each comprising sixteen strings, six wood-
winds, seven brass, and six percussion), each with a
conductor. The orchestras surround the audience: one to
the right, one to the left, and one in front (Figure 5). The
effect is the movement of sound, not only from each
orchestra to the audience but also from orchestra to
orchestra around the performance space. At times the
orchestras merge in accelerations and crescendos, then
separate, "flinging" sounds at each other and at differ-
Figure 5. Stockhausen's three orchestras.

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 45

ent tempos, going in a circle, only to receive responses in the audience and the audience in the orchestra"
that have transformed the music. The three groups come(Xenakis, 1971, cited in Harley, p. 139). The music has
together again for a grand concluding brass chord thata mathematical base to it, "including logarithmic or
whirls around the heads of the audience. Stockhausen Archimedean spirals in time and geometrically" (ibid.)
wrote: 'The similarity of the scoring of the three The audience senses movement but possibly also a
orchestras resulted from the requirement that sound- cacophony, for in being immersed in "ordered or dis-
groups should be made to wander in space from ordered sonorous masses, rolling one against the other
[orchestra] to another and at the same time splitlike up waves," the sound begins to swirl. It may be that
similar sound-structures: each orchestra was supposed due to the distribution of the various instruments rela-
tive to each member of the audience, each audience
to call to the others and to give [an] answer or [an] echo"
member may hear different things emphasized, so that
(cited in Harley, 1993, p. 133).7 In essence, music "time-
spaces and movements" are simultaneously passed from this work may have no definitive "sounding."
one group to another, providing the audience with theBéla Bartók specified the stage layout, and two
sensory experience of music rotating around the chamber orchestras, for his Music for Strings, Percus-
periphery. sion, and Celesta (1936) to get a specific acoustical effect.
Regarding four orchestras as better than three, Harrison Birtwhistle in Secret Theatre (1984) went a
Stockhausen then composed Carré (1960) for four step further. He called for more or less the standard
orchestras and choirs, with four conductors, with the orchestral set-up, drawing attention to sections within
groups located at the mid-points of the sides of the the work by having players "get up and move to a dif-
square. He called the work "moment" form because "no ferent part of the stage to play a certain figure or
single 'moment' claims priority, even as a beginning or sequence of figures [thus drawing the audience's] atten-
ending" (Page, 1999, p. 71), for the composer has each tion to the music... and underlying its significance -
group be part of a static to give the listener, in Stock- whatever that significance may be" (Ford, 2002, p. 188).
hausen's (1964, cited in Harley, p. 135) words, "... a little This and the other instances of selected spatial elements
inner stillness, breath and concentration." in orchestral music performed within structures are
Henry Brant (19 13-) has gone even further than suggestive of a much greater body of musical literature
Stockhausen in distributing the "troops", with the (Schwartz and Godfrey, 1993; Schwartz and Childs,
orchestra along the periphery of the hall. The musicians 1998).
play, one at a time, in serial order, the audience expe- Toru Takemitsu composed From me flows what you
riencing what Brant terms "sound travel" (Brant, 1998, call Time for the Canadian percussion ensemble Nexus,
p. 238). He proposed and tried several seating varia- which was premiered with the Boston Symphony in
tions, such as having the basses on the ground floor Carnegie Hall. Four pecussionists, each with a large
level, cellos on the 1st balcony level, violas on the 2nd array of instruments, are located in four spots across the
balcony level, and the violins on the 3rd balcony level, front of the stage, including two on either side of the
with the result making it appear as if "the entire wall conductor's podium. A fifth player is at the back of the
space [is] sounding at once" (Brant, 1998, p. 231). His orchestra, also with an array of instruments. At the
Millenium II (1954), which predated Stockhausen's outset, the five players enter the hall by way of the main
spatialized arrangements, called for the rather strange aisles, playing various cymbals and chimes. Five col-
distribution of ten trumpets and ten trombones located oured ribbons link the percussionists once onstage with
down each side of the hall, a singer assigned to stand at delicate bells arranged across the balcony. After amaz-
the back (lobby) door, and the remainder of the ing sounds from orchestra and percussion, the latter
stringless orchestra on stage (Figure 6). Interestingly, the gently pull the ribbons to ring the bells, stationed above
conductor is at the rear of the stage, looking out to theand behind the audience, to conclude the work.
audience, with clusters of instruments arranged in vari-
ous parts of the stage. One at a time, each trumpetPerformance interaction
(followed by each trombone) begins to play, until all are
playing. Gradually, the audience senses that their space Mini scale analysis also assists us to make sense of the
is filling up with sound, for not only do sounds movefluid and dynamic relationship involving conductor and
down the trumpet line and up the trombone line butplayers. The spatial patterns of interaction between
they also emerge from the stage. Brant's goal was toconductor and players change constantly. Location
"saturate" the hall with sound. within the orchestra will lead players to have slightly
The Greek composer Iannis Xenakis (1922-) went contrasting senses of time; a player at or near the rear of
further still. For Terrêtektorh (1965-1966) thethe per-
orchestra must anticipate the beat so as to not be
"late",
formers and the audience share a circular space, with thewhereas a player "up front" will be closer to the
musicians distributed roughly as shown in Figure 7. concertmaster's
The sense of what the beat is. The split
conductor is in the very centre, the musicians dispersed
second difference between when a note is actually played
and located according to a mathematical plan, withthus varies slightly around the orchestra. For instance,
conductors
three percussion groups spread out in different areas of may ask the timpanist to "lean into" a note,
the periphery. In Xenakis's words, "The orchestra is will be "there", albeit slightly behind. If this
so others

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46

Figure 6. Brant's spatial arrangements for Millenium II.

sounds a bit much, the "trick" is for everyone to sound
together, for an orchestra will not work if each player
plays at his or own tempo - unless this is required by the
score! Timing is critical, hence "listening lines" are
important, though they cannot be seen by anyone.
Trumpets are usually at or near the back edge of the
orchestra. In chamber orchestras, due to closeness of
players, the sight line between the trumpeters and the
conductor may be 8-10 m; in a symphony orchestra the
sight line can be 10-15 m. Similar dimensions pertain for
horn players, trumpeters, trombonists, timpanist, and
the rear sections of the strings.
"Listening lines" and "sight lines" reveal something
of the complexity of the ever-changing spatial relation-
ships in which musicians are immersed. To illustrate, the
"listening lines" in Figure 8a refer to the timpanisti
need to be aware of entries, tuning and phrasing by
others in the orchestra. "Listening lines" will vary,
depending on what is being played at the time the tim-
panist plays. Sometimes the orchestra will play flat, so
the timpanist must make minor tuning changes, to fol-
low suit. "Sight lines" are also used, to the instruments,
tray of sticks, music in the stand, and the actions of the
conductor. Further, the timpanist may be about to play
a passage with the trumpets, so a glance in the direction
of the trumpets may be used to reassure the player that
he is at the right place in the music! Careful counting by
all members of the orchestra is required, but it is critical
for the timpanist - indeed, for all of the principals - who
may not always know, until a rehearsal, who else is to be
playing at a particular moment. Most timpanists study
the conductor's score, to learn how their part "fits"
within the context of the music. Tone colour, emphases,
volume changes, rhythmic patterns, and performance
associations with other musicians during specific pas-
sages are some of the things to be learned prior to a
performance, for some things about a timpani score can
only be appreciated from a reading of the full score.
Occasionally, the timpanist may realize that a certain
note makes no sense, presumably because an error has
been made in the written score, and that a different note
or notes would provide a better "fit" with what else is
being played.8 Consultation with the conductor may
then be appropriate. Not all players need do this,
especially when in a string section, for they rely on their
principal to be their guide. Each musician is concerned
with her or his own part, but is also aware of how others
in the section are playing. For instance, the sixth chair
first violinist must be attentive via "sight lines" to (a) the
music, (b) the conductor, (c) the principal, and, using
"listening lines", to (d) the whole section (Figure 8b).
Soloists or sections must be aware of who else is
playing; for instance, the violins may listen attentively to
the horns as they provide a counterpoint to the violin
score. There are multiple interactions, and thus the
spatial relations are myriad - and ever-changing.
Sometimes the interaction is focussed and intense, as
when, in Beethoven's Emperor Concerto, pianist and
timpanist play a duet near the conclusion of the final
movement, at which point they generally ignore the
conductor and the timpanist plays to the pianist's
gradually slowing templ.

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 47

Figure 7. Xenakis's spatial arrangements for Terrêtektorh.

Conductors keep the beat (usually intelligibly), may willing to accept what I do and pay attention to what I
identify entries for specific players or sections, signal a pay attention to, an aura that I have the courage to
crescendo, diminuendo, ritardando, change of tempo or make a stand somewhere, especially when things are
emphasis, seek to convey to the musicians a feeling or going haywire... I communicate my intentions some-
sentiment that they want the players to provide, and times verbally, but usually it's visual (Partington,
much more. A hint of what a conductor faces is pro- 1995, pp. 144-145).
vided by a short passage of Beethoven's score for The
Familiarity also helps: because as a section, "99
Emperor (Figure 9a) with numbers in time sequence
percent of the time, we all play exactly the same thing"
identifying key entries and points of note, such as who
(ibid., p. 145).
has the melodic line.
It is false to assume that all is collégial in an
Figure 9b shows the conductor's sight lines and some
orchestra. There are legendary anecdotes such as that
listening lines to musicians that reveal constantly
involving two woodwind players in a major orchestra
changing spatial perspectives as directions are conveyed
who sat beside one another for nearly 30 years, without
to a specific player or section, indeed to the whole
talking. The origins of their spat long forgotten - and
orchestra - such as "this is your cue", "play louder",
the story surely embellished over time - but when they
"softer", "with more passion". The conductor is con-
played together, there was magic. Horn players too are
cerned with both the parts and the whole. Notably,
strong willed - though perhaps such is the case for all
some - but only the best - orchestras play behind what
musicians! Tensions between players within sections and
the audience may view to be the beat as conducted so
between sections is not unknown. Tensions may also
that the orchestra members can make adjustments to
exist between players and conductor.
their playing as they interpret the conductor's ongoing
Orchestra musicians hate insensitive conductors, and
directions.
also those who are not up to the task. The audience
The orchestra's soloists
generally assumes that the conductor is "in charge" of a
performance, which is not always the case. Some major
orchestras are known for - sometimes rather nastily -
It is usually the principal of a section who decides how
leading the conductor rather than being led. Occasion-
players in that section will play. A principal bassist put it
as follows:
ally, musicians may totally ignore a conductor.9
This point is noted here to provide an example of
how musicians must rely on each other, not just a con-
My job as a principal player is somehow to put out ductor. Cellists, for example, need to be aware of how
around me an aura that I know what I'm doing, an their varying parts relate to those of players of other
aura of solidarity, so that others in the section are
instruments. At times their playing will be emphasized,

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48

Figure 8. Sight and listening lines for (a) the timpanist and (b) a first violinist.

at other times it must meld into an overall sound which others (including the Berlin Philharmonic, the New
incorporates their sound, perhaps while another sectionYork Philharmonic and the Boston, Cleveland, Mon-
or a soloist is dominant. Some music may subdividetreal the and Toronto orchestras) are slowly increasing
numbers
string sections, but as a rule, the first violins will play a of women. Currently, about 25 per cent of all
common score. In another example, wind playersmusicians and in the top five USA orchestras are women, up
from
horn players may be teamed so that players must be only five per cent in 1970. The distribution of
women within the orchestra is spatially uneven for they
especially keen in their hearing of other players, while
also reading their music and watching the conductor.are more likely to be playing the violin, viola, harp, or
flute than playing the cello, double bass, other wood-
Just how the players listen and "speak" to each other
can make or break a performance or can make the winds,
dif- brass (though more French Horn players than in
ference between an ordinary and an extraordinary the per-past are now women), timpani and percussion.
formance. Exceptions exist, of course, but this is the current gen-
eral pattern. Long the male preserve, the role of Con-
Gender and race certmaster is now held by women in at least four major
USA orchestras (Wakin, 2005). While women have been
on the conductor's podium for many decades (e.g.,
The distribution of musicians by gender is interesting.
Long a male domain, the orchestra increasingly is Antonia
of Brico, 1902-1989), it is only in 2005 that a
woman (Marin Alsop) was named Music Director of a
mixed gender, especially at levels below the top inter-
top-ranked USA orchestra (Baltimore), against the
national orchestras. Some top-level orchestras (Vienna
Philharmonic) have been slow to engage women, whilewishes of some of the musicians.

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 49

Figure 9. (a) A section of Beethoven's Emperor Concerto and (b) the conductor's sight and listening lines.

It is hard to find data on race, but it is safe to say that Micro scale

there are very few tenured African-American musicians

in the leading USA orchestras: as of 2002 (Lebrecht, The scale of the individual
2002), the New York Philharmonic and the Chicago
Symphony each had one, Boston and Cleveland two At the micro scale, attention is given to performers as
each, and Philadelphia three. That same year, there were individuals, noting how they must be spatially aware as
only five black musicians in the top twelve symphony they perform, and how they organize themselves within
orchestras in the UK. Though data are not available, "their" space and in relation to others in the orchestra.
there are increasing numbers of people of Asian heritage A flute player described performing as "a form of
in these orchestras, especially in North America, notably radar [for] we are in touch with the instrument, in touch
in the strings. James dePriest, now with the Tokyo with our thoughts and we are in touch with the sound all
Metropolitan Symphony Orchestra and Director of the time" (cited in Partington, 1995, p. 140). A violinist
Conducting and Orchestral Studies at the Juilliard stated: "listening is very important, but I can't evaluate
School, is one of the few black music directors of a major in mid-performance or I'll lose my train of thought. It's
orchestra, having also served as Music Director of the like the one about the window-washer: you can't stand
Oregon Symphony, L'Orchestre Symphonique de Qué- back and admire your work. You can get a bit caught up
bec, the Malmö Symphony, and L'Orchestre Philhar- in the music, but you have to keep this certain level of
monique de Monte Carlo. There are some black concentration" (cited in Partington, 1995, p. 140).
conductors of lower level orchestras (e.g., Raymond Another musician, a horn player, said "you never know
Harvey, Kalamazoo Symphony) who also guest with for sure how it sounds... you literally obliterate every-
various major orchestras, but most Music Directors and thing else that's going on, so you can't really hear what's
conductors of the top-ranked orchestras are White males.
happening. So you have to trust your own judgement,

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50

and others' judgement around you... " (cited in Par- striking the membrane surface, from several types of
tington, 1995, p. 141). hard (staccato), to medium hard, softer, and softest
Though all players are individuals, there may yet be (legato) sticks. Each is used to produce a different
something that does separate players by the instruments sound, drawn partly by the nature of the surface of the
they play; jokes abound about various players, suppos- stick (e.g., wood, felt) and partly by how a strike is made
edly reflecting generalizations about the type of player on the timpani "head" (or striking surface, of calf hide
of a specific instrument. Whatever the case, each indi- or a variant of plastic). During the course of a concert,
vidual's presence is "stamped" on the space by the the timpanist may use just two or three pairs of sticks for
deposition of instrument(s) or equipment needed during some music, and five or six for other music. In addition,
the course of a performance or rehearsal. each timpano has a pedal that is moved to tighten and
To understand this, let us consider several players in loosen the "head", allowing the various notes in a score
the orchestra who regularly change "their" space into to be played. (In 20th and 21st century music, the tim-
"their" place. The latter concept implies primacy of panist is often required to change notes during a work.)
occupation and the honouring ofthat "sacred" place by Accordingly, given the presence of the tray of sticks, the
others. Here, sacred space is not sacred in a religious sensitivity of excellent "heads", and a desire to avoid
sense; rather, one's place on stage is special to each accidentally changing notes, other musicians accept that
individual player, and each expects others to keep out. they will not enter the timpanist's "sacred space".
This is especially true for woodwinds and timpani, but The principal oboist is often the first person on stage
also applies to others. During rehearsal breaks, an prior to a rehearsal or performance due to the need to
individual's space will not be transgressed by other become comfortable in the assigned space and in so
players, particularly if instruments are left on music doing, establish a sense of place. The principal oboist is
stands, on chairs, or, as with clarinets, bassoons, and locationally and psychologically set off from all other
trombones, on special stands that sit on the floor. Each spaces in the orchestra, with exception of an immedi-
person occupies a particular space. Woodwind players ately adjacent space for the second oboist and, on the
are probably the most territorial of musicians, laying other side and behind, the three other woodwind prin-
claim to and using a specific location within the cipals. As noted above, the player has an assigned chair.
orchestra for the whole time they are engaged in a per-At that spot on the stage, the player settles in by placing
formance. Changes to the location of the chair and the certain paraphernalia beside the chair, which can be
immediate space surrounding it will be made with diffi-termed "supporting equipment". An oboe must be sure
culty and under protest. of the readiness of the instrument; double reed instru-
Each of the four principal woodwind players needsments are fickle (Burgess and Haynes, 2004). A draw-
to be aware of where he or she is in relation to the other string and rag for cleaning spittle from the instrument
three as they often play together; consequently, many may be placed on top of a bag located beside the chair as
woodwind players insist on very specific spacing well as a razor for shaving the reed. As oboe reeds are
between chairs. Once set, they retain their specific and temperamental and may cause difficulty when played,
relative locations because of the need to hear each other the player needs to be ready to make changes as required
as they play together. The importance of the link to one so extra reeds may be placed on the music stand, on a
another between the absolute and relative location of shelf positioned beneath the level on which the music
the principal woodwind players, is generally unmatched sheets rest. The change may have to be made within a set
elsewhere in the orchestra, though the principalsperiod for the defined by the end of a work and start of the
violin, viola and cello sections may exhibit similar next, or even, in an emergency, in a stretch of a score in
behaviours. which the oboist is not required to play. Freedom to
Horn players are sometimes seated across the backmove of and manipulate "his" space is essential.
the orchestra and in some settings this is so that theirThe bassoon is another double reed instrument so the
horns are played into the wall to achieve a bounce effect bassoonist's space, too, will have similar paraphernalia,
for volume. In contrast, trumpets and trombones point thus rendering the bassoonist's space also inviolable. No
straight out from the players so there is no need for such chance must be taken to have the paraphernalia
accommodation. Of course, these players need to hear bumped, jostled, or possibly knocked to the floor and
each other, especially when there are several parts being stepped on. An additional instrument may be placed in a
played at any particular moment, so they sit in a row. holder unit, so the player can put down one instrument
The tuba player, when called upon to play, will be seated (a standard bassoon), and lift another (a contrabas-
beside the bass trombone player. Those sitting in front soon).
of the brass and the timpani and percussion are some- Similarly, a flautist will have a drawstring and
times shielded from the barrage of sound by having attached rag as standard equipment, situated within
plexiglass barriers stationed between them and the easy reach (Powell, 2002). That player will normally not
"noise" source! be quite as concerned with the sanctity of space as the
The timpanist has a tray of different types of bassoonist
sticks and oboist as the player will seldom leave an
located beside the instruments, a range of heads for
instrument on the chair. It will be taken off stage. In

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 51

contrast, the bassoonist may leave "his" equipment
onstage during a break, taking just the reed of the
moment so it can be kept moist in the mouth.
Violinists and violists will vacate their space, taking
their fragile (and expensive) instruments with them.
Cellists and double bassists may leave their instruments
on stage during a break. The space claimed by each
player thus becomes his or her space for the duration of
a performance or rehearsal and some players more than
others make their space their place, even though only
temporarily.
Interplay among scales
The division into separate scales is somewhat artificial.
The scales interweave when considering an individual
player against his or her background. Each musician
becomes a member of an orchestra after a period of
study and performance elsewhere so that it is appro-
priate to link macro and micro scales. I illustrate this
with data on members of the Guelph Symphony
Orchestra (GSO), in Canada, in which there were
Figure 10 identifies the places of origin, study, and
playing experience of a sample from the second group,
members of which had studied and performed in
orchestras elsewhere, including Canada, USA, Philip-
pines, Peru, Scotland, Poland, and Romania.10 The
patterns of movement were not all straightforward, as
illustrated by the travel lines of the several individuals.
Each person in the GSO had performed with other
orchestras prior to joining the GSO. Some had per-
formed with youth orchestras in Canada, Poland,
Scotland, and the USA. Taking the two samples toge-
ther, it is easy to recognize that the GSO musicians have
a breadth of education and performance experience to
draw upon. While the musicians draw upon the mix of
experiences they also must transcended their varied
backgrounds so as to forge a joint voice. The musicians
need not always be conscious of their past experiences or
necessarily talk about them, but each person's musical
"character" and performance will reflect those earlier
experiences and so the group as a whole benefits.
Conclusion

two groups: those who had studied and played only in

south-western Ontario, and those who had studied andThis paper has discussed a variety of issues pertaining to
performed elsewhere before joining the GSO. The latterthe geography of orchestras, using the notion of four
are highlighted. scales of generalization to identify topics for discussion.

Figure 10. Relocations of some musicians in the Guelph Symphony Orchestra.

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52

An orchestra is a complicated organism, composed of we all did. Herman was the concertmaster, and it
conductor, musicians, and, of course, administrators was his bow, not the conductor's baton, that
and boards of supporters. Many of the topics considered conveyed information at the start of each work,
separately in this paper do not make sense when viewed transitions with changes of tempo, and endings. The
as stand-alone topics for it is only when examined "conductor" did wave his hands and baton around,
together that the orchestra makes sense. The explana- of course, and the audience believed he was in
tory scales are useful as tools to help identify topics that charge, but his face revealed to the musicians that he
might otherwise slip by. It is hoped that the reader has knew full well that such was not the case.
become aware of some of the intricacies that tend to be 10. Orchestras in Europe, North America, Israel and
elsewhere, at various times, have benefited from
taken for granted by those in the orchestra or are not
known by the audience. political upheavals in various parts of Europe, as
The discussion here has been exploratory and little
musicians sought refuge - and jobs - in orchestras in
has been said about music played by orchestras. For cities not deemed to be in danger. The geography of
more on that, from a geographical perspective, seesuch musicians has yet to be written.
Knight (2006).

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