CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter briefly reviews relevant literature, on the subject of microwave

microstrip lines and EMC fed patch antenna. It comprises of three parts. The first part is
an introduction to the thesis along with the theoretical background of microstrip lines
(including transmission line theory) (art. 1.1-1.3), which will be used for the analysis of
an open-ended microstrip feed line and its design (chapter 2, art.2.1, 2.2; chapter 3,
art.3.1, 3.2), to be used as a feed in the present work. The second part deals with the
microstrip patch antenna theory, analysis and design, including electromagnetically
coupled (EMC) microstrip antenna (art. 1.4-1.9). This part will be used for the analysis of
microstrip antenna and their design in chapter 2 and 3 (art.2.1, 2.2, art. 3.1, 3.2). The
third part is for a microstrip with an overlay (microstrip line and microstrip antenna).
This is given separately as it does not fall in the normal antenna studies (art. 1.10), and is
used for the angular variation of dielectric strip overlay effects on circular microstrip
patch antenna (CMP A). This is an extension of the sensor work in our laboratory, and
will be given at the end of this chapter.

1.1 Waveguides, Transmission Lines and Microstrip Lines

In any electrical communication system, an electromagnetic energy is transferred
from one place to the other, known as transmission which takes place through an
imboimded (e.g. free space, ionosphere and under the ocean) or bounded medium (e.g.
transmission line and wave guides). Many types of transmission lines and waveguides
are used for microwave and millimeter-wave frequencies. The transmission lines and
waves guides are cylindrical implying that the transmitted of electromagnetic energy is
along the direction of the axis of cylinder. The cylinder may have any geometrical cross-
section, e.g., circle, rectangle, ellipse, straight line, two or more circles, and concentric
circles [1]. Fig. 1.1 shows some of these lines and Table 1.1 summarizes their properties.
Among them, the rectangular waveguide, coaxial line, and microstrip line are the most
commonly used [2]. Coaxial line has (theoretically) no cutoff frequency, can be made
flexible, and can operate from dc to microwave or millimeter-wave frequencies.
Rectangular wave guide has a cutoff frequency and though has low insertion loss, it is

1
bulky and requires precision machining. A microstrip line is the most commonly used in
microwave integrate circuits (MIC) and monolithic microwave integrated circuits
(MMIC). The microwave circuits and MICs are generally used in afrequencyrange from
about 0.5 to 20GHz, and could also cover of 0.1 to 30GHz [1, 3]. In this range of
frequencies, one has to speak in forms of distributed components R, L & C. Above
30GHz (millimeter wave) other technologies e.g. FinUne and dielectric image line [4] are
used to design circuits. The wave transmission for MIC is along planar electrodes, hence
is called a "'stripline". Somefrequentlyused types of microwave transmission lines are
shovra in Fig. 1.2. The figures are indicative of their structural uses. The most important
and extensively used version of striplines is the ''microstrip line". Other conductor types
are the suspended substrate line, coplanar line, slotline and triplate. Recently, coplanar
waveguides and slotline have emerged as the alternatives to microstrip line for some
applications due to their imiplanar nature [2]. In microstrip, the stripline and groimd
plane are located on opposite side of the substrate. The microstrip line is the most
popular one [3, 5], as can be seen also in Tablel.l for the comparison for guiding media
and waveguides.
In tl^ next articles detail of substrates, fabrication techniques, and measurements on
microstrip are discussed.
 Meta: — . _
mjJiii!iJ!.'i

Rectaigula' waveguide Coaxial tire

r"nniujT
Stfip Ine

Meta!

Substrate

U c'ostrip line Suspended strip lire

Diciectr c

M«t2l

Metal

Fin hnc
Dielectric irnage guide

Meta
Me:ai. Qieiectric waveguide

b»t

fvubslrate
SubMra:e

S'Ot unp Cop^ana' waveguide

Figurel.l: Types of transmission lines and waveguides [2].

Figure 1.2: Block diagram of strip-line family structures [3, 5]
 Table 1.1: Con^ariLson of Guiding Media and Waveguides [2
Useful Cross- Active Potential
Frequency Impedance Sectional Power Device for Low-Cost
Item (GHz) Level (Q) Dimensions Q Factor rating Mounting Production
Rectangular <300 100-500 Moderate High High Easy Poor
waveguide to large
Coaxial line <50 10-100 Moderate Moderate Moderate Fair Poor
Strip line <10 10-100 Moderate Low Low Fair Good
Microstrip <100 10-100 Small Low Low Easy Good
line
Suspended <150 20-150 Small Moderate Low Easy Fair
strip line
Fin line <150 20-400 Moderate Moderate Low Easy Fair
Slot line <60 60-200 Small Low Low Fair Good
Coplanar <60 40-150 Small Low Low Fair Good
waveguide
Image guide <300 30-30 Moderate High Low Poor Good
Dielectric <300 20-50 Moderate High Low Poor Fair
guide

1.2 Technological Realization of Microstrip-Lines & Substrate Materials

Physically, any microstrip structure consists of a thin plate of low-loss insulating
material, the substrate, covered with metal completely on one side, the ground plane, and
partly on the other side, where the circuit or antenna patterns are delineated or printed.
Various processes can provide the desired metallization pattern [6,7].

1.2.1 The Substrate Characteristics for Microstrip Design [7]

The first step in designing any microstrip circuits is to choose an appropriate
substrate. The substrate in microstrip circuit is principally needed for the mechanical
support of the microstrip metallization and miniaturization of components through its
dielectric constant. To im)vide this support, the substrate needs to consist of dielectric
material, which may affect the electrical performance of the microstrip circuit. A
substrate must, therefore, simultaneously satisfy the electrical and mechanical
requirements, which is sometimes difficult to meet.
Substrate choice and evaltiation are an essential parts of the design procedure. The
substrate properties need to be considered: The dielectric constant and loss tangent and
their variation with tenq)erature and frequency, homogeneity, isotropicity, thermal
coefficient and temperature range, dimensional stability with processing and tenqierature,
humidity and aging, and thickness imiformity of tlw substrate are all of importance.
Similarly, other physical properties, such as resistance to chemicals, tensile and
structural strengths,flexibility,machinability, impact resistance, strain relief, formability,
and bondability.
The large range of PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene), polystyrene, polyolefin,
polyphenylene, alumina, sapphire, quartz, ferromagnetic, rutile, and semiconductor
substrates available permit considerable flexibility in the choice of the substrate for
particular applications. There is no ideal substrate; rather one has to choose a substrate
for particular appUcation.
The various substrates can be grouped in five categories: ceramic, semiconductor,
ferromagnetic, synthetic, and conqx)site [7, 8]. The main characteristics of these groups
are described in the next article.

1.2.1.1 Ceramic Substrates

The most commonly used ceramic substrate for microstrip circuit is alumina (AI2O3)
which is also mainly used in our experimental work. It has desirable electrical
characteristics such as high e, (~9.8), low loss and less dispersion with frequency.
However, it is hard and brittle and therefore difficult to process mechanically. Moreover,
its maximum size is limited by the fabrication process to about 4" x 4". Since adhesion
of copper and gold to alumina is poor, often an intermediate layer of chromium is
required. Sapphire is the monocrystalline form of alumina. It exhibits better electrical
characteristics than alumina, but it is highly anisotropic in nature and very expensive [7].
It can be used for low-loss applications at millimeters-wavefrequencies.Characteristics
of alimiina and sapphire are Usted in Table 1.2

1.2.1.2 Semiconductor Substrates

Semi-insulating or high-resistivity semiconductors like Si or GaAs can be used for
passive circuits and antennas. However, the size of available semiconductor substrates is
too small to be used at microwavefrequenciesfor antennas, the notable exception being
monolithic integrated antennas at millimeter waves [7, 9, 10]. Characteristics of high
resistivity GaAs and Si substrates are listed in Table 1.2.

1.2.1.3 Ferrimagnetic Substrates

The use of ferrite substrates has become popular [7, 11]. These substrates are
anisotropic in nature. The ferrite and YIG substrates have relative permittivity value in
6
the 9 to 16 and generally have low dielectric loss (tan5 for ferrite at 10 GHz is 0.001)
The resonant frequency of microstrip patch deposited on a ferrite substrate depends on
the biasing magnetic field. Thus, wide-band tunability (ahnost 40% in some cases) [12]
can be reaUzed by varying the bias on the ferrite material without seriously affecting the
radiation characteristics of the antenna.

Magnetic superstrates are also frequently used in combination with dielectric

substrates to tailor the performances of a single element or an array (especially the latter)
to the desired specifications.

1.2.1.4 Synthetic Substrates

A number of pure organic materials are commonly used as substrates. These include
PTFE or Teflon, polystyrene, polyolefin, polyphenylene. These material posses low loss
and low permittivity. However, though confirmable to different shapes, their mechanical
properties are less than desirable. These materials are soft and unstable with temperature.
The characteristics of some of these substrates are listed in Table 1.2.

1.2.1.5 Composite Material Substrate

Substrate manufactures have tried to combine the characteristics of various basic
materials to obtain the desired electrical and mechanical properties. The resulting
materials are called con^site materials. By adding fiberglass (woven and random),
quartz, or ceramic in suitable proportion to the organic or synthetic materials, the
mechanical properties are modified and the permittivity is tailored. A wide variety of
products is now available with a permittivity range of 2.1 to 10 and tan6 from 0.0005 to
0.002 at 10 GHz. Some of these materials are listed in Table 1.2. All of these are
available in large size (up to 1 m or more), with good mechanical properties allowing for
machining. Microstrq> circuit fabrication is possible with standard printed circuit
techniques. The dielectric constants of some well-known con^site material substrate
suitable for microstrip circuits are Usted in Table 1.2.
 Table 1.2: Characteristics of Laminates at 10 GHz [7]

Laaiiaate/Sabstnrtc Dielectric Loss Dimensional CheiBicai Temperature Relative

Constant Tangent StabiUty Resistance Range(°C) Cost

Ceramic substrates
Alumina 9.8 0.0005 Excellent Excellent To+1600 Medium to high
SaCT>hire 9.4,1.6 0.0001 Excellent Excellent - 24 to +370 Veryhi^

Semiconductor substrates
Semi-insulating GaAs 13.0 0.0006 Excellent Excellent -55 to +260 Very high
(>!(>'n-m)
Silicon(>IO'Q-m) 11.9 0.0004 Excellent Excellent -55 to +260 High

Ferrimgnetic substrates
Fenite 9.0 to 16.0 «0.001 Excellent Excellent -24 to+370 Medium

Synthetic substrates
PTFE (Teflon) 2.1 0.0004 Poor Excellent -27 to +260 Medium
Polypropylean 2.1 ±0.05 0.0004 Poor Excellent -27 to +200 Medium
Polyphenylene oxide 2.55 0.0016 Good Poor -27 to+193 Medium
(PPO)
Cross-linked polystyrene 2.54 0.0005 Good Good -27 to+110 Medium
Irradiated polyolefin 2.32 0.0005 Poor Excellent -27 to +110 Lx)w

Composite malerUd substrates

PTFE-giass, woven web 2.17 to 2.55 0.0009 to 0.0022 Excellent Excellent -24 to+370 Medium
PTFE-glass, rand«n fiber 2.17 to 2.35 0.0009 to 0.0015 Fair Excellent -27 to +260 Medium to high
PTFE-quartz, reinforced. 2.47 0.0006 Excellent Excellent -27 to +260 High
PTPE-ceramic, composite 10.2 0.002 Excellent Good -15 to+170 High
Cross-linked polystyrene- 2.62 0.001 Good Good -27 to+110 Low
Glass, reinforced
Cross-linked polystyrene- 2.6 0.0005 Good Good -27 to+110 Medium to h i ^
quartz
Cross-linked polystyrene- 2.65 0.0005 Good Good -27 to+110 Medium to high
Quartz. Woven
Cross-linked polystyrene- 3 to 15 0.0005 to 0.0015 Fair to Good Excellent -27 to+260 Medium to high
ceramic, powder filled
Teflon-glass, reinfwced 2.55 0.0015 Good Excellent - 27 to +260 Medium
Teflon-ceramic, reinfiirce 2.3 0.001 Fair to Good Excellent -27 to+260 Medium to high
Teflon-quartz, reinfiHt* 2.47 0.0006 Good Excellent -27 to+260 High
Teflon-ceramic, filled 10.3 0.002 Good Excellent -27 to+260 Low
Irradiated polyolefin- 2.42 0.001 Fair Excellent -27 to+100 Medium
glass, rdn&rced
Polyolcfin-ceramic, 3 to 10 0.001 Poor Excellent -27 to+100 High
Powder filled
Glass-bonded mica 7.5 0.002 Excellait Excellent -27 to+593 Medium to high
Silicon resin-ceramic. 3 to 25 0.0005 to 0.004 Fair to Good Excellent -27 to+268 Medium
Powder filled
Polyester-ceramic 6 0.017 Excellent Excellent - 27 to +205 Medium
Powder-filled glass.
Reinforced
Polymethaoylate foam, 1.07 0.0009
Rohacell51

8
1.3 Transmission Line Theory for Microstrip Lines and Parameters

The basic elements of transmission line theory that are applicable to a wide variety of
wave propagation problems are well reported [10, 13-16]. The generation and processing
of signals at microwaves frequencies (1.0 to 30GHz and beyond) are typically achieved
in microstrip circuits using elements constructed from microstrip transmission lines and
are combined with semiconductor components [13, 16]. The line widths and substrate
thicknesses are small while the circuit line lengths are generally a significant fraction of
a guide wavelength.

The microstrip transmission line may be seen as a logical transition in stages from
the familiar coaxial line, as shown in Fig. 1.3 [16]. The advantage of strip-line and
comparison between different types of strip-lines are reported by many authors [2-7, 10,
13-16]. The symmetrical strip transmission line, microstrip transmission line and open-
ended transmission line are the three types of strip-lines which will be explained in brief.

• / • / / / . > - J y

COAXIW QMANCtn

Figure 1.3: Transmission line configurations

L3.1 Symmetrical Strip Transmission Line [13,16-18]

The basic structure of the balanced or symmetrical strip transmission line,

uniformly filled with dielectric material, the strip is equidistant between the two ground
planes and supported by a homogeneous dielectric material as in Fig. 1.4.
 JL
:(
^onnal = 0
Tt
T'^nonnal
(a) (b)

I. ^c. 7T
1 \* W« —
1±
(c)

Figure 1.4: The symmetrical strip transmission line (a) the cross-sectional geometry (b)
the symmetry planes where the normal component of electric field is zero and (c)
capacitance model [13,16, 17].

The total capacitance Ct of the symmetrical strip transmission line can be modeled in
Fig. 1.14(c), and given by [17]
C,=2C^+4Cj. (1.1)
where
Ct = total capacitance per imit length

Cp = parallel plate capacitance per unit length (in the absence offringingfield)
2w,
^{2h + t)-t ^^'^'\-{t/{2h+t)) (1.2)

Cf- fringing capacitance per unit length can be approximated by using

10
 -In 1 + - - 1 In -1 (1.3)
\2
e n
1- 1- 1-
(2/1 +f) (2/1 + 0 (2/i+r) J (2/7 + / ) ,

which for zero thickness center conductor (t = 0) reduces to

^ ^ s - [2 ln(2)] = 0.4413 (1.4)

e n

Assume that the dielectric medium between the plates is not ferromagnetic. The
characteristic impedance can be written as

_ -^lAe _ £ [J' _ £ /AT _ 120;re-

(1.5)
C, C,Me Js,C,\s, Js,C,

UOTT UOTT 3071:

Z^Js, = (1.6)

£ ' e^ " '' l-t/(2h + t) e

For zero thickness of the center conductor (t = 0) and exact solution based on
conformal mapping represents the characteristic impedance of (1.6) [18]

30;r
Z^Je, = ,\'r , .v = 30;r (1.7)

where K(k) is an elliptic function of the first kind [17, 18] £ind it is given by

Jy/ (1.8)
yjl-q^ yjl-kq' i Vl-A:sinV

A: = tanh (1.9)
2"(2/z + f)
11
 [
k' =yll-e =jl-tanh' -sech (1.10)
'2{2h + t)^
It can be shown that the ratio of elliptic functions in Equation (1.7) to (1.10) can be
approximated by [17-19]

1 1 n ^f
In ->-> when —f= <k = tanh <1
TV l-yfk V2 '2(2h + t)
71 TT Wf
->—>• whenO <k = tanh < ^ (1.11)
^,..VF^ 2{2h+t)) V2
In
V
1-VF

1.3.2 Microstrip Transmission Line:

The general geometry of microstrip line is shown in Fig. 1.5. The most important
dimension parameters are the microstrip width, Wf , and the height, h (equal to the
thickness of the substrate). The relative permittivity of the substrate, £>• is important. In
RF and microwave applications the thickness / of the metallic, top-conducting strip is
generally of much lesser importance and may often be neglected [13].

Figure 1.5: (a) General geometry of a microstrip Ime (b) Transverse cross section of
microstrip, showing electric field [13, 20]

12
 A microstrip involves an abrupt dielectric interface between the substrate and the air
above it. Consider a substrate material with e = £^£(, and/i = //o. Using Maxwell's

equation, V x £ = - 5 5 / 5 / , and the condition on the air/dielectric boundary that the

tangential magnetic field component, Hy, is continuous across the boundary, then

dE. dE^^^^_^.^^E^ ^^^2)

dX(diel) dZ(air) dZ{diel)

Since E^ is non-zero along the boundary and varies ase~^^ , the left hand side of

(1.12) is also non-zero, which can only be true if there is a longitudinal electric field
component. Likewise, it may be shown that a longitudinal magnetic field component
must also exist. It may be shown from Maxwell's equations that each transverse field
component can be expressed in a microstrip line requires all six field components [16].

At low frequencies, with wavelengths longer compared to the width and height of
the microstrip line, the right hand side of equation (1.12) tends to zero. Consequently the
longitudinal field components diminish. Thus, at low frequency (up to several
gigahertzes) quasi-static conditions exist and the field components are predominantly in
the transverse plane.

1.3.3 Basic Formula for Microstrip-Lines:

Closed form expressions for microstrip line parameters have been developed
from the results of conformal transformation methods by Wheeler [20], for a balanced
strip configuration separated by a dielectric sheet, and by Schneider [21], who dealt
directly with microstrip line geometries. This method leads to pairs of expressions with
one of the pair valid for narrow-strip and the other for wide-strip geometry. Owen [22]
and Hammerstad [23] used Green's fiinction technique to test the closed form
expressions against more accurate computational results for midrange strip geometries.
With this information, one can thus either determine the changeover point between
narrow- and wide- strip formulae or modify the coefficients in the expressions for
minimum errors over the range of interest.

13
(a) Wf/h for narrow and wide strips when Zo and fr are given:
For 'narrow' strips (i.e. whenZg >(44-ff^)Q:)

yvf _fexp//' 1 y
(1.13)
8 4exp//'
where
^,_z„V2(g,+i)^ir^,.-i \( , ^ 1,4
In—+—In— (1.14)
119.9 2|^f,+ly ^ 1 e^ Ttj

We may also use, with slight but significant shift of changeover value to w^ //? < 1.3 (i.e.

when ZQ > (60 - f ^ )Ci):

f.+l 1
1- hi —+—In— (1.15)
2//' 2 e, n
where H' is given by Eqn.(1.14) (as a function of Zo) or, alternatively, as a function of
^fjh fromEqn.(1.13):

(,- ^'
//•=hi 4 — + J l 6 +2 (1.16)
v^/;
Another, somewhat simpler, expression for Seffi^a) ^ finished by Equation (15) of

Owen [22], which is

n-2
£.+1 29.98 (e^-\^(
.71 1,4
1+ (1.17)
f.+l v^.+l; hi—+—hi—
^ 1 e^ n J

We now consider the ranges and formula for 'wide' strips. For wide strips (i.e. when
Z«<(44-2^,)n):

0.517
^ = ^[(^.-l)-ln(2./..-l)].fe^ In J - 1 + 0.293- (1.18)
h n ns.

where

59.95;r'
d = (1.19)

14
with the same slight shift of changeover value as before (i.e. where Wflh>l.3 and

ZQ >(63-2f^)Q), Owen found that a modified form of an earlier expression due to

Schneider [21] gave very accurate results. Owens' formula is.

-0.555
£. +lS-\
^eff =
r r 1 + 10- (1.20)
"Wf

Alternatively, where Z^ is known at first

% = (1.21)
0.96 + e^ (0.109 - 0.004f, Xlog(l 0 + Z^)-1]

For microstrip lines on alimiina (f, =10) this expression appears to be accurate to
±0.2% over the impedance range

8<Z„<45a (1-22)

Finally, some accvjrate expressions for analysis (calculating Zo) are also given.

(b) Zo for narrow and wide strips when w^ jh and 8r are given:

For 'narrow' strips (w^/h<3.3):

„ 119.9 , 4 — + J 1 6 | A
Z„ = , . .rln +2 (1.23)
^JW^ w, v^/y
Form Owen [22, Eqn.21] for 'wide' strips wrthw^/h > 3.3

_ 199.9;r \wf ^ ln4 ^ ln(g;rVl6)f g. - 1 g.+l

In— + ^ + 0.94 (1.24)
K ^r J 2ne, 2 2h

15
 In all cases, the shape ratio w^jh will be accurate to ±1%. For narrow lines

(w^//i<1.3), f^j^has the error range ±0.5%, if calculated using Equation (1.20), f.^is

accurate to ±0.25%. The expressions for Zo results in accuracies to ±1%.

1.3.4 Practical Microstrip Line

(a) Practical Microstrip line & Limitations: A practical microstrip line does not
behave exactly as described by the low frequency ideal line models in the previous
article. The practical line is considered in terms of perturbation effects on the ideal line.
Afinitethickness strip is taken care of through an effective increase in the line width of a
zero-thickness line. Thefiniteconductivity of metal and lossy dielectric substrates do not
cause any significant changes to the characteristic impedance or wavelength, but is
responsible for introducing an attenuation to the transmitted signal.
Quasi-static approximations are based on the assumption of TEM fields in
microstrip lines and are assumed in the design of most of the components and circuits. It
is however, important to realize that this TEM assumption may be a limitation at higher
frequencies unless one knows how to circumvent it.

A microstrip line is capable of radiating from any line discontinuity as well as

setting up other modes that are guided by the air-substrate interfece without requiring the
presence of a metal strip. A microstrip circuit is normally enclosed in a shielded
environment to minimize these effects and to protect the circuit from external influence.
However, the shield itself will influence the line parameters and will also allow other
resonant modes to be excited in the resulting cavities. These effects are among the
fiirther considerations that must be taken care of, before completing the design of
microstrip components and circuits. These are detailed below.

(b) Finite Strip Thickness: The conductors of practical microstrip lines have a finite
thickness, t, that must be accounted for accurate calculations of characteristic impedance
and propagatk)n coefficient. Formulae that were derived for the Zo and propagation
constant use zero-thickness line (Eqn.1.6 and 1.7). Forfinitethickness when equivalence

16
is established between a practical line with parameters (wf, h, t) and a zero-thickness line
{\Vf,h t=0), one may modify it to equivalent with w^ as extended by say Aw, i.e.

w^ = Wy + Aw (1.25)

Z£RO
THICKHESS
EQUIVALENT

Sr Th

Figure 1.6: The equivalence betweenfinite-andzero-thickness microstrip lines.

These parameters are illustrated in Fig. 1.6. For the majority of microstrip lines, t«h and
further, except for the very nanow high impedance line, one may have \ « w/.

The secondary parameters of any TEM lines, namely Zo and propagation constant
y, are derived [16,chp.l.2] in terms of L, C, R and G for a lossy line. Thus it is necessary
to know the influence of finite line thickness on L and C and hence deduce the effect on
the characteristic impedance and, s^g-, on the propagation coefficient.

The influence of line thickness with e^ = 1 was studied by Wheeler [20] and
formulae for the line width corrections for narrow and wide strips were obtained. One of
the wide-strip terms was later corrected [24], as a part of the original derivation which
was based on the assiunption of an unlimited width strip. Bhal and Garg [25] modified
the original Wheeler formulae by increasing all the correction terms to w^ Ih by 25%,
when used in characteristic impedance calculations, and thus found a close fit for the
existing data at that time [25].

w) jh = Wj- Ih + (l .25 tJTa^ + In {•;r w^ //}), w^ /h < I/ITT (1.26)

17
 H'^//i = H'^/A + (l.25//;Efe)(l + ln{2V^}), wjh>l/27r (1.27)
Furthermore, the effective relative permittivity was also reduced for a finite line
thickness to give
^eff = % + fe -l)/4.6X//A)/>v///) (1.28)

Equation (1.26) to (1.28) apply for t/h < 0.2, 0.1< w^/;i <20 and ff, < 16. Wheeler [24]
introduced an additional term that extended the width formulae for greater thickness
lines and combined both narrow- and wide-line formulae into a unified one, giving
w'ffh for characteristic impedance calculations. The correction term, suitable for both
analysis and synthesis, is

Aw = (t/h%l + l n 4 ) - (l/2)lnlt/hf + (I/TTCJ }J, with s^ = 1 (1.29)

with either C = '^f /{^ + \ AO) or t^ = w^ /(h - 0.26), depending on whether the actual
width or the equivalent zero-thickness width is already known. Equation (1.29) is valid
for thickness up to a square cross-section for narrow strips and up to moderate
thicknesses, i.e. t < h, for wide strips. This equation may be used for all inductance
calculations since for any TEM-wave
i = i/[c^q,^.,)] (1.30)

The width adjustment for inductance calculations is independent of the substrate

permittivity and is most easily given through the thickness influence on C^^ ^,) in
Eqn.(1.30). However, the effect of strip thickness on the capacitance will be dependent
on the substrate permittivity. Aw will be smaller when e^ > 1 than when £r=^, since
the edge of the strip is in a region where the electric field strength for a given voltage is
reduced as the substrate permittivity increases [24]. The modified correction term to be
used for capacitance calculation is Aw/e^ , so that for characteristic impedance
calculations

Aw =[{l + (l/fJ}/2]Aw (1.31)

18
The efifective relative permittivity is used primarily in the evaluation of the wavelength

along the hne at the operating frequency. Using the definition that e\ = (/l^/A)^ and

substituting for each wavelength from a relationship of the form p = ITT/A = coJTc ,
gives

_ C{withsiihstrate)
%=-^-Tw-7A (1-32)
C{air)
Thus

^eff=\^. .:. , : . .!> (1.33)

ZQ iwithsubstrate) J

Allowing for the finite thickness of the strip, (1.33) becomes

^.-\'t'-'''^tT''-''") (1.34)

In this part the variations of characteristic impedance are required as fimction of

parameters (wf, h, t, Sr)[\6\.

1.3.5 Discontinuities:
Accurate representation of the fields of straight and uniform microstrip lines with
constant characteristic impedance are well known and have been discussed [10, 15, 16-
chp.3]. When such a line is used in practical circuit, there will no longer be continuous
cross-section geometry, but changes will be brought about by joining two lines or by
connecting various loads lines, hence changing the characteristic impedance, propagation
direction etc. The discussion here applies not only to the transmission lines, but also to
the transmission line circuits, particularly the transmission microstrip patch antenna
which is an extension of a microstrip line. Three classes of discontinuity-effects may be
considered [10, 15,16-chp.5]:

19
 (i) The presence of jfringing quasi-static electric fields and the associated
capacitance, for example when there are sudden changes in the width of the
line and in particular at open-circuit terminations,
(ii) The changes in the flow of conduction current and the associated series
inductances;
(iii) The laimching of higher order modes and surfece waves as well as unbounded
radiation. This effect [16, chp.4] may be modeled by a shunt conductance to
represent the loss of power for the line.
When a discontinuity is produced by a change in the transverse dimension of the line,
an effective way to represent the first two cases is to convert the discontinuity effects
into an equivalent dimensional change in the geometry of an idealized line, i.e. a line in
which there are nofringingeffects.

(a) The open-Circuit End Correction [IS, 16]: This correction is very important for
EMC coupling and also for microstrip patch antennas (MPAs). Open-circuit terminated
microstrip transmission lines are commonly used in matching networks and filter
structures because reasonable open circuits are easier to realize than short circuits. In
practice, an approximate open circuit is constructed by using the open end of a
transmission line. The ideal field patterns associated with standii^ wave from the open-
circuit terminated line are disturbed by the abrupt termination with fringing electric
fields for the end of the line to the ground plane. At lowfrequenciesthefringingfields,
(Fig. 1.7 (a)) and the increase in electrostatic energy as a result of the extra stored charge
may be modeled by a capacitive termination, CF, across a true open circuit at the
terminating plane of the open-ended line as illustrated in Fig. 1.7(b). The fringing
capacitance at the termination of the line is equivalent to correction to line length (If)
extending the line by A/in Fig. 1.7(c), i.e. the apparent line length is greater than the
physical line length. The deviation of this correction is given by Eqn.1.35 [16-chp.l].

Z,„ = Z,[{Z, cos{pi)+jZ, sm{pi)}/{Z, cos{pi)+jZ, sin(/?/)}] (1.35)

20
 '<==^
SnUKCI (a)
/ / ^ f 7 / CZ f ' f ? ' i y ? f f } \ r > ^ f f f f f f

C,. ^T (b)
'ffff^/
zz: zz } > } } ' } } f f } / f / /

H h-^'
H • '

rz
IV (c)

Figiire 1.7: The electric fields at the open-end termination of a microstrip line, showing
(a) the fringing electric fields, (b) the equivalent fringing capacitance, and (c) the
equivalent line extension to an ideal open circuit [16].

The input impedance of an open-circuit terminated lossless line is

Z,„=-jZ,co\{fii) (1.36)

In Eqn. (1.36), the length correction (extension), 1 = A/, gives the appropriate impedance
for the fringing capacitance CF.

(1.37)

and
M = {l/fi)arctan{o)ZoCp) (1.38)

In practical situations, such as a single-stub matching network where the theoretical

length of an open-circuit terminated line is known, the calculated line length is shortened
by the correction factor for the constructed circuit. As a correction term at low
frequencies with A/ « A/16, and using, /9 = ^(s^^Xo/c), (1.38) may be written as

A/ cZ. w. C. (1.39)
h 'ef L
Wf

21
 The capacitive model is the first approximation to the correction term and
neglects both, the inductance to accoimt for the redistribution of the current flow in the
line, and the conductance to model the loss of power by radiation. Equation (1.39) is
consistent with the intuitive notion thatC^, =CA/, which is really an expression of the
short line approximation of Fig. 1.8, valid at zero current position.

Figure 1.8: Equivalent circuit of a short length of (a) high impedance line and (b) low
impedance line
Silvester and Benedek [26] evaluated the excess capacitance associated with the
fringing fields directly, avoiding the possibility of large errors that may occur when the
difference is taken between the charges associated with the open-ended line and the same
length of uniform line. They give empirical equations for six selected substrate
permitivities (Sr = 1-53 to 2.6 and 9.6 to 10), expressing the fringing capacitance
normalized with respect to the width of the line, (Cp/wf), as a fimction of [w^lh) for
0.1 < {yVf /h}<\0. Their error analysis suggests that the capacitance values will probably

be on the lower side of the true values. The six empirical equations for capacitance [26]
have been reduced by Hammerstad [23] to one equation such that the normalized line
extension, A///z, is given in terms of grand Al/h as

A/ e^ff+03 wJh + 0.262 ^, ^^^

— = 0.412x—^^^ x^!^ (1.40)
h £,^-0.258 w^//» + 0.813

The maximum error for A/ in Eqn.(1.39) covapared with data that is used for fitting the
expression is less than 0.05h for £> = / and less than 0.01 h for Sr >2.5.

22
 In hybrid-mode analysis of the effects, Jansen [27] formulated the problem in
terms of the field and surfece current distributions that occur in the plane of the
microstrip. The complete termination is considered to be enclosed within a perfect metal
wall structure, with the walls being sufficiently far from the microstrip line for them to
have minimal influence on the solution. The method may also be used to predict the
frequency dependence of the end-effect correction term.
An empirical formula that accurately models results derived from the method of
Jansen [27] for the effect of an open end on a microstrip line has been given by
Kirschning et al. [28] given by
A///, = (^^4'3Cj (1.41)
where

4*'-0.189 (i47/;/f'+0.87

0.5274 X arctan(o.084(w^ /7J) ""*'')

' 2 ' • 0.02%

with
).971

2.35ff,+l

C3=l-0.218exp(-7.5M;^/;z)

^4=1 + 0.0377(6 - 5 exp(0.036(l - e, )))x arctan(o.067(w^ //i)""')

The accuracy of the fit of (1.41) to the theoretical results at l.OGHz is better than
2.5% for relative permittivity less than 50 and line geometries in the
range 0.01 < (w^ //i) < 100.

The range 0.04<(H'^/;I)< 10 and 2.2 ^e^- ^-^ ^^^ covers the majority of
situations for microstrip lines using polystyreiK-based substrate materials, a simplified
expression to replace equation (1.41) that introduces less than 1% additional error at low
frequencies has been derived for equation (1.41) [16], given by

— = 2]4X'+(2.4-ff,X0-022 + 0.008>v^//i) (1.42)

23
wbere X = \n\Wflh), and Aj, are listed in Table 1.3. Likewise, for 9.6 <£^ < 10.0

(1.43)
h ^;=0 '
with Bj is given in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3: End-effect correction coefficients

i AjEqn.(1.42) {2.2 <s. <2.6) BiEqn. (1.43) (9.6 <ff,< 10.0)
0 0.3817 0.3173
1 0.1038 0.07592
2 0.00879 -0.00201
3 -0.00073 -0.00288
4 -0.00068 -0.00030
5 -0.00019 -0.00004

The A///? of Eqa(1.41) is plotted in Fig. 1.9 (the solid line —) as afijnctionof
Wf jh with e^ = 2.5.
Data point (•••) jfrom Eqn. (1.42) illustrates the fit of the simplified equation, but
in the restricted permittivity range, to more complete equation. The Silvester and
Benedek [26] results (xxxx) ami derived equation by Hamerstad [23] ( ) in Fig. 1.9
tend to support the former authors' analysis that their results are ejqjected to be low. The
theoretical results of James and Tse [29] were extracted for a small published graph and
plotted (as the dotted curve). The experimental results from [29] (• •) without any stated
errors, were obtained for f, =2.53. Fig. 1.9 thus compares Silvester and Benedek's
results with those bases on Jansen's approach for the case ofe^ = 2.5. The agreement
between the two methods improves for large £^^, but substantially deteriorates as £"^ tends
toimity.

24
 0.005

Figure 1.9: Con^jarison of theoretical results and empirical formulae for the low
frequency open-end correction factor with s^ = 2.5 . The asymptotic limit (a) from
Wheeler [20] is foxs^ »1. Experunental points (• • ) are from [29] for E^ = 2.53 [16].

Since the fringing fields at end of a line are similar to the fringing fields at the
edge of line, asymptotic values for dJ/hmay be deduced for line with large Wf/h from

the expressions derived by Wheeler [18, 20]. These expressions allow for the fringing
fields of a uniform line end and give an increase in the effective line width over the
actual one. In one case, wither^ » 1 , from [20-Eqn.21], it is found that

A///i = ln/;r = 0.441 (1.44)

giving an equivalent line extension of 0.441 xh for open circuits on wide lines for high
permittivity substrates. This asymptote is shown as dashed line (a) in Fig. 1.9. Secondly,
withf^ = 1.0, from [18, Eqn.35]

M/h = l/;r^(;r w^ /h)+l\ (1.45)

This equation gives Al/h = 1.097 for WfJh^lO and shows a linear increase of

Al/hviith\n(wf/h).

25
 After having looked at the different approaches for microstripline analysis, the
transmission line theory will be used for an analysis and the design of an opened-ended
microstrip line (art.2.1, art. 3.1) which is the only feed system used in the present work
of electromagnetically coupled MP As.

1.4 Microstrip Patch Antenna:

This section gives a description and an analysis of a narrow band radiating system i.e.
microstrip patch antennas and an [extension of the theory in art 1.3].

1.4.1 Introduction to Microstrip Patch Antennas (MPAs)

The development of MPAs started from the idea of utilizing printed circuit
technology not only for the circuit components and transmission lines but also for the
radiating elements. The concept of MPAs was first introduced by Deschamps in 1953
[30], more than 20 years passed before practical antermas were fabricated. Development
diiring the 1970s was accelerated by availability of better substrates with low loss
tangent and attractive thermal and mechanical properties, improved photolithographic
techniques, and better theoretical models. The first practical antennas were developed by
Howell [31] and Mounson [32]. Good review of which is available. The various types
MPAs, particularly the flat profile printed antennas, have been developed and they can
be designed to have variety of geometrical shapes and dimensions & even with "local
loading". A comprehensive review of these configurations is available [7, 8, 10, 30-38].
The microstrip antennas can be divided into four basic categories; microstrip patch
antennas, microstrip dipoles, printed slot antennas, and microstrip traveling-wave
antennas [10, 33].

26
1.4.2 Configurations and Applications of Microstrip Patch Antenna
(MPA)

A microstrip patch antenna (MPA) consists of a conducting patch of any

geometry (planar or nonplanar) on one side of a dielectric substrate with a ground plane
on the other side [7, 10, 33] as shown in Figure 1.10. It is a printed radiating element
electrically driven with respect to the groimd plane [7,10, 33, 36-38] hence they are half-
space radiator.
The patch conductors, normally of copper or gold, can assume virtually any
shape. The regular shapes (e.g. rectangular, square and circular) are generally used to
simplify analysis and performance. These and others are illustrated in Figure 1.11 with
RMPA as an example. Ideally, the dielectric constant, Sr, of the substrate should be low
(Sr < 2.5), to enhance the fringing fields that account for the radiation and bandwidth
(BW). Though, the high Sr substrates are often used to reduce size. However, 8r = 13
seems to be the limit. The high Sr substrates are used particularly for phased array
antenna [5, 10, 7, 33, 39] as microstrip microwave integrated circuit (MMIC) substrate is
of semiconducting material with Sr ~ 13 [39].

Microstrip antennas have several advantages compared to conventional

microwaves antennas, and therefore many applications cover the broadfrequencyrange
from ~100 MHz to ~100GHz. The principal advantage and limitations of microstrip
antennas compared to conventional microwave antennas are similar to those of
microstrips [3, 5, 7, 33]. Though microstrip antennas are still under development, they
are finding more practical applications, replacing the conventional microwave antennas
[3, 5, 7, 36, 37,40] especially in the receiver side.

27
 •-V

Ground plane
(a) Microsirip anicnna

Ground plane

(b) Side view

Figure 1.10: Microstrip patch antenna [40, chp.l4]: RMPA

(») S^aare (b> RM-ttmgnku (c) Dipole (d) Cli cnliu (•) ElHptical

(f) TiLutenliu- (g) Disc sector (h) Ciicnlai- ring 0) Ring sector

Figure 1.11: Representative shapes of planar microstrip patch antenna [7, 40, chp.l4]

28
1.4.3 Feeding Method
Many configurations are used to feed microstrip antennas. The four most popular
ones are (i) in-plane microstrip line, (il) coaxial probe, (iii) aperture coupling and (iv)
EMC i.e. proximity couplii^ [33, 37, 40-46]. These are displayed in Figure 1.12. The
equivalent circuits for each one of these is shown in Figure 1.13. The main radiating
patches are represented by resonant RLC circuits; with the microstrip feed line
represented by coupling capacitance Cc (see Fig. 1.13). The microstrip feed line is also a
conducting strip, usually having much smaller width compared to the patch.

(i) The in-plane microstrip feed line is relatively very easy, to febricate, simple to
match by controlling the inset position and simple to model. However as the substrate
thickness increases surfece waves and spurious feed radiation increase, which for
practical designs limit the bandwidth (typical 2-5%) [7].

(ii) Coaxial-line feeds, is one where the iimer conductor of the coaxial
cable/connector is coimected to the patch while the outer conductor is comiected to the
ground plane. The feed has low spwious radiation. However, it has narrow bandwidth, it
is more difficult to model than (i), especially for thick substrate (h>0.02AK)).

(iii) The aperture coupling: It is the most difficult of all the four to fabricate, has a
very narrow bandwidth because high Q of aperture [35, 40, 43, 44]. The aperture
coupling consists of two substrates separated by a ground plane. On the bottom side of
the lower substrate there is a microstrip feed line whose energy is coupled to the patch
through a slot on the ground plane separating the two substrates. This arrangement
allows "independent" optimization of the feed mechanism and the radiating element
(unlike the (i)). Typically a high dielectric material is used for the bottom substrate, and
thick low dielectric constant material for the top substrate. The ground plane between the
substrates isolates the feed from the radiating element and minimizes interference of
spurious radiation for pattern formation and polarization purity. For this design, the
substrate electrical parameters, feed line width, slot size and position can be used to
optimize the design [35]. Typically matching is performed by controllmg the width of
the feed line and the length of the slot.

29
 Picbe inner
conihKtoi lip
Top ^•iew

Cirrnlni nin •sti-ip

y pmrh
S, I Sidrvlvw
y>->>" '" '•'
Oiotmd pbur
Oround plaat

(a) Miciostiip line feed (iii-plane) (b) Piobe feed

& , l l : t I I I I 1 . I I : I , ••—r

El, hi
h = hi+h: OROUNO
PLANE

(c) EMC i.e. pi oxiinit}'-coupled feed

coupling apw hn e
62, h; isi'oiuid plane

miaostiip feed line

81, hi

(d) Aperture coupled feed

Figure 1.12: Typical feeds for Microstrip antenna [7, 40]

30
 Patch Patch

saiMt««iifai«i«uftt
1"
'T^ Smidl sborted probe
^

(a) Mirrostrip Use (is-plane) (b> Probe

Patch
Patch
If- y

Ap«i-tiu-e - r Cc

(r) EMC i.o. proxindty- roapled (d) Apntnre-ronpled

Figure 1.13: Equivalent circuits for typical feeds of Figure 1.12 [40, chp.l4]
Radiating patch represented by resonant RLC circuit, microstrip feed line represented by
the coupling capacitance Cc

(iv) The EMC Le. proximity coupling has main advantage of ease in adjustability of
feed position & hence tailoring of the antenna parameters e.g. one can get larger
bandwidth (as high as 13 percent). It is somewhat easy to model & has low spurious
radiation. Its febrication is easiest. The width to line ratio of the patch as well as
inset/offset can be used to control impedance matching [45]. Comparison of the various
types of feed structures is given in Table 1.4.

31
 Table 1.4: Comparison of Feeds for Microstrip Patch Antennas [7]
T\pe of Microstrip Feed
Characteristics Coaxial- Radiating Nonradiating Gap Inset EMC Aperture
probe Edge Edge Coupled In-plane (Proximity Coupled*
Feed Coupled Coupled (In-plane Feed Coupled) (iii)
(ii) (In-plane (In-plane Feed) (i) (iv)
Feed) Feed)
Configuration Nonplanar Coplanar Coplanar Coplanar Coplanar Planar Planar
(in- (in-plane) (in- (in-
plane) plane) plane)
Spurious feed More Less Less More More More More
radiation
Polarization Poor Good Poor Poor Poor Poor Excellent
purity
Ease of Soldering Easy Easy Easy Easy Alignment Alignment
fabrication and required required
drilling
needed
Reliability Poor due Better Better Better Better Good Good
to
Soldering
Impedance Easy Poor Easy Easy Easy Easy Easy
matching
Bandwidth
(achieved with 2-5% 9-12% 2-5% 2-5% 2-5% 13% 21%
impedance [7] [7] [7] [7] [7] [45] [46]
matching)

1.4.4 Analytical Models for Microstrip Patch Antennas

Out of many methods of analysis for microstrip antennas, the most popular models
are (i) the transmission-line [37, 47] (ii) cavity (which include Modal-Expansion Cavity
model) [37,47-50] and (iii)foil-wave(which include primarily integral equation/Moment
Method) [51- 54]. (i) The transmission-line model is the easiest of all, it gives good
physical insight, but is less accurate and is more difficult to model coupling [55]. (ii)

32
Compared to the transmission-line model, the cavity model is more accurate, gives good
physical insight but is more con^lex and is rather difficult to model coupling [56, 57].
(Hi) In general when applied properly, thefiiU-wavemodels are accurate, versatile, and
can treat single elements, finite and infinite arrays, stacked elements, arbitrary shaped
elements, and coupling. However they are the most complex models and usually give
less physical insight. Some details of each model are given as follows:

1.4.4.1 Transmission-Line model

The first transmission line model was published by Munson [32], which deals with
rectangular (or square) patch with in plane feeding [50] as equivalent to line of length of
rectangle L = Xg/2 with two radiating parallel slots of length Z' at the end of it, width say
w & thickness h, the slots being equivalent to loads Yi &Y2 (see Fig.l .14).

The advantage of this model is its simplicity [37, 50]. The patch antenna in
Fig. 1.14 can be viewed as a very wide microstrip transmission line of length L. The
region between the patch edges and the ground plane at the two ends of the line can be
viewed as radiating apertures like 2 element array of slot antennas. The total input
resistance at resonance is [37, 50]

K=^ (1-46)

where a slot admittance given by [58, p. 186, 59]

Y,=G, +75, = ^ [ l + y(l-0.6361n^o>v], (1-47)

and AK) is thefree-spacewavelength, ZQ = yfjUo/So , kg = 2;r/A^, and w is the slot width,

^proximately equal to the substrate thickness h. Since the slots are identical (except for
fringing effects associated with the feed point on edge 1), an identical expression holds
for the admittance of slot 2.

33
 SLOT 1 SLOT 2

L'

L=Xg/2 J i^w
(a> TOP M E W

L = Ag/2 H

]"
(b) SIDE M E W

Y2

(c) EQinVALENT CIRCITIT

Figure 1.14: Transmission line model of rectangular microstrip antenna (a) top-view of
RMPA (b) side view of RMPA (c) its equivalent circuit

The resonancefrequencyis [37, 50]

/.= (1.48)
X^Je

where Ag is the wavelength in dielectric substrate and s^ is the relative dielectric constant
and c is the velocity of light.
34
The total radiation field is obtained [50] as follow:

E. =-JwA'-^^^^^!^coiKL/2sine) (1.49)

E.--jAVr,Lkr, 7-^^-^^^ V^cos^ (1.50)

where Fp is the slot volts^e across the radiating edge and Apis the propagation constant
infi-eespace.

1.4.4.2 Cavity Model

Although the transmission-line model is easy to use, it suffers from numerous

disadvantages. It is only useful for patches of rectangular shape, the w related to fringe
factor q must be empirically determined, it ignores field along non radiating edges and
field variations along the radiating edges, it is not adaptable to inclusion of the feed, etc.
These disadvantj^es are eliminated in the cavity model. A Cavity model was advanced
by Lo et al. [48, 49], where, the interior region of the patch is modeled as a cavity
bounded by electric walls on tte top and bottom, and magnetic wall all along the
periphery. The model is based on the assumptions that, for the substrates with small
thickness coirq)ared to free space wavelength ih«Xo):

(i) Thefieldsin the interior region do not vary with z (that is, ^ ^ = 0) because
the substrate is very thin, h«Xo.
(ii) The electric field is only in z direction, and the magnetic field has only the
xy-conqx)nents in the region bounded by the patch metallization and the
groimd plai^. This observation provides electric walls at the top and bottom.
(iii) The electric current in the patch has no component normal to the edge of the
patch metallization, which implies that the tangential component of H along

35
 the edge is negligible, and a magnetic wall can be placed along the periphery.
Mathematically, dEz/dn = 0.

Hence the radiation pattern, radiated power and input impedance at any feed point
may be evaliiated by considering the fields due to the cavity or surface currents which
give rise to the fields in the cavity. The "Modal expansion cavity model" is similar to the
basic cavity model described above in many ways, but it differs in (i) the impedance
boundary conditions are imposed on the walls of the cavity to obtain a solution, (ii) The
constraint involves consideration of the stored and radiated energy effects as complex
admittances due to the walls. (Mi) The feed point location and modes are considered in
the analysis. The experimental results agree reasonably well with the analysis [59].
Closed form expressions on the basis of this model for all these are available [33, pp.90-
98, 37].

1.4.4.3 Full-Wave Analysis

The transmission-line model and cavity model, both are approximate models,
which make a number of simplifying assumptions. These assumptions (1) give rise to
analytical simplicity in the form of closed-form eigenfunctions; (2) use closed-form
expressions for wall admittances and, are therefore, numerically less computation
intensive; and (3) use an add-on approach while accounting for various phenomena, such
as space wave radiation, sur&ce wave radiation, and mutiial coupling. Therefore, they
sufferfi"oma number of limitations. Their principal limitations are Usted below [7, 33].
(a) The models are accurate for thin substrates (h/Ao < 0.01) only because of
the assimiption d/ct =0.
(b) These models are not accurate when applied to narrow width microstrip
dipoles.
(c) Some of feed configurations such as EMC i.e. proximity-coupled and
aperture-coupled microstrip feeds are difficult to model.
(d) The models have not been tested for anisotopic substrates.
(e) Cross-polarized radiationfrompatch antenna has not been predicted using
the transmission line model or the multiport network model because only
single mode analysis could be easily carried out.

36
 Most of limitations listed above can be overcome in full-wave techniques. These
techniques maintain rigor and accuracy at the expense of numerical analysis and required
tinte. The principal assumption of integral equation techniques is that the substrate and
ground plane are finite in lateral dimensions. The formulation of the solution is based on
rigorously enforced boimdary conditions at the air-dielectric interface (for the size of
element/basis of numerical analysis) using the exact Green's function for the con^site
dielectric, based on Maxwell's eqiiations. The Green's function includes the effects of
dielectric loss, conductor loss, surface wave modes, and space wave radiation. The
boundary condition at the patch metallization leads to an integral equation. Maxwell's
equations in differential form are cast in the finite-difference form and solved in the time
domain using the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) approach. FDTD technique does
not make use of Green's function [7], and is therefore well suited to take into account the
effect of a finite-sized ground plane and substrate. Any embedded semiconductor device
in the antenna can also be included in the analysis at the device-field interaction level.
This possibility leads to an accureate analysis of active microstrip antennas [7, 35]. Some
of the featiires of the full-wave technique include the following [35].

(i) Accuracy. Full-wave techniques generally provide the most accurate

solution for the impedance and radiation characteristics (depend on
basis- element used).
(ii) Completeness. Full-wave solution are complete for the most part; that
is, they include the effects of dielectric loss, conductor loss, space
wave radiation, surface waves, and external coupling.
(iii) Versatility. Full-wave techniques can be used for arbitrarily shaped
microstrip elements and arrays, various types of feeding techniques,
multilayer geometries, anisotropic substrates, and active antennas.
(iv) Computation cost. Full-wave techniques are numerically intensive,
and therefore require careflil programming to reduce computation cost
(e.g. change of element-basis size during the calculation).
The three most popular flill-wave techniques are the spectral-domain full-wave
solution [7, 11, 60, 61], the mixed-potential electric field integral equation approach [7,
47], and the finite-difference time-domain technique [7, 62]. Closed form expressions on

37
the basis offiill-wavetechniques for all these are available in the references mentioned
above.

1.5 Radiation Mechanism of a Microstrip Antenna

The radiation mechanism from microstrip antenna can be understood by

considering the simple case of a rectangular microstrip patch (see Fig. 1.15) [7, 10, 33, 37,
63, 64] as an extension of microstrip line of resonant fringing field length given L=X^2
[63, 64] as two radiating strips of width "w" (empirically decided). These two radiating
strip array has spacing of L. It is assumed that along the width of the patch the field
configuration does not vary and thickness of the substrate is taken small {}i/Xo < 0.1) to
have parallel electric field lines in the z-directioa The electric field configuration is
shown in (Fig. 1.15 (b) & (c)) along the {X^2) length and width respectively. The fields
vary along the patch radiating length (L) which is about half wavelength long {X^2).
Radiation may be e}q)lained mostly due to the fringing field at the open circuited edges
of width L' as an aperture {L'xw) shown by dashed line in (Fig. 1.15 (a)). The fields at
the two radiation edges of the patch can be shown in two normal and tangential
components of fringing field (z and x-axis) with respect to ground plane (Fig. 1.15(b))
Since the phase inversion at the two edges exists for E , the normal components E^i and

£2 2 cancel each other above the patch , tangential components E^^ and £^2 add-up (see
Fig.l.l5(b&d)) to give maximum radiation field normal to the surface of the MP A and it
is in broad side direction both being in phase. Thus, the patch can be represented by two
radiating slots of length L' (small width w), separated by spacing L (i.e. X^2), with
radiation from these two slots being in phase. In (Fig. 1.15(c)) the electric field y
components cancel each other and only E^ remain, therefore radiation from {L) sides of
patch does not occur for fundamental mode i.e TMio for ETMPA and TMn for CMPA
(At higher order modes situation will differ).

1.5.1 Field Structure of Microstrip Patch Antenna

The field structure appropriate to a patch resonator is dependent on the relationship

of the electric and magnetic fields at the edge of the patch (and also the excitation mode,
38
we assume this TMiofiindamentalmode). The small spacing between the patch and the
ground plate (h <XK)/10) will tend to concentrate the field underneath the patch. The field
leaking from edges of the patch, from eweriences complex boundary condition problem
[10, p.71]. This problem may be approximated by applying an open circuit boimdary
condition at the edges of the microstrip patch, a choice may be justified by considering
the behavior of a TEM parallel plane wave approaching the straight edge of a semi-
infinite plate above the groimd plane. This problem is related to those having an exact
Wiener Hopf Solution, the reflected wave within the plate system being given by

R = exp((2;ih)/Z,)ex^-j(/>) (1.51)

where ^ = (4h/A^)\n(eA^/yh)-Y,(sm-'{2h/mA^)-{2h/mA^)) (1.52)

m=l

e = 2.718, r = 1.781
For thin substrate (h/Xo =0.01) the phase of reflection coefficient is small and the
equivalent circuit of the system may then be represented by a shunt conductance located
at distance Uo (or w for Fig. 1.15(a)) outside the physical length. Fig. 1.16.

39
 Substrate

|-L--^
/ .El |V
1 i^^-^Exl Ez2 ^^
2' PATCH r L
J_2
t X
•Feed line
1 k-L--| 2
(S»)
(b) RncUatins side

^E'li E'i-2-^
Hy

-^Ex •r
(d)
(c) Non-radiatiiig side

Figure 1.15: Field configuration for X^2 microstrip patch antenna for fundamental mode
(a) top view of RMPA with microstrip-line in-plane feed (b) radiating electric field along
resonance length L = A.g/2 of patch with inversion (c) non-radiating electric field along
the width (L') of the patch (d) direction of E- and H-plane and S, the Poynting vector.

40
 iao I.
T;
ezzzssszzii
Gw
R«rh?
.pj^j^j j j j v j jj^jy^ra

® ®
Figure 1.16: End open discontinuity for two guiding wave parallel plates; (a) incoming
and reflected wave & exten. Length Uo, (b) equivalent Gw (re-produced from [10]).

Similar results were obtained by Angulo and Chang [65]. For the case where a
dielectric slab is included in the plate system, which represents MPA problem in a better
way, but the solution is more complex.
The high impedance condition at the patch periphery means that the electric field
parallel to tl^ edge has a maximum whilst the magnetic field has a minimum. The first
step in the analysis is to make the approximation that the magnetic field parallel to the
edge is zero, and this is modeled by placing a wall of "magnetic conductor" at the
effective edge position (Fig. 1.17).

MagneHc
wall

Figure 1.17: Magnetic current method for analysis of the radiation field of patch (re-
produced from [10]).

41
The boundary conditions for the patch are expressed mathematically by
7{-z = 0, £ x i = 0, atz = Oandh (1.53)

En = 0, H y.n = 0, on magnetic wall (1-54)

The first order approximation to the MPA is therefore an enclosed (magnetic) cavity,
which will be able to support an infinite set of resonant modes of different frequencies,
since the height of the cavity is very small compared to a wavelength of operation as a
microstrip antenna, the restriction may be imposed that only modes with
d{EM)/dz = Oneed to be considered. Combining this with the boundary conditions (Eqn.
1.53) we get,
Ex = Ey = H^ = 0 (1.55)
Throughout the volume, independent of the patch shape.
Lo et al. [48] have given the field expression for a number of patch shapes;
however there is little advantage to be gained by using configurations other than
rectangular or circular forms.
In practical device, the feed connected to the MPA will excite all resonant modes
of the antenna with different amplitudes, the strongest being those whose resonant
frequency is close to the frequency of the excitation.

1.5.2 Radiation Fields of Microstrip Patch Antenna

The radiation from microstrip transmission line discontinuities may be treated
equally from the point of view of either the (i) electric current distribution or (ii) edge
slot field sources, which may be represented by equivalent magnetic currents. Both the
methods have been applied to the calculations of the radiation of MPA, with comparable
results being obtained.
However, the method to calculate the radiation field based on the slot field radiation
as source {like aperture antenna) is more sfraight forward since it only requires a line
integration of the peripheral source where as that based on current source involves
integration over the whole patch area of both, a physical current and an effective
polarization current. Further, the practical experience shows that slot field approach is
easier, therefore is presented here. The electric field at the edges of microstrip circuit is

42
replaced by magnetic current, then on this basis and taking V as the voltage at the patch
edge with respect to ground, the far field electric radiation vector is given by

Z = -2 jz X « V{c)Qxp{jkQr cos^)dc (1.56)

(•

where the integration range (c) is the closed loop around the patch effective edge of the
patch. The radiation fields due to the antenna are derived from the vector L by the
relations,

% = (-jL, / 2 ^ ^ ) e x p ( - A ^ ) (1.57)

T,^{jL,/2Ji,R)exp{-j%R) (1.58)
and Us=-E^r]o H^ =£9/710 (1.59)
The power radiated Pr, is given by integration of the poyting vector as [10, p.74]

P^= ld0^d^[Lxr/Ulz}sm0 (1.60)

0 0

the above analysis is for any loop shape radiator, so that the mechanism of
radiation from microstrip antenna can be understood by considering the simple case of a
rectangular microstrip patch [7, 10, 33, 37, 40, 63, 64] and the present work is also ]
reported on rectangular microstrip patch anterma (RMPA) shape,(see also art.4.1). The /
details of radiation field of RMPA are given below.

1.5.3 Radiation Field of RMPA using Modal Method

The field components of the rectangular elements. Fig. 1.18, are the duals of those
of the well known rectangular waveguide transverse electric modes [3-p. 67,10].

Figure 1.18: Co-ordinate of RMPA (re-producedfrom[10]).

43
 The resonance frequency (Q of the patch is given by the same formula as for cut-
off frequency of the waveguide,
1
fr=- ^(nl£j+{m/LY (1.61)

under the patch only available field con^nents are Ez, Hx and Hy given by,

E^ = +(^0 /h)cos(nnx/t )cos(m7Ty/L) (1.62)

H, = -{jcxjkl \mnlL)^, /h)cos(nm/L )sm(mnylL) (1.63)

H^^+(j(asJk'o\n7rlLXVo/h)sm(n7DclL)cos{mnylL) (1.64)

where Vo is the peak voltage at the comer of the patch.

To evaluate the radiation field, the voltage at the patch edge must be specified. This
given as

V{y) = Vf,cos{m7iy/L) x = 0; 0<y<L (1.65)

V{y) = VQ cos{m7iy/L)cos{n7r) x = L'; 0<y<L (1.66)

v{x) = VQ cos\n7ix/L ) y = 0; 0<x<L' (1-67)

F ( X ) = Vg cosynTtx/L )cos{mn) y = L'; 0<x<L' (1.68)

Substituting these four segments in (1.56)

L = IjVf^ ^ -cos(n;r)exp(/A:„Z cos(*sin ^)|{l -cos(/w;r)exp(yA:oZsin ^sin ^))

j ^ ^ , cos ^ sin ^) y{k^ sin ^ cos ^)

(1.69)
kl cos^ ^sin^ 0-{/i7r/Lj kg sin^ ^sin^ ^ - ( w ^ ^ j

where x and y are unit vector.

Converting these into spherical coordinates and substituting in Eqn.(1.57)-(1.59), gives
the gei^ral expression for the field components. Considering the dominant and
extensively used mode of excitation i.e. when m = 1 and n = 0, this leads to the following
expressions for the radiation field from RMP A.

44
 T,=-r^' SKQ exp
KL
j——cos^sin^
Z
\

J
krL
exp y-^^sin^sin^
\ Z
\

\
kr,L K.L
sin cos-^—sin ^ sin ^ A:oSin^cos^sin^
2 V2 )

(1.70)
kl cos' <^ sin' 6* A:„' sin' <^ sin' 6> - {nllf

-^ .exp(-yA:,,/?)„„ ^f krX
'- ^' ^ ^ LL ^
E,=-J- -8^0 exp J——cos^sin^ exp y-^—sin^sin^
2,AQK
J

K.-,Li .. L ^
sin -—cosflisin^ cos| ^^^^^sin^sin^ /t(,cos^sin^,
2 < ^

sin'6*
(1.71)
k^ srn'O k^sm'^sm'0- {nllf

The second term in the expression for each component of the radiated field is
zero in the two principle <)| planes; because theses terms originate from the sides of the
patch where the magnetic current distribution is antisymmetric about both axis of the
patch. Thus one principle plane pattern corresponds to an interferometer antenna, and the
other to the products of a uniform distribution pattern and a cosine current element
pattern [10-p.80]. The secondary terms need their maximum values in the ^- 45° planes,
contributing radiation of-16dB relative to the single at G = 0° near the ground plane [10-
p.80]. Eqviation (1.70) and (1.71) give^brief analysis only of radiation pattern based on'
simplest geometry (L = Le - w, Fig.1.16) w.r.t substrate Sr = 2.3 and 9.8 and is at more
accurate geometry needs to consider effective length in the analysis (see arts 1.3.5).
Further the exciting feedline is also to be considered in the analysis for resources
(radiating) frequency and impedance matching calculation (e.g. with probe [7, 33] with
in-plane strip line feed [3] or with EMC for inset variation or low e, substrate [66].
However no analysis (or design) is available for EMC coupling RMPA considering both
inset/offset for high Sr substrate.

45
1.6 Calculations of Microstrip Antenna Characteristics

From above article, the radiation patterns and hence gains and beamwidth
characteristics of microstrip antenna are readily evaluated [7,40]. The next article details
on radiated power, dissipated power, stored energy and input impedance.

1.6.1 Radiated Power

The power radiated from an antenna can be calculated by integrating the
Poynting vector over the radiating aperture:

P, = - R e jj(ExH*).dS (1.72)
aperture

For microstrip antennas, the electric field is within (i.e. below) the patch and is normal to
the strip conductor and the ground plane, and the magnetic field of interest is parallel to
the strip edge.
Alternatively, radiated power can be obtainedfromthe radiation pattern using the
following equation:

^r =:^jj(\Eef+\E,fy'smaiai^ (1.73)

1.6.2 Dissipated Power

The power dissipated in microstrip antenna consists of the conductor loss P^ and
the dielectric loss/*^ (Ptotai = Pc + Pd + Pr)- The former can be determined from an I^R
relationship by integrating the current density over the patch and ground plane areas:

P,=2^\\iJ-J*)dS (1.74)
^ s

where R^ is the real part of the surface impedance of the metallization (related to its a)

and 5" is the patch area. The surface current density J is obtained as the tangential
component of the magnetic field.

46
 The dielectric loss can be determined by integrating the electric field over the
volume r of the microstrip cavity:

P,= — jj|£:|' dV = —h Jl^l' dS for thin substrates (1.75)

where ca is the radianfrequency,s" is the imaginary part of the complex permittivity of

the substrate (related to its tan8), and h is the substrate thickness.

1.6.3 Stored Energy

The total energy stored in a patch antenna is the sum of the electric and magnetic
energies, and is

Wr -K +K =jiJj(^\Ef +MM)dV (1.76)

1
where /y is the permeability & s real part ofi^. The electric and magnetic energies are
equal at resonance. Therefore, (1.74) can be simplified to

W^ = -sh j^Ef dS for thin substrates (1.77)

^ s

1.6.4 Input Impedance

Because all microstrip antennas have to be matched to the standard generator
impedance (transmitter) or load (receiver), the input impedance calculation for antennas
is particularly important. Microstrip antenna can be fed by a coaxial line or a microstrip
line or a coplanar waveguide.

1.6.4.1 For a coaxially fed microstrip antenna, the input power can be computed as

P:„ = \\\E.l*dV (1.78)

47
where J is the electric current density (A/m^) on the coaxial feed source. The superscript
c denotes the coaxial feed. If the coaxial current is z directed and assumed to be
electrically thin, (1.78) becomes
h

P:,=-E(x„y,)ll*(z')dz' (1.79)
0

where (xo,yo) are the feed point coordinates. The input impedance can be calculated using
the relationship i*„ = \IJ Z;„ in (1.79) to obtain
h
E{Xo,y,)
Z,„=-^ "'^'^ jl*(z')dz' (1.80)
Km I 0

When h«Ao,E and / (z') are constant so that

^,>,=^^„/4 at feed point (1.81)
where
A

V,„ =-E{x„y,)jdz'=-hE(x„y,) (1.82)

0

1.6.4.2 The coaxial feed approach can also be used to analyze a microstrip line-fed
microstrip antenna. For this, the feed current density J in (1.78) is obtained from the
equivalence principle and the transverse magnetic field in the plane where microstrip line
joins the patch [7].

1.7 Circular Microstrip Patch Antenna (CMPA) [7], [40], [67-71]

A circular microstrip patch antenna (CMPA) is shown in Fig. 1.19 and have been
studied extensively [48, 67-71]. It has received a lot of attention not only as a single
antenna [48, 67-71], but also as an element in an array [72]. The circular disk tends to be
slightly smaller than the rectangular patch. In some applications, such as arrays, the
circular geometries offer certain advantages over other configurations [63]. 'TX^^^)^'^

48
 Figure 1.19: Geometry of a circular microstrip patch antenna (CMP A) [7]

Other than using full-wave analysis [72], the CMP A can only be analyzed
conveniently using a cavity model [68, 73, 74]. The basic CMPA geometry shown in
Fig. 1.19 contains a thin, conducting circular disk on a dielectric substrate backed by a
ground plane. Because h«Ao, the field does not vary along a z component, and the
magnetic field essentially has only p and ^ components. The normal component of the
current (normal to the edge of the CMPA) approaches zero at the edge. This implies that
the tangential con^nent of the magnetic field at the edge of the disk is vanishingly
small. With these assumptions, the CMPA can be modeled as a cylindrical cavity,
bounded at its top and bottom by electric walls and on its edge by magnetic wall (just
like any other MPA). The fields within the dielectric region of the microstrip cavity,
corresponding to TM„^ modes, can be determined by solving the wave equation for a
cavity with these boundary conditions. This is given below.

1.7.1 Field and Current /7, 40]

With no excitation current, the wave equation for the CMPA can be written as:

49
 (y'+e)E = 0 k = 2n^JX, (1.83)

The electric field in the cavity must satisfy the above wave equation and
nu^netic wall boundary condition (as well as excitation geometry boundary condition,
presently neglected). The solution of the wave equation in cylindrical coordinates is

E^=E,J„(kp)cosn(^ (1.84)

where J„{kp) are the Bessel functions of order n [7, 40]. Because E has only z

component and djdz = 0, the magnetic field components become

j dE. ^ jn_
^P = - h ^ = - ^ EoJ„ikp)smn^ (1.85)
o)fip d<^ (Ofip

/• r5F ik
H, =-^—^ = -^E,J'„{kp)cosn^ (1.86)
coju dp (Ojj.

where the prime sign denoted differentiation with respect to kp, the argument. The other
field components are zero inside the cavity, that is,

E^=E^=H^=0 (1.87)

The magnetic field boundary conditions at the wall is defined as

/ / / / ? = a) = 0 (1.88)

An alternative way of expressing the m^netic wall boundary condition is in terms of the
electric surface current at the edge of the disk. The magnetic field inside the cavity gives
rise to the induced electric current, and the currents on the mner surface of the CMPA
can be calculated fi-om

_* A

J = -zxH = pH^-</>H^ (1.89)

50
where /? and ^ are unit vectors in the /? and ^ directions, respectively. At the edge of the

disk, the surfece current Jp must vanish, that is

J^{p = a) = H^ip = a) = 0 (1.90)

where a is the radius of the CMP A. Therefore,

J\{ka) = Q (1.91)

Thus for each mode configuration, a radius can be foimd that resuUs in a resonance
corresponding to the zeros of the derivative of the Bessel function. For example, if x„m is
the /wth zero oiJ\ikd), the resonance occurs when feo = 2'„„,« = 0,1,2,...,m = 1,2,3,

This relationship can be used to determine the radius of the CMPA for given resonant
fi^uency. Alternatively, for a fix value of radius it will give the resonance frequency. A
few of lower order modes are listed in Table 1.5 in ascending order of Xnm values.

Table 1.5: Root of J\ (ka) = 0

Mode(n,m) 0,1 1,1 2,1 0,2 3,1 4,1 1,2

Root

Znn, or k„„a 0 1.84118 3.05424 3.83171 4.20119 5.317 5.331

From the values of z„m for the various modes, one infers that the mode corresponding to

n= m= 1 has the minimum radius or resonance frequency, and it known as the dominant
mode. The field conponents and the surface current components for this mode can be
found from (1.84) - (1.91). These are
E^=EoJ^{kp)cos^ (1.92)

H,=-J, = - - ^ E,J,{kp)sm^ (1.93)

co/up

H, = -J, = -^E,J\ (kp)cos^ (1.94)

CD/J

51
Thefieldand surface current for the selected modes are shown in Fig. 1.20

11 = 0.m = 1 11 - l.m- I

11 = 2, m = 1 n = 5. in = 1

Current in Top Plote

—»• — Mognetic Field
• « Electric Field

Figure 1.20: Field and surface current patterns for various modes at resonance (/w=7) [7]

1.7.2 Radiation Field and Lobewidth

For any antenna radiation field and its lobewidth is important. This may give the
possible apphcation of it.

1.7.2.1 Radiation Pattern

The radiation field of CMPA may be obtainedfi-omthe vector electrjcjplential
or fiom the electric currents density on the surface disk conductor (enqjloying vector
magnetic potential) [7,40]. The far field component may be expressed as [7,40] follows.

52
 Vak e"^*»'
E,=-r-^^- cosn4J\%asaie) (1.95)
2 r

E.=nj smn^^^^^ ^cos6> (1.96)

' 2 r kgasmO

where V = hE„J„{x„„) and is known as the edge voltage at ^ = 0 . The fer-field

expressions obtained from the cavity model are simple and adequate for practical
purpose. The radiation patterns can be ptotted by using above equation (1.95) and (1.96).
For the dominant mode TMn mode, these expressions reduce to

E^=-jV=^- cos(2l/',(itoasin<9) (1.97)

E.=jV— sm^ =^ cosy (1-98)

2 r k^asmO

The E- and H-plane radiation patterns for CMPA at 2 GHz and e, = 2.2 and 8r = 9.8 are
replotted in Fig.1.21 (a) and (b).respectively [7, 33]. The E-plane pattern for CMPA
(Fig. 1.21 (a)) on a high dielectric constant material such as alumina is almost constant
with 0 (omnidirectional).

1.7,2,2 Beamwidth:

The 3-dB beamwidths for the radiated field components can be measured from
the radiation patterns. The 3dB-beamwidths versus substrate thickness (h) are reported
[71, Fig.5] for three values of substrate dielectric constant. It is interesting to note that
the beamwidth for Ee decreases with increasing {h/d) for ep^l, whereas it increases for
8r=l as h/a is increased. This phenomenon might be a result of the increasing role played
by the surfece waves for 8r>l [70].

53
Figure 1.21: Reported radiation patterns of the CMPA on two substrates (Sr - 2.32 & 9.8)
at 2.0GHz for the TMn mode, (a) Ee pattern in (|) = 0° or E plane and (b) E^ pattern in (|) =
90° or H plane [7, 33].

1.7.3 Resonant frequency of CMPA

The resonantfrequencyof CMPA for the TMnm mode can be evaluated from the
basic relation Znm = kawhere k is defined in Eqn.(1.83). Thus,

54
 / = - ^ ^ = (1.99)

where Xnm is the mth zero of J\ {ka) and c is the velocity of light in free space. Based
on the values of Table 1.5, the first four modes, in ascending order, are TMn, TM21,
TMoi and TM31. The dominant mode is the TMuwhose resonant frequency is

( / . ) „ = ^ ^ 0-100)

The resonant frequency of (1.100) does not take into account fringing field effects. The
fringing makes the patch look electrically larger. An effective radius a^ is introduced in
(1.99) to account for the fringe fields along the edge of the disk. For TMn mode of the
CMP A, it is suggested that [75]

a ^ = J l + ^ ^ [ l n — + 1.7726|i (1.101)

This expression predicts the radius with an error of less than 2.5% for ajh »1
Equation (1.101) is used as a design guide for determining the radius of the CMP A.
Therefore the resonant frequency of Eqn. (1.100) for dominant mode (TM,',,,) should be
modified by using (1.101) and express as

/^x 1.8412c
ifX=- r= (1-102)

1.8 Equilateral Triangular Microstrip Patch Antenna (ETMPA) [7], [76- 88]

The ETMPA are studied, both theoretically and experimentally. The ETMPA are
found to provide radiation characteristics similar to the rectangular microstrip patch
antenna [7, 33], but with a smaller size. The geometry of an ETMPA and the coordinate
system are shown in Fig. 1.22. ^ , ^,

55
 (a) (b)
•V

vaTT • 2 /
Magnetic
'wall

vaVT " 2 /
(c)

Figure 1.22: Configuration of ETMPA with coordinates system and probe feed [7, 83, 84]
(a) Top view (b) Side view and (c) Feed point (near tip of ETMPA = d)

The field distribution in an ETMPA can be found using the cavity model
(art 1.4.4.2). Consider a triangular resonator with magnetic side walls along periphery and
filled with a dielectric material of relative permittivity £> of thickness h. Since h« Ao,
there is no variation of the fields along the z direction. Therefore, the structure supports
many TM modes. The electric and magnetic field distributions for the TM^j^ modes are
given by Eqn.( 1.103) to (1.106) [76-88]: ~l^n"
Er=A„^„j<p„,j{x,y) (1.103)

56
 z (1.104)
//:" =
0)/j dy

„„ - i dE""
(1.105)
^y " — ^ r
(o^ ox (1.106)
H=E= E,. = 0

where <p„^„jix,y) are the eigenfunction defined as

Inx' \ (ln{n-V)y\
+ COS

+ CO (1.107)

and jc'=x + a/v3

Expression (1.107) assumes that the origin of the coordinate system coincides
with the centroid of the triangle (Fig. 1.22 (a)), A„„i is an amplitude constant determined

by excitation probe, a is the length of a side of the triangle, and m, n, I are integers which
are not zero simultaneously, and satisfy the condition

m + n+l = 0 (1.108)

The modal fields satisfy the wave equation

^5^ d'
+^^+k: E"" = 0 (1.109)
ydx' dy' • """j

where , 4;r n r (1.110)

k„„=—\m +mn + n
3a

It is seen from (1.110) that interchanging the three digits m, n, I leaves the wave
nvmaber kmn and the corresponding resonant frequency unchanged, reflecting the

57
symmetry of ETMPA. The field patterns for the first two modes TMio and TMi i are
shown in Fig. 1.23 [7, 76]. Thefieldsfor the TMio are symmetrical about the bisector line.

Mognttic Wbll

_ . . « , , V • ® Electric Field
(a) TMii,-i (Dominant Mode) _ , ^ , , ^ ^,.,^

Mognetic Wall

(b) T M 1.1.-2 M o d e

Figure 1.23: Field pattern in an ETMPA with magnetic walls in TMio mode and TMn
mode [7, 76].

The above expressions for thefieldsare general. The particular case, m = 1, n = 0,

and / = -1, corresponds to the dominant mode, for which the field expressions are:

27a' ITTV Am
'^z ^1,0,-1 2cos—p^cos—=^ + cos—— (1.111)
V3a 3a 3a

_ , \ ^h , k
58
 . 27W . 4ny
2;EC'
•^x -' 7^1,0,-1^0 (1.112)
2cos—p-sin + sin——
V3a 3a 3a

. 2nx' Im
//;=y>/34,o,-i#o sin—pr-cos (1.113)
^J3a 3a
where
^ An \ ( 1
^0 = = CltCO = fi>, ,0,-1 (1.114)
3affijuV 120;r

tp^^^ A \

1.8.1 Resonant Frequency ofETMPA

The resonant frequency is the most important parameters for ETMPA worked on
extensively [76-88]. The design procedure for ETMPA uses relation between the side-
length {a) and the resonant frequency on substrate at dielectric constant 8,. The resonant
frequency corresponding to the various modes described by k^^ is:

ck. Ic
/.= ^ m^ +mn + n^ (1.115)
ITT^ 3a^

where c is the velocity of light in free space. The above expression is valid when the
triangular resonator is surrounded by a perfect magnetic wall. The effect of non-perfect
magnetic wall on the resonant frequency can be included in an empirical fashion [7, 82-
84] for easy calculation. This is discussed below.

A number of suggestions have been made (1.115) to yield an accurate expression

for ETMPA frequency etc. that is not enclosed by a perfect magnetic wall. Most of the
suggestions can be separated into two groups. Firstly (i) replacing the side length a by an
effective value Oe and leaving the substrate dielectric unchanged [7, 33, 76-84, 86-88].
Secondly (ii), the other set of suggestions, proposes replacing both a and s^ with their
effective values [85, 90]. The first suggestion formula given by Kumprasert and Kiranon
[86] is better and more useful because of the most accurate validity achieved between

59
theoretical and experimental values of the resonant frequency. The resonant frequency
for TMio is given by
2c
/.= (1.116)
3a. > / ^

where

a,=a l + -ns,a
^ | l n f — V 0 - 4 K +1.77)+-(0.268£, +1.65)
\ \2h) a
(1.117)

a and Oe are physical and effective length of the ETMPA, respectively. Knowing//o from
above, the resonantfrequencyfor higher order modes is calculated from (1.115), that is.

/m«=/loV/W^+W« + «^ (1.118)

Accuracy of this empirical expression is claimed to be within 1% when compared

with the value obtained from the moment method analysis [84], when the conq)arisons
were carried out for s^ = 2.32,0.002 < h|^^ < 0.125.

1.8.2 Radiation Field

The fer zone electric field at a point /^(r, 6> ^ is given by [7, 84]

Eg = -j'corjg[F^ cos^cos^ + F cos^sin ^) (1.119)

E^ = -Jo>T]X- F. sin<^ + F^ cos(l>) (1.120)

where TJ^ = 120;r is the free space impedance and F, and Fy are the components of
electric potential. The expressions for potentialfiinctionsare very lengthy [47, chap. 3,
84]. The radiation patterns for the TMio mode for 8r = 2.32, h = 0.159 cm and 8, = 9.8, h
= 0.635 are shown in Fig. 1.24 [47,chap.3, 84]. In the ^ = 0" plane, only the Eg
com^nent is present. In the f> = PO" plane, however, both the Eg and E<j» are nonzero,
except in the broadside direction, 0=0°. This feature is different from the rectangular
and circular patches, for which the principal planes contain only one conqwnent of the
radiation field.
60
 -SC*L-

(b)

Figure 1.24: Reported radiation patterns for the TMio mode in an ETMPA (a) ^ = 0°,
(b)^ = 90 "plane fio = 1 GHz, Sr = 2.32, h= 0.159 cm, and Er = 9.8, h= 0.0635 cm [7, 84].

1.9 Electromagneticaliy Coupled (EMC) Microstrip Antenna:

Though microstrip integrated circuits (MCs) are extensively used at present, the
study of microstrip patch antennas (MPAs) with electromagneticaliy coupled (EMC)
microstrip line feed (also called proximity coupling), fed by microstrip line (on separate
substrates) is still in progress. Some workers [91-115] foimd the method to be suitable as
single antenna feed and also for array applications [91-94, 108, 109]. Several distinct
advantages of this type of feed over the direct edge feed and probe feed have been noted
(see the next article 1.9.3).
61
 The EMC dipole was the first introduced in 1981 by Oltman and Huebner [91, 92]
and after that used by Elliott and Stem [93, 94] and others [95-115] for different
geometries of MPAs. In the recent years the EMC patches have been reported in
literature [107-115], having circular [109, 112], square [104], rectangular [109,110] and
ring [108] geometries. Fig. 1.25 shows the geometry of square patch and feed-line as
well as the current distribution on the feed line and patch.
The experimental studies are mostly for inset variation [66, 96, 99] and rarely for
offset variation [91, 92, 100, 101], to the best of our knowledge no theory being given for
the later. M.Davidovitz et al. [97] have theoretically studied the Circular MPA (CMPA)
by EMC feed (substrate 8r=2.55). They have also reported some corresponding
experimental results on input impedance as a fimction of inset for proximity coupled
CMPA. The report is only at zero offset. H.Iwasaki et al. [99] have studied
electromagnetically coupled Microstrip Ring Antenna (MRA) (substrate 8r=2.6). The
report is also at zero offset only and gives the extensive data for MRA parameters (viz.
unpedance bandwidth, VSWR, return loss and resonance frequency). Yousefi et al. [100,
101] have studied the effect of inset and offset variations for RMPA, Square MPA
(SMPA) and MRA [5, 100, 101].
Electromagnetic Coupliug, as a feed for the antenna, is preferred over the direct,
in-plane microstrip or coaxial stub feed, because of advantages [5, 66, 100, 101]; mainly
related to its easy adjustability and hence tailoring of parameters (see also art 1.9.3). The
shift of feed position (inset/offset) changes the antenna parameters [ 5,98-100] as well as
radiation pattern, so does the choice of substrate material and its thickness for EMC feed
line [66, 100, 101]. The inset/oflfset changes for some reported MPA give interesting
results [96-101]. For MPAs with fixed point feed (or no feed considered in theory), the
data for all the impedance parameters (reflection measurement) are available [48, 49],
but for inset variation (with EMC), though some theory is available for BW [66], VSWR
[97], fr [99], no exact data is available for f, and BW variations and to the best of om
knowledge, no theoretical results are available for inset/offset variation for RMPA ana
SMPA, and no experimental or theoretical results are available for inset/offset variation
for CMPA andETMPA (it being possible only with EMC).

The wide range of the substrate parameters with various dielectric materials are
studied for computing resonant frequency and bandwidth [66]. The results shown in

62
Fig. 1.25 are obtained, by applying the method of moment to rigorously derived integral
equation, for the currents on the patch and feed line.

f-EEIX ] Ne-CURRENT

QROUNO
PLANS

(a) (b)

P^TCM-cuRl^gN7

(C) (d)

Figure 1.25: Current distribution on the feed-line and patch {fr = 2.4GHz [98])

1.9.1 Theory of EMC:

The theory used to compute the results for electromagnetically coupled circular
and rectangular patch antennas is reported [97, 98] and the proof of the theory is reported
by [66, 97, 98] using the method of moments in spectral domain to solve the integral
equation for the current on the patch and portion of the open-ended microstrip feed line.
The integral equation was formulated usmg the appropriate dyadic Green function for the
grounded multilayer slab. Brief outline of the theory is given below.

63
 The dyadic green function for the grounded multilayered dielectric slab is derived
by applying the two-dimensional Fourier transform to the Maxwell equations and
decomposing the field into transverse electric and transverse magnetic components. The
problem is thereby reduced to a set of one-dimensional transmission line equations
which can be solved by known procedures [66, 116, 117]. The integral equation for the
currents on the patch and the feed hne is then formulated using the dyadic Green
function and forcing the total tangential electric field to vanish on the patch and the feed
line. The Galerkin method of moments is applied in the spectral domam to solve the
integral equation numerically. Expansion fimctions for the circular and the square
patches consist of combinations of Chebyshev polynomials, with additional factors to
incorporate the edge effects. The current on the microstripline is approximated by
subsectional basis set consisting of triangle functions in the direction of current flow
and rectangular pulse function across the width of the feed line. It has been verified [98]
that for moderate width of the feed line, fulfillment of the edge condition was taken to be
of secondaryjnportance. The moment n^thod matrix elements are presented by
improper spectral single and double integrals. Accuracy and efficiency of the numerical
integration have been significantly improved by acceleration techniques [98]. Resonant
fi-equencies and quality fectors of the fundamental resonant modes of the circular and
square patches were found by searching for the complex zero of the generalized
impedance matrix determinant [117]. Bandwidth of the antenna was estimated from the
quality factor [59]. Input impedance was calculated by performing a standing wave
analysis on the line. The line was made several wavelengths long and exited by a voltage
gap generator near the unloaded end. It was assumed that in the region away from the
voftage source and the patch the line supports only the quasi-transverse electromagnetic
mode. The reflection coefficient was derived by finding the minima and maxima of the
current standing-wave distribution in this region. The radiation efficiency of the patch
antenna was estimated by assuming that only the fundamental resonant mode is excited
on the patch, and computing the ratio of the radiated to the total power loss. The latter
consisted of the radiated, siu^ce wave, and dielectric power loss component [66].

1.9.2 Design Procedures:

The radiation efficiency and the impedance bandwidth are the two particularly
important and critical parameters in microstrip antenna design [66]. A conq)arison of the
64
data confuted for the circular and square patches reveals that the efficiency and
bandwidth are almost independent of the patch shape [66], being determined primarily
by the substrate properties, particularly the thicki^ss and permittivity [66]. Figure. 1.26
shows the bandwidth and the efficiency plots for the single-layer and double-layer for
both square and circular patches. The data are presented as a function of the
dimensionless parameter

where /t is the overall substrate thickness, Xo is the free-space wavelength and e^ is

relative dielectric constant of the lower substrate layer (see Figl.26(a-d)).

The outline found [66] is demonstrated in Fig. 1.26-1.28, with the main points as:

(i) Given the bandwidth and the resonant frequency specifications, the substrate
parameters can be selected from Fig. 1.26 (a-d), subject to any efficiency
constraints.
(ii) Having determined the substrate parameters, the patch dimensions for the
specified resonantfrequencycan be found from Fig. 1.27 (a-d).
(iii) The optimal ratio h^ (h for the given hjk^^ can be obtainedfromFig. 1.28.

Note that patch-to-feed coupling depends upon the extent to which the feed line and the
patch overk^. For the optimal thickness ratio, a perfect match is generally possible for
only one value of the overly. Although this value is, to a small degree, substrate
thickness dependent, for most cases the match is obtained when the end of the
transmission line is located under the center of the patch [66].

65
 «,>i«Jl: i^-SK
' iM-l
1 f

Figure 1.26: Efficiency and Bandwidth (a & b) in one-layer dielectric (c & d) in two-
layer dielectric (t=h and ti = hi) [66]

66
 1 f
—r ^ 'I
• t
1 ^^^^^BCB^^^PI
A 1
1^
-t =• 1.1 r^A ]

•D
1
•c = ias
-A |.

C ^ t - an: t, <
- UO . t | •K U B '
- WS : i t <
-u.r
1
!
I
^
f/;j,
(a)

N , - «»» , «, ^ MB
l,-ftt-(

J* .It -«
.M .If

(d)

Figure 1.27: Resonant frequency and patch size (a & b) in one-layer dielectric (c & d) in
two-layer dielectric (t=h and ti = hi) [66]

67
 IIJL

Figure 1.28: Optimal choices of the ratio hi/ (hi+h2) for characteristics Une impedance of
50 Q (t=h and t^in = hmin) [66]

68
1.9.3 Advantages of EMC: The advantages of EMC could be enlisted as:

1) Feed network closer to the ground plane, to reduce radiation from various
transmission line discontinuities [66, 91-94, 97,98].

2) The patch-ground plane spacing can be increased to obtain greater bandwidth [66,
92].

3) Match of the patch to the feed line is simply achieved by selecting an

appropriate line-patch overlap [66, 91-94, 97-103,110-115].

4) The absence of the physical cormections between resonator and feed line
facilitates fabrication of the antetma.

5) If sweep is given, two or three resonancefrequenciescan be obtained at the same

time in a single patch [100].

6) Two different thickness layers (Sp and S/) with the same £> or of different f^ can
be easily be used and calculated.

7) Using shift of fr, variety of BW are possible for single patch to find with VSWR
<2[100].

8) EMC MPAs are easily adjustable and tailorable for the desired antenna
parameters. [100, 110-115].

9) EMC has the largest bandwidth (as high as 13 percent). It is somewhat easy to
model and has low spurious radiation [7, 40].

69
1.10 The Microstrip with an Overlay:
Up to this point (feed line apart) the microstrip line and antenna have been
considered to be fabricated on a substrate with the conducting functional element on the
top surface and a ground plane on the other side. One major variant of the above
configuration is the microstrip antenna (AE) with a sheet overlay of dielectric on the top
of the conducting AE element which is described below in two separate sub-sections for
non-radiating and radiating microstrip.

1.10.1 Overlay on Microstrip Line and Microstrip Resonator:

The overlay is used on microstrip lines to reduce dispersion [118], to increase

power handling capacity [118], to reduce dielectric breakdown [118], to reduce cross-
talk between adjacent microstrip [119], to achieve higher directivity in directional
couplers [118] and to improve performance of directional filter [120]. There are some
limitatk>ns when the overlay used is in from of sheet [120]. In the usual practice,
machined pieces of alumina are stuck with glue (low dielectric constant) as overlay
material on microstrip lines on alumina substrate. Such an approach is not compatible
with the fabrication of MICs using thin fihn processing. It is neither recommendable for
applications involving vibration environment (avionics and space). The use of glue
introduces a dielectric discontinuity either by leaving microscopic gaps or by its own
inhomogeneous natvire as compared to the dielectric structure of sintered alumina used as
substrate and overlay materials. To overcome this Pande and Karekar [121, 122] have
suggested the use of thin film of high dielectric material such as BaTiOs, Ti02, 81263
and ZnO as a part of a process flow in MIC fabricating techniques. They have reported
an improvement in the quality factor (Q) for an L-type half wave resonator with thin film
Bi203 overlay. This is expected to be due to reduced radiation loss and lesser surface
wave coupling. Similarly, improvements in directivity and isolation have been reported
by the same authors for a X^JA directional coupler [122]. The above work has been
extended [123, 124] using pellet as well screen printing techniques and it is reported that
the resonated frequency falls with overlay vs. logio(overlay thickness) which follows a
graph similar to amplifierfrequencyresponse, m the range of thicknesses studied (i.e. up

70
to 1000 (ini) with critical thicknesses, like the comer frequency, in the range of 5|4.m to
10|xm.
Similarly microstrip ring resonator (MRR) is also studied with overlay. Though
many reports of fixed-position (partial) perturbation on MRR are available [125-127,
129-133], with different types of perturbations viz., notch [125], filled hole [126], gaps
[127, 128], there are few reports on nondestructive overlay of dielectric strip on the ring
[129-133]. The last method has the advantage offlexibilityof changing the perturbation
(p) by azimuthal angle (<j)) of overlay and also changing its strength by varying width
[130, 131] and thickness [131] of the overlay. Hence tailoring of resonator parameters is
possible by proper adjustment of the overlay. The reported empirical equations [130] for
even and odd-modes are as follow

/ „ = fr -k{pX -a{p)Xl+ cos^), even-mode (1.122)

fro =fr +k{pl +a{p\{\+ cos(^), odd-mode (1.123)

where (>
| is azimuthal angle of the strip-position w.r.t feed line, k(p) and a(p) are the
perturbation dependent factors, both of which are reported to be linear functions of width
[130] of overlay as well as linear in (H-cos2<|>) for MRR However with wider range of
perturbation, a, k reported [131] to be non-linear with both width (w), thickness (t) but
still linear with (l+cos2^). Abegaonkar et al. [132, 133] have studied the perturbation of
microstrip ring for grain moisture as a sensor application. There are three variants of
[130-132] reported empirical equations, which are linear in (l+cos2<j»), with coefficients
which are also linear in p. Abegaonkar et al. [133] have reported the non-linear variation
of p for grain moisture sensor.

To the best of our knowledge no attention seems to have been given to analyze
theoretically the behavior of MIC structure with thiimer overlays or cross/partial overlay
by dielectric.

71
1.10.2 Overlay on Microstrip Antennas:

The dielectric overlay has also been used on microstrip antennas to increase gain
[53], radiation resistance, efficiency and for protection against heat, environmental
hazards and accidental damage [64]. The dielectric overlay shifts the resonance
frequency of the patch and may change the system performance. As the bandwidth of
microstrip antenna is inherently low, typically of the order of 1-2 percent [32], it is
important to determine the effect of a dielectric layer on the resonance frequency of
microstrip patch antennas in order to introduce appropriate corrections in the design of
the antenna.

Theoretical analysis for the resonance frequency has been reported by Bahl et al.
[64] for a rectangular patch antenna covered with various sheet overlays using the
variational method for infinite microstrip lines. The lowest resonant frequency fr can be
accurately predicted from [64]

fr=-, \ r — , c= -ix\Qi'mls (1.124)

2(1 + 2 A / ) ^

[E„„ +0.3)(i h + O ''64)

(e,^-0.258) (1/2 + 0.8)

^•-^^^Rir'"'''"' *'"'
where all the dimensional parameters used above are explained in Fig. 1.29, and
e^ and e^^ are the relative and effective dielectric constants, respectively.

72
 Microstrip Patch Antenna

.X,/2,

Ground Plane
Dielectric Substrate

Figure 1.29: Microstrip antenna geometry

The change in tte fractional resonance frequency relative to the unloaded case
has been calculated using the following expression [64]:

A/; _ / , (wo. • joverlay) - / , {overlay)

X f,{no..joverlay)
(1.127)

Jr ^jSeff

where s^^^ is the effective dielectric constant with overlay calculated using the
variational method [64]. The changes in the edge effect due to dielectric cover have been
neglected in their analysis. Iyer and Karekar [134] have studied them further by taking
account of edge effects when the rectangular patch covered with a dielectric superstrate
using the variation method [64]. The relative shift ( (A/",//^) in % is obtained
theoretically by their method along with the reported experimental values from [64] with
an error of ±1%. R.Afealzadeh and R.N.karekar [135] have also studied the effect of
dielectric protecting superstrate (with variable spacing between AE and overlay) on
radiation pattern of rectangular microstrip patch antenna. The experiment has shown that
using thick superstrate as a protecting layer may not give further changes in / , and
voltage reflection coefficient ( F) will drastically change the shape of radiation pattern

73
into two and three lobes depending on the spacing & thickness of superstrate. They have
also claimed that higher thickness of superstrate can be used to split the mainlobe of a
single MP A into two or three lobes for special purposes. Bhat and Koul [136] give a
generalized method on the basis of variational method in conjunction with the transverse
transmission line technique to calculate open circuit edge effects for a sandwiched
suspended rectangular microstrip patch resonators. Bhatttachaya and Tralman [137] have
experimentally studied the rectai^lar patch. They suggest an empirical relation for the
shift in resonancefrequencydue to overlay of thickness "^' as follows:

A/; = - { l - e x p [ - 4 j / / l j r } - ( X - / . ) (1128)

where A, is the wavelength at resonance without overlay (superstrates), and f^ and

/^^ are the resonancefrequencieswithout and with infinitely thick overlay respectively.
A and P are constants given as 9.26 and 0.89 for their samples (duroid). The above
relation is applied to homogenous superstrates, at the end the validity of the above
enpirical relation has not been cross-checked (nor referred to) by them with the previous
experimental results [64] which give data for a large number of dielectric superstrates
and thicknesses. To the best of our knowledge there are no reports of overlay on other
than RMPA nor on EMC MPA or any report of positional overlay on RMPA, CMPA and
MRA.

1.11 Aim and Scope of the Present Work:

After reviewing the available literature on microstrip patch antenna (MPA) and feed
systems as above, following lacune are noted.
Though the study of MPA is relatively conqjlete now, electromagnetically coupled
(EMC) feed MP As is still in progress [108, 109, 138, 139]. The flexibility aspect of it is
notfiiUyexplored by experimental work, as well as simulation though software. To the
best of our knowledge only our group has mainly studied [5], experimentally the MP As
with EMC [rectangular MPA (RMPA), square MPA (SMPA) and ring MPA (MRA)] in
all details (in-set/off-set feed for reflection measurement and corresponding radiation
patterns). The Equilateral Triangular MPA {ETMPA) and Circular MPA (CMPA) are

74
not yet fully studied, experimentally fS, 96, 99, 100, 101] therefore it was decided to
take up the study of ETMPA and CMPA, The comparison of parameters of all
available MPAs will be the next natural step. The theoretical studies [97-98, 102-105,
140] and simulation packages are available for EMC MPAs [e.g. 141-144]; (with
rectangular basis function in [140, 141]). There are reported to be used only in limited
way for comparison in experimental studies. We have decided to use one such software
(MStrip40 [140,141]) for all EMC systems in our studies.

The seed of the present work lies in the previous extensive work done in our
laboratory on passive con^wnents, particularly the RMPA & MRA with EMC (as
indicated above) in all possible details including various possible ways of feeding while
using EMC flexibility. The two MPA (CMPA, ETMPA) systems will be similarly
studiedfiiUy(in-set/off-set, reflection parameters and radiation patterns) experimentally.
Further, one more additional aspect will be undertaken i.e. the simulation with Mstrip40
software of EMC, RMPA and SMPA to compare the previous experimental results of
our group [5] along with that of CMPA and ETMPA. The work will be done only at X-
band and on alimiina substrates (Er= 9.8) due to availability of facilities and compatibility
of results with hybrid and MIC circuit. This choice is also related to the possibility of
conq>arison with previous experimental work carried out in this lab, on similar lines.
(Dependence of these systems on substrate 8r can be a neat target).

The effect of dielectric strip overlay for CMPA is also decided to study, which is
really an extension of other work in this laboratory using similar structure. There are
only a few reports available with flexible positional (partial) overlay, except for the
microstrip ring resonator (MRR) and that too for fixed in-plane coupling and for
transmission measurements [129-133]. Our group has also used MRA with flexible EMC
input coupling, but without any overlay [5]. Our projected CMPA system (with flexible
rotational position overlay and also EMC flexible couplii^) may be the most general
case. It was, hence, decided to study the effect of dielectric strip overlay for CMPA with
EMC (as in [5] for MRA with EMC) not only for reflection parameters (transmission is
not possible with EMC as in [129-133]) but also for radiation pattern. To the best of our
knowledge, this will be the first experimental study for EMC CMPA parameters,
particularly with positional overlays of dielectric substrate.

75
 After having reviewed the available literature and decided on aim in Chapter 1,
we will give; experimentation in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 will present the results of our
experimentation work carried out related with the antenna parameters. Chapter 4 will
give the simulated results by Mstrip40 software, which are carried out for three types of
patch antennas (i) RMPA, (ii) SMPA and (iii) ETMPA. After having done the additional
required study of MP As (viz. CMP A, and ETMPA) and done the simulation for all
MPAs with EMC, the Chapter 5 will give comparison results of the different type of
MP As.

76