,

~ ."

~
\ .... '. TELESCOPES
sectiot
1 Getting Acquainted by Sam Brown
with the Telescope .......................... .. 3
2 Observing the SKY SHOW .................. 17
Library of Cong ress Catalog Card Number : 67-31540
51
3 Photography with your Telescope .. Edmund Scientific Co., Barrington 08007
© 1975 by Edmund Scien tific Co.
4 Mirror Grinding and Testing ............. 79 All rights reserved
First Ed ition publishod 1967
Telescopes You Can Build .................. . 105
5 Second Ed ition 1975
Third Edillon 1976
6 Telescope Mounts .................................. 133 Fou rth Edition 1979
Ptin ted in the United States of Ametlc.8

7 Collimation and Adjustments ......... 147

8 Telescope Optics ..................................... 157 EDMUND
INDEX 190
SCIENTIFIC CO.
BARRINGTON , NEW JERSEY

•
•
 I
'

~All LEO (1564-IE>42.) WAS FIRST TO VIEUJ THE MANY

~ \.UONDE.RS OF Ti-IE NIGHT SKY LUITM A TE.t..E;SCOPE.
NAMED FOR l·llM, THE GALI LEAN TELESCOPE IS ACTUALLY
THE INVEN"TIOt' (IN 1608) OF JAN LIPPERSHEY ..

TH(
O&J&::TNE IS A LENS

.. -
1608 - Gll\LIUAN TELESCOPE • .Jo.II Li~ .. HOUAND

-
1611 - ASTROl'IOMICAL REF~R • .Joh4M ~pier·
- 64.tr..,,...,,.

- THE 08J!CTlllE
lS A MiltROR-

IN MODERN
'
•
IMA6E
-
i£l£SC.OPES ARE. 1612 -
THE 200- inch APE.RTURE REFLECTOR ON Pltl MARV
MT. PALOMAR, Co..lif., WITH FOCAL LENGT!-1 Mlctl<OR
OF 55 FT., o.nd. THE 40· ineh YERKES (E'<EPIECE
RE.fR.O.CTOR AT \.lllLLIAMS BAY, W is .,
WITtl FOCAL t..ENGTfl O F 63 FT. •

•
lo1'2. - CASS£GRAIN WLECTOR·Gullkuune ~ra.in
• F/tANCA

I {A\ MATEURS TO DAY

:W BU ILD AN O USE
TELESCOP£S TO 12.Y2."
APE.RT~£. TOP C~ICE
'
WITH BEGI NN ERS
IS THE NEWTONIAN
REFLECTOR UlliH
61NCH Ml~ROR 1
l.Ul-llCH ITSELF IS ,
OFTEN 1-IOMEMADE

DAAWl~S AMPTE.0 ft0"'

•Asl110NOltl'< o•d. vou•
EDMUND SCIENTIFIC CO.

2
..

•
Getting Acquainted
with the Telescope
THE S TORY of the telescope begins
in J\tidde lburg, Holl:ind, where spec-
tacle maker Jan Lippershey was
:imazed to discover that a positive
lens placed some distance from the
eye and a nega tive lens placed right at t he eye,
•
and the two looked t hr·ough toge the r , b 1·ought the
d istant church steeple so near as to appear right
within his shop. The news of the magic glass
spread, eventually in 1609 reachi ng the ear of
Gali leo Galilei of Padun ( Podova ), Italy, t hen 45
• yea r s of age, leacher, as t ronome r and sc ientist •
While Lippershcy saw the telescope as being of
aid to the mil!Lary, Galileo was fascinated with
the idea or pull ing it to use in revealing t he
secrets of the night s ky.
"Beyond thC> s t ars of the s i xth magnitude you
will behold th rough the t elescope a host of other
' s ta rs. so numerous as to be almost beyond
belief."
Even in his own time, Galileo was given credit
for the instrument which now bears his name--
the Galilean telescope. It had the advantage of an
erect image, but the i:rave fault of a very small
field or view . Galtleo's largest instrument or
1-3/4 inch aperture and 32-power showed less
today, the first of a great line of modern reflecting
telescopes of which the 240·inch in Russia is the
current "Mr. Big." The talked-of 300-inch is not yet
in the story.
•
section O
•
than one quarter of the moon's diameter. A need-
ed s tep forward was made by J ohan n Kepler who
set forth in 1611 the principles oftnc astronom-
ical refractor, us1ng a positive eye lens. Tnat the
star images were now upside down made no great
difference: the big improvement was in the field
of view, now expanded some four times •
Even in those long gone days, the big a ttraction
in telescopes was powe t" - - and mo re power. Even
as today, the direct road to power was obvious:
the magnification of any telescope is t he foca l
length of the front or object ive lens. divided by
the focal length of the rear or eye le n.s. All you
have to do is make the objective long a nd the
eyepiece short. And so there soon blossomed
aerial rigs of 200 fl. and more in length, all quite
shaky and so afflicted with spherical and ch r o-
matic aberrations as to ran far short or produc -
ing results commensurate with their size.
The fa mous Isaac Newton (1643-1727) saw a
possible s olution. Color fault s in a refracting
telescope result when light is bent or refracted
in passing t hrough a glass lens, some colors
being refracted much more than others. On the
otller !land, a reflecting objective reflects all
colors the same - - it has no chromatic aberration
at all. Of course the spherical aberration is Still
there, and l'\ewton's small modelofll1s reflector
with spherical mirror. built in 1672, was not or
convincing optical quality. The reflector lan-
gui s hed for fifty years until I 723 when l:.nglish-
man John Hadley presented to t he Royal Astro-
nomical Society t he first pa r abollzed reflector.
Its performance was excellent, m~de more
dramatic by direc t comparison with a 123-ft.
foca l length refractor. Hadley's instrument was
but 5 ft. focal length and a scant 6 ln. apertu re,
yet it showed as much as the larger retractor,
and showed it sharper.
vVhile Had ley's demonstra t lon put a stop to
the aerial circus of refractors, the reflector too
had growing pains, capped by Sir William
Herschel ' s 40 - footer of 48 inches c l ea r· ape rture
erected in 1 789 . This woul d be ranked big even
-
 •
---
Selecting Your
MAit!
TELESCOPE
T U8( ........
A TE LESCOPE is the kind of product where t he biql!esl
1s the best. What you h a ve to do is weigh si-.e ag:unst
money -- and alway s with an e ye on qualit). Also you
mus t keep in mind that while the big scope wi II let you
see more, it is a bot her to lug around and set up, and
is more a ffected by atmospheric condit ions. It is as -
s u med that you want you r telescope to be portab le . In
such case. 6 inches is the a ccepted moxlmum si?.(' for
a r eflec tor; 4 inches fo r a refroc tor. I :tr~er telescopes
up to 10 inches for reflecto rs and Co inchefi for refractors
work well sem i - portable, tha t is you have a pe rm anent
mount outdoors a n d transport only the te leij COpc . F or
se r ious s t a r -gaz ing . a 3· inch rcfrnc tor or a 4 - 1/4 · inc h
r eflector a r e ge r1erally cor1sidC'red n1i11imurri sizes.
O~JlCT IVE Howeve r. interesting sky objects ca n IJe seen wll h •
CELL.
sm a lle r telescopes .
> 1NO( R

J REFRACTOR VS. RE F LECTO R. You cun rcud pu11;c

a fter page compa ring r efractors and 1·c flccto rs, but
unless you have ac tua l firsl ·ha nd r xperiencc In us ing
telescopes. suc h informati on is of little actual value.
T he ge neral s itua tion is simp ly t hat refrac tors ond re-
flec to rs a re both good telescopes . Inch- for -inch of
aperture, t he re fr aclor is gene r ally rated a Rhadc helter
because (l) it is more likely to be perfectly collimated.

@)
P R tS M
STAR
Dt~AL
CAO;iJH
Ell/l\lf'(T
RUAl~IN(,
R.i" G ,..-...._

\
O&JECrive
•
@ C EL.L
O&J ECTIVE
AS~EM&L'I'
®
P INION EYE ENO OF A REFRACTOR

.~ ... ·-·-·. - -
' 0 1AG0 NA L. - -
11'• 11.T M /llROR/
--
@ 6 .. RE.J:LECTOIC! · SIDE SECT to~

4
 (2) its closed tube means cl.,an"r optics and les3 air
--
distur bance within the lube , (3) it can be made nearly
IOO'l'o g lare - proor.
The reflecto r hos two big talking points : (I) it cos ls
only a.bout one -thi r d as muc h as o r cftactor or sin1ilar
size , (2) i t is 100')'. ac hromatic . Doll•r-fo r · do l l'1r ,
reflector s are cong iderably s uperio r to r ef ractors.
Convenience of operation shotJld always be con
side r ed. For the most p~r1. ;a rt-fractor- is a neck-
br<"aker. This t r ouble can be ellmlnaled by the use of
a star diagonal, F ig. 4, hut the Introduction or this
extra e lement causes a slight light loss ~nd may cause
serious i mage deterioration 1r :101 perfe ct l~t ground on(l
polished . F or south sk~· objects, the rerlector is vc r y
comfortable to use, the e~eplt>ct> being at an approx !·
mate 45 degree An&ll." and near e)•c 1("vc1 ior a person
• standing. It 1s less convenient fo r nort h sk)• objec ts
unless the tube Is r~tatable to m3lnta1n a hor izontal
pos ltion o f the eyepiece tube.
TH£ J\t0UN1. It you contemplat~ ~riou• •tar -gazing,
tho re is only one typ~ or mount and that is the equatoria l.
Tbe1·e are dozen~ of va r iations of Ll'IC equatorial mounl
but all feature t wo nxe• at r ight angles, the commonest
type being th~ Germg,n style •hown In l· lgs. I and 2. 1 he
equatorial is easy lo u:ae for Fouth •ky ob;ectE" where
the movement' an~ pretty much •traight up- and-down In
declination anll eal' t-and-we:::t in rtght aecension. T he
action is more complex in the north !:!ky. as. fo r ex-
am;> lc, )'"OU gomcttme1:1 have to move the tu be in an e;i s t-
'vei;l d i r e ctio11 in 01·der to move i t ltp or down. Becsu~c
• o f this slight d ifl'!cully, many caeunl •tar- gazers 1>rcfo r
the simpler altazi mu lh mount v..1 h('t~e tho movements are
up- and- down and right -left for any and all sky or land
objects .
The advantage or the equator Cal mount is tha t it can
follow a stnr b\ movement aro1.1nd the pola1· axis only .
Also, its mo\•cmc nts correspond to the grid of co-or-
dinate li nes used In plotting star •tins maps, maki ng i i
somewhat ~asi~r to find sky objects once you become
acquai nted wit h the system . Refinements such as set-
tinq circles and manual o r clock slow motion are not
essential. HoV.'<"''er, 1• is a good idea to purc hase a
nlount for Nh1eh 1hc&c accessor)• items are available--
once you bccorne an e xpert observe r. you w ill r1nd
circles and slow mot ion o f considc rr-ble value. S low
rr1otio1l wi th a clock drive is a " mus l 11 tr you want to do
a a l ro photography.
OPTICAL QUALITY. T his is where vou have to depend
on the reput~tton of the manuf3ctur~r unless you ca n
personally Inspect and tesl lhe te lescope. It is hesl
not to believe everything you reod because scope
makers like &0'1p make rs can make even the common-
place sound wonderful. The usual toler3 nce ror prf-
c ision telescope optics is 1/4 - wnve , wh i ch menn s th~
sur fac e m ust not d epart more l ha n 5 - 1 /2 milllonths-
of-an-inch from the require d sl'lape . T he required
shape is a sphere for lenses; a pa r"abola for concave
mirr ors . If the f f number of a mirror is f/10 or hiaher,
a spherico l shape wf ll not depart Cr om a parabola more
than the 1/4 - w ove lolerance. l n ot~r words, a par.)bol3
can be a sphere and a sphere can be a pa rabola with no
dis t inc tion or difference in i mage quallty . Stncc t ile
s pherical m i rror can be 1n;:1;chinf'-poli shed, it e li m inates
the expens i ve hand-figu ri ng necest:sa ry to obtain o per-
fect parabola; hence. i t is less expensive. At C/8 and
lower f/numbers the sphere dt>parts !!'Ore than 1/4-
wave from thtt parabola and the mirr or must be- J)3r3-
bolized for best results .
TlfE BEST TELESCOPE. All t hi nge considered, the
6 - i nch C/8 r e flector o n s turdy, simp le equatorial mou nt
is the best telescope fo r the amateur sta r-gazer. The
f /8 means that t he foca l length !.s 8 times t he mirr o r
diame ter, or 4 8 Inches . T he mirror is paraboll:ed.
Such instruments cost $ 200 or more. This may be more
money than you care to s pend, In which c ase, a 4 -1/4
inc h ! / JO. 5 re!l~ctor at about $160 would be a sensible
choice. The !/ 10. 5 spherical mirror has a foca l length
or a bout 4~ Inches, giving the scope appr o xima tely the
s a me m agnific ation range as the 6 -lnch but o nly hatrthe
l ighl grasp. T he c heapest re flector you can buy with
any c laim to q ua lity is the 3 - lnch size at about $79.
You c an have a lot of fun with this small ins trument but
it is not a lelescope for serious atar study. Good qual-
i ty r'efractortl or 3-inch or more aperture are excellent
but the ir hii he r pric e r ange usually puts them beyond
the beg inne r's cons ideration .
I n all cases, light grasp is the key feature- ob-
jective diamcter !s what you pay for ln any telescope ,
and ls also the ya r dstick used to measure lele•ecpe
performance. If you wish merely to view the moon and
bright planets, then the sma llest refraclor or reflec tor
will g ive nice views a t 50 to IOOx. Most other aky oh·
jcc ts are dim, Dtld what you need to see t hem is not
m agnifyi ng powe r b ut light power· . T he s i tuation I•
someti mes compa red to hunting for a lost object in a
dark basement, w he re it 5s obvious that a light is what
you n eed rather than a magnifyinr .rlass.

1 he- usual tolerancr for- h.tgh - pr-e-ci•ion opt1cr. ll one -q uartf'r

of t hf' "'·a ve:length of ti chi - -no par: of the (ltt11 surfAt:e mus I depart
mor~ tnar. l / 4 · wave or S 1 /2 millionths ·of ·an-inch from the spec1

n N O RMA~
IMA6t
rled Mh3pe. Compare this with a 1heet of papt-r which h.Js a thick
ncsa or .i.bout 200 waveal In thC': caiise of= 1elt't<'Opt mir ror v.neri'
!'lAN~ - llflht t r.;averses the distance twice, a t / 4-wD.ve defe(too the mir ror
wil l r<'eult in il J/2-wave error' a l the lmng(' p1ona ag shown. This
glvcl nearly perfect i mo l(t:ry and further narrowing of the to ler:i nc Ci
.
.J. ~
'
10 I/ 8-...,•o ve, 1I J0 -wave . Plc . , ts mor~ tn the natu r(': of advert isin2
than :tny appreci able i:ain n definition.

\
5
 ---- -

O&JECTllfE OIA. MAGNI FIC.ATION RESOLUTION

I NCU: MM 30,.. 401' 501' 601' DAWES ' WOIUC:I
PUt lltC.. Pt.It 11'4.Ctt Pllt 1,,acH f'UlltCM L.IM IT VALUE
r· 2.S""" 30• 50• 60• 9 EYU e.a 4. 5 $5C. 8.0 $EC.
1!4·' 32. 12.• 14

I Yi' 38 45< 60• 90• 20 :!>.O S.3

'~ 44 6• IO)t,.• Iii< 52.~ 10• 8'1• I OS• 10.0 2 .6 4.6

2 ·· SI ,, 1"2.1 10.3 2 .3 4 .0

4 "
64
76
101
101!,.1 18•
25• SO<
60 •
-rs•

12.0•
100•
12.0<
160•
125•
I SO•

200•
150•
I 80•

240•
56
81
144
10, 8

11.2.

11.8
1.8
l.S
I.I
3.1
2. .l
2.0
'
108 151 1"2.6• 110• 212• "lSS• 162 11.') 1. 0

5" I 2.'7 18• 50• 100• I SO• :2.00< 2.50• 300< 22.S \2.. "3 .9 1.6
6" 152. 2.1• I W< I 80< 2."10< 300• '?>60< .8 I .~

8" 203 80• 160• 2.40• 320• 400• 480• Sl6 13. 3 l.O
•
10·· 60 • I 00< 2t:JO• 300 • 400• 500• 600 • 900 r~.8 .5 .8 •
12" ')05 1296 14.'l. .4 .7

""MAG NJFICA.fION. T he top uH:erul power is n hout 6 0 x per
tnch of fl'h)f'rti ve apert1.1re. No addll.lonaiil df'tll\l l in an e.x-
tendE"d ob.t'"ct (moon. pl!'lM'tll. etc. ) can bP ollla;ned wt1h
higher powtN: lhediffra, t1on pattern tt:se.f b-ec1na !Osho11.•
at aboul ~C•x p€'r tnch ttn41 fur1h~r main f1c."Rl1on tends to
des\roy d~flnltlo n retht'r lhnn Lmprove it .
LlGlfr , The- con)parn1ivc scalt• Ciln be compared 'A' ith l he
ev~; 3 I 111t·h nbJect1ve equr.l11 ~eyes. Al:lo o ne vnlue can
b~ compa red w ith anoth<"r, as, ror- exan-plt" , a 3 tr.ch ob-
1.et-t1"'"" n C"~ up (our•'~"' 111• much ltl{h:t ns .'\ t -112 inch
ob)ecl1\·~ CPI to 20). Fi nl~Ktstar r:$!'ure~ c•nbe- increased
hy onr mapn1lude if t·set"lf'l!l" Is C'Xcetl~nt , ('lp~ct.ally w1th
ave r ted vl .. lon.
•
cnn s how such Q tiny o bject ~s i t r t All)• is b ut illt'1('ftd e x -
pands the anale 10 rorm a s1nall d1i-;k of Jight, k nown as a
diffraction disk or pattern. The 1 rratle r the diffract ton
•
p.;attern . the ~tier the r esolution. Resolution means
1 1mplythe e blllty to&how f1nedetatl. •n<l an ("xact me-asure
nt th1:s is oCrerod by c lose doublr 111lars. It should be noted
thattheco 1nmor1 ft t •inda r d - -D<lwe a Ltml t ··does notc.•nll fo r
nelunl sepa r at ion; the va tueY In r \ght l"Olu m n above are •
1 pproxi1'l\ale m inimums fo r com pl ete sc p3r~tio n. Oow(>S
l ..i mlt rec°"nizes o nl:i,• t h.e brfeht center of the st~r tmage.
and the angulnr ind line:Jr di:Jmf'ters ;tiven in iable beJo.,,.
arc for :.h~ pan of the d~ffrac~ii>n pattern.

RESO LU'fJON. /1, slar ia n mnth('matiC':il potnl, s ubtending

an 3Rl?lf' (')f l / 2 0 o f l second of arc or less. No lt'lescopt-.

$1 2.E O F .STA Q IMA G. E

AN6Ul.AR DIA . LI N~R O IA.
I, S S5.C..
C>I• . oi::
SEtOf'tDf f/vALU~ I N(MES
OBJECTrVE o~ ... lt.C
,. 9 .0 f /4 . 0001, !
2." <4.S f/6 .00026 SA!?H'I'. K£SQ!,YEQ
} " }.O f/& .OOO)S a./W4C.t.LUYT
(1.$f&'
4 '" 2 .'l. f/ 10 ,()O(M4 FD« l •ll!(d PA1£<TJlli)
s· r.e f ( IS .0006'1 1. S' sta:... 1.S SECOHOS, •
6•
O"
I ,5
I.'
f / 2.0
f/2.5
.oooee
. 001 1 .- - ..t- -- - -- -- ~.00035
-- ----
6"· f/e
APPEARANCC OF TY'PIC-AL
TME S TAR IN\AG.E IS
A OIJ~,RACTION Ol~K RE.SOLUTION 001/BLE STAR AT JMAt:E PLANE
OFT/11<?££ {)/FFEel!Nr r=coP£S

,
'
Ifbat to B1pect in TELESCOPE
IF YOUR telescope hos good optics 1n good align-
ment and if seeing conditions are good, then you
can expect performa nce lo the va lues given in the
table on oppos ite page, the critical item being re-
s olving power . So Car as light grasp a nd magnifi-
cation :ire concerned, e ven the cheapest, poorest
telescope will measure up to standard. The catch,
of course. is that l!&ht powe r a nd magnifying pow-
er mean nothing !t the telescope image lacks
clarity and sharpness.
LIGHT PO\VER. Objective diameter alone deter-
mines the light power of your telesco pe - -the b ig-
ger the lens or mirro r, the more light it will pick
up. If t he diameter o r the eye is take n as about
on e-third inch and given a value or I, theco tnpara -
t ive light power of objectives will be as g iven in
the table . The base for the "fai ntest star" is t he
magnitude t he eye can see unaided, which is gen -
erally taken as 6. 2 magnitude. Any depa rtu r e
from this base s hou ld be a dded or s ubtracted. F or
e xample , if you see stars to only 5th magnitude
naked - eye, you a r e 1. 2 magnit ude unde r t he base
figure and must deduct Ibis amount Crom the values
g iven.
The telescope lets you see nil stars brighter.
With a 3-inch telescope, you will see I Ith magni-
tude sta r s as bright as 6th magnitude viewed with
the eyes alone; Gth m3gnltude will look like 1st
magnitude, and a Isl magnitude star will be a real
sparkler at an app3re nt minus 4 magnitude . Since
stars look big in d i rect proportion to their bright-
ness, a consider able nmount or apparent magnifi -
cation is gained In rhls manner. You get Increased
light only wit h point objects (stars) where all or t he
extra light picked up hy the telescope goes into a
retinal image about the same size as seen naked -
eye . AII e xtended objec ts - -moon, planets, neb-
ulae - - are seen less brig ht In the telescope t han
with eyes alone. You have the same amount of
light as before but now It Is diluted by being spread
over the much greater area of the magnified image.
STARS ARE NOT l'>!AGN"IF'IEO. A star is very ti ny
in angular diameter. Even the giants and super -
giants subtend at most a mere . 05 second , which
is 1/20 of o ne second of arc. Just how small an
angle this is mny be r ealized from lhc foc i tha t the
type you are rco.ding subtends an angle of about
1600 seconds of arc ut your cye --t ry to i magine
32, 000 stars piled one on lop of t he o the r to make
a stack as high as this ty pe I As a matter of fact,
such t iny objec ts are invisib le.
A!though s tars o r e loo small in angular size
to be seen, they arc oleo too bright to be ignored.
T he light -receiving cones and r ods in your eyes
are actuated by any light beam, even t hough t he
beam itse lf may be so s mall as to light only a s mall
portion of one cone. Hence , one star can "trigger"
..
--
PERFORMANCE
PolNT
Oi!>J EC.T {ASTARJ
I
TME IMA6E OF A STAi;t
CD tS A OIFFRAGTIOM OJ SIC
@
Lit.£, $TAR IMAGE • • • ffNQ Vd..IJJ.iJS
a Ster IN A Iii,., LAltP48
SN11Jl£ lEl,flCOPE. I . Ul.€UOP£
a light cone. and the brain gets the same impres-
sion as if the cone were Cully i llum inat ed. But the
te lesc ope has to magnify a s ta r 13x per Inch of ob -
jective diameter to fully illuminate one cone.
Hence, even at the top magnification of 50x per
inch, sta r s are magnified only about fou r limes
the naked-eye view.
THE OIFFR..'\CTION PATT E RN. Diffraction is an
optical effect caused by rhe interference of light
waves in passing around o r through an~ openi ng,
such as a lens or your eye. Why it happens is not
e xplained he r e , but whal it does can be seen in
Fig. 1- -a point object is seen as o tiny di~k, sur-
rounded by one or more fa int r ings of ligh<. About
853 of the light is in lhe cen tra l disk and this Is the
part you see. The diffraction dis k is still very
small but it is substantially bigger than the a ngular
diameter o f t he pointobjccl itse lf. By optical laws,
the angu lar diameter o f the diffraction disk be-
comes smaller as the size o f the lens is Increased.
The small e r the difr r act iond lsk, 1hc better lhe re-
solving power. If you have a I - Inch te lescope with
just fair optics, you may not be able to s p lit the
Trapezium , Fig. 5. The sma ll er diffraction pat-
t ern or a 3 - inch telescope allows a clean split ,
Fig. 6.
DAWES LIMIT. The common way of ratlngthe re-
solving power o f a telescope is by givi ng the min -
7

imum separation between two stars which yet al -
lows the two stars to be seen as separate points.
This is Dawes Limit. It does not mean that you
will see the stars cleanly separated but only that
you can te ll there are t wo s ta r s. The general
theory is that you can tell t here are two stars if
the edge of one d iffraction disk does not extend be-
yond the center of the other. In other words,
Dawes limit is one- half the diameter of the dif-
fr action disk; or. the d iffraction disk is two times
Oa~res limi t. Da\ves limit is de finitely a ''li mit'',
and you will get more fun out o f doub le stars by
ma king your minimum double star twice Dawes
limit. This will show the two stars just touching.
To test the resolution of your telescope, se-
lect a double star with a separation of twice Dawes
limit. Both stars must be about the same magni-
tude a nd not too bright (mag. 5 or 6), the stars to
be located near the zenith. Further, seeing con -
ditions must be good. You will need at least 30x
per inch magnification and you can use as m uch
additional powe r as you like . Then. if you can see
the two stars just touchi ng, the resolution of your
scope is equa I to Dawes limit, and this in turn
means the optics a re excellent. If the sta rs o ver -
la p but yet are r ecognizable as a pair, you are do-
ing very well alt houg h not to Dawes limit. Jf you
see only one s tar, then the seeing is bad or your
optics a r e under par.
DETAIL IN EXTENDED OBJECTS. \Vhen you look
at any extended object, t he telescope image is
made up of an arrangement of many diffraction
disks o f a size and spacing determined by the di-
ameter or t he objective. The smaller the disks.
the more detail you can see~ just as more deta i l is
visible in a fine -screen magazin e halftone than in
a coarse newspaper halftone. \Vhen the te lescope
image is magnified 13x per inch of objective diam-
eter, the diffraction pattern becomes equal to the
resolving power of the eye. This is equivalent to
a 150- line halftone screen. Such a pattern or
screen readily allows about 2 - 1 / 2x magnification
in order to produce a large r picture and yet not
make the screen pattern too prominent. The pat-
tern or screen is then 60 -\ine. the same as used in
newspaper halftones . This is the approximate ef-
•
feet you get a t 32x per inch magnification . This is
ideal high power . Definition rema ins good to about
50x per inch and then deteriorates sha rply; at 60x
per inch, the diffrac tion pattern has a structu1·e or
about 25 lines per inch. Being a picture painted
with light d is ks, you can't view a telescope image
and ac tua lly count off the lines-per-inch structure.
Howe ve r, the effect of t he too-coarse sc r een is
readi ly apparent, the picture becoming soft a nd
woolly like a photograph with too much enlarge -
ment. Remember : You can use a ll the power you
like when looking at s ingle stars or double stars or
ope n clusters, because what you are looking at is
a single diffraction disk or a pair o f d isks or an
open cluster of disks. However, when you look at
an extended object, you want to see the picture as
a whole without making the disks of light which '
con1prise it too prominent .
GOOD SEEING. High power magnifies - -but every-
thing! You ha ve a l ready seen how it magnifies the
diffr action pattern lo the point of producing a fuz,zy
image . It also magnifies heat waves, dust, c louds
a nd air currents . All of these things cause poor •
imagery, and a ir currents most of all. You have '
to slice your way through ten miles or more of
swirls, eddies, updrafts and downdrafts, cold air
a nd hot spots . When the air is quiet and steady,
then ''seeing is good'' and star images shrink to
tiny points. A steady b r eeze is often helpful; good
seeing often occu rs when the sky is dull and hazy.
When you pick up star images three or four t imes
norma l size and maybe wandering allover the field
of the eyepiece, then you know seeing is bad. Since
the average backyard astronomer uses modest
equipment at 50 x to 150x, good seeing is not quite
the problem it is to the professional observer, al-
though there are times when even a 50x image gets
the shakes and s hivers. You will not be long at ob-
serv ing the n'oo n until you notice this . Like the
weathe r, nothing can be done about it although re -
ducing powe r and aperture makes lhe commotion
less disturbing. To distinguish between "seeing"
and optica l quality, test your scope on a near ob -
ject in quiet air i n day light. A clear , sharp image
proves you have good o ptics--the "good seeing" is
something you have t o wait for.
FOUR MAGNl'tU()ES: '.!>9-811M£f MINE MA6N1'tUO£S< :J,981 ""'£<
Five MAGN IT UDES~ I 00 71M£.S Thl'I MAGNmJDES: IOOOOTIM.fs
•,
 CD
GERMAl<lYPE 0
EQUATORIA L LEYEL114G
MOU HT THE
l'RtPOO
ME.AO

How to use an
E UATORIAL MOUNT
THE TELESCOPE MOUNTING most familiar to amate ur star-
gaze1·s is the Gcrn1an- ty pe equatorial sho-..1111 i n Fig . 1. Jn its
simple form il cons ists mc1·ely of two axes al righ t a ngles.
\'•il h the 1)o}ar axis adjustc<J to the sa111e angle a$ t he latitude
of the o bserver 's loca l ion . Refinements inc lude setting c i rc les ,
slow mot io n and clock drive -· a ll featu r es which c an be added
·<"4d
POLA'l \
At.IS_l_
at a ny l i n1e to l he o r igi na I moLtnl .

ADJUSTI NG POLAR AXJS. The first thing you do with a n

equato r ia l mount is to adjus t the polar ax is to your latitud e .
This is done indoors . F il'st, level the tripod he3d, F ig. 2.
Then loosen the nul at top of t r i pod head so t hat t he polar a x is 0
AoJ11ST1Nc;.
can be tilt ed to a n a ng le eq ua l to your latitude. Fig. 3 shows ;.
'' PolAll Axis
the adjustment be ing chec ked with the use of a floa ting p lu mb (ALT~ llN~Tf
·'' MlT>'OD)
bob level. Another common lool used for jobs like this is the
level prot r actor head of a combination square . S t ill another
way of checking t he angle is shown in Fig . 4 , which makes
use of a circular sa\v m iter gage in combination w ith a spirit 'Z.E.NIT!ot
le vel. \Vith the miter gage in place as shown , lhe po lar axis

THI.I AN&I.£
IS SAM~ N
!0'& lA 1'tll!t>t

_.,.. .....
,,~ ......, ,,......

•. L ....
SETTING UP IS SIMPLY A MATTE~ OF PO I NTIN& Tl-lE
TELE<;C.OPE. AT POLARIS . .• f.AACT ACCURACY IS NOT NEEDE.D
El(C.lPT fOR. {.Q_Ut\TORIAL<; fiTT~O WI T~I SlTT \ ,.t(, C.IRCLE:$

9

If
£<HJAT08/A' ,M(X//VT ZriAfllfT A sr...A
SY q <!17'141MQ MQ«MLNT M PtZIAR AN
m CCM/YdUU oza41..up /Jtt!rATHJND£Lf8TN
1 ll CIClC.Ll<S-- - - - +
.- - - - - - MOU • •
• • •,
• ••
• •
•
......,,..
• •
-2 "• • M41
,_ •
•
••
• • • ...
~O"'" ,
© °"'-•NATION ~l&P- StRIUS TO M41
is tilted until a spirit level applied to miter gage
guide bar shows level. Accuracy to the nearest
degree is good enough.
SETTINO UP OUTOOORS. If you s p r ead the tripod
legs to make the tripod head a pproximate Ly level,
t he telescope will poi nt to the same altitude as
Polaris, F ig . 5. The other part or the setup calls
for rotation of the whole t ripod a llttle east or west
as needed In order to center on Polaris in a cross -
wise or east -west position. Rough-sighti ng along
the telescope tube can be followed by a peek in the
finder, which should show Polaris near the center
of the field. No g r eat accuracy Is needed - -even a
rough setup wi ll put you within five degr ees of the
pole and this is all the accuracy nee ded for the
short movements norm al to either following or
finding.
EQUATORIAL MOVEMENTS. By sighting on Po-
laris, you make the pol ar axis parallel with t he
imag ina ry sha!t on which the earth turns, F ig. 7.
Hence, as the earth turns to the east, you make a
corresponding move ment to the west, and In t his
way you can t rack a star across the sky with a
movement of the polar a xis only . An equa lly Im-
10
•
'
'
w '
•
•• •
, t
LR PUS '
portant feature is t hat any movement on eithe r axis
corresponds to the grid of plotting lines used on all '
sta r atlas maps.
Any movement on the declination axis is a
movement in dee linat!on . This means that your
telescope will move directly toward o r away from
the North Pole, as shown In F igs. 8 and 9, approx -
imate ly parallel to the nearest hour circ le. Any
movement on the polar axis is a movement in r ight
ascension, commonly referred to as R. A. A
movement in R. A. is a lways a circ le around the
pole, e xactly parallel to the para llels of declination.
Once you become familiar with this system, you
can use it to advantage In finding sky objects.
Three examples of " finding" are shown In the draw-
ings (Figs. 8, 9 and 10) and the s ubject is covered
In more detail on other pages .
It will be obvious that the south sky is by far
the easiest to wor k. Her e, despite the tilted po-
sition of the mount, the action is pretty much a
p lain up-down, east-west movement very nearly
like a simple altazimuth mount. The north sky is
a radical departu re; both dec lination and R. A. can
run in any direction. However, If you keep the
basic movements in mind, you will not find the
north sky too difficult.
'
•
'
 •

#OV,{ M{IVT ON
..- ,. ... PQLAB AJ(<$

-~

Cflflt!I~ EAS.T WEST

.;··:·,. · ·~...;·
SAt.AtfC£S POSITION POSITION
-..: ~ ; TN£ TEUSCOP,G_
)
.;; .'
.
¥~ '.
- ·-
-· TELetroPe
Po! NTJN(r
I
0ECL INAT 10,., !
;: /\IQ.fl.TH . - •·r Ai<IS DECL.INATION
.. "R
Axis
" .J
POLAR
/
AXlS
IN£$.T EA.ST
POSITION POSITIO ..

®
TELESCOPE CAN BE SllJUl'IG TO EITHER SIDE 01' TRIPOD
l @
~-· · ®
I

lv!EC HANICA L MOVEMENTS . The on ly mec hani -
cal m ove1nent not immediate ly apparent is the ro ll-
over from one side o ft he tripod head to t he other.
The rollover is necessary beca use in most positions
the German equatorial can't swi ng th rough the me-
ridian~ -you c an •t S\veep fron1 east to wes t o r west
lo eas t. T he genera l ru le is that if you wa nt lo
look al a sta r in the easter n s ky , you use the te l-
escope on west s ide of t r ipod; if you want to look
west, you roll over to the east side. These r ules
a re rev·ersed if you a.re obse rving in Ll1e nort h sky
below t he pole . Also. in t he south s ky below the
eq uator , a fa ir amount o f movement th rough the
meridian is poss ible . ll does not mea n n1uch lo
talk about these movements, but if you go through
8-practice ses s ion indoors of pointing to \•arious
points in the sky, the whole t hing will become
c lea r .
The rollover its e lf can be done in t wo ways .
With te lescope pointi ng no r th, the movement fro m
o ne si de to t he o ther is a s imple mo ve ment a round
the polar axis, a s can be seen in Figs. 11 a nd 12 .
F rom ei lher of these pos it ions you can rn ove in
dec lination into the south sky, F igs . 13 a nd 14 .
A lt ernately, if you are a lready observing in the
sout h sky, the fastes t way to make the rollove r is
by point ing the front o f te lescope down. as shown
in F ig. 15. Indoor pr aclice s hould be carried oul
until all o f the movements o f the telescope can be
made quic kly and a utomatically .

TELESCOPE
PPINUCi1i
SO(/TH <V£AR ~
\!;I,'.' .~..'
"I i ' ->:·~, •1< • ' '.l
,

La<IA7J?__& ~ ·:i, ROLLOVER FROM £AST TO

:; W~ST SIOE OF TRIPOO
:·r· .. :- .....-·~1·, ·~~. · :-,~. :.: .

11
'telescope ONE OF THE fi rs t things you learn about telescopes is
that the m agnification is equa l to the focal Le ngt h of the
obj e ctive divid~d by the focal Length o f the eyepieC'c . •

ARITHMETIC T his basic calc ulation is No. l in t he cha rt below . Like

all e quations, it can be t ransposed, as shown by formu -
las 2 and 3. 1\o. 2 determines the r. I. or eyepiec e (FE)
needed to obtain a ce rtain magnific ation; No. 3 iiives
t he f. I. o f objective if M and FE are known .
•

' Calculations using the exit pupi l aN usefu l for find·

ing the power of a tetesCOJX! when you know nothing abou1
the instrument . All you ha ve to do Is measu r e the c lea r
diameter of objective . The n on B piece or t r acing p3per
you can see and measure the e xit pupil beh ind the eye-
-- piece . F ormula 4 gives the power. A di r ect - r eading
magnifie r (pocket c omparator) Is a handy instrument for
findi ng t he exac t diamete r or lhe e x it pupil .
TS: - T l<?ll£ S:1£LD Calculations invol ving the true field and apparent
rJH TAtf£ Ge SUL field , Nos. 7, 8 and 9, a re the ones you w ill us e mosl
Atftitlt AR E!IL D ·Qf • ViSUL.S.£LN.. U'/ T,LllS.CJ)J/!£.
8!(!( f/Al,l(t lt{E.J_ll/>
~LA T-'&(E/LkQ in actual obse rving . The apparent held or any eyepiece
Ati&J6 •• . IL._£fltfl Afl&4 £ £HN WU'/( LYLA~ is a fixed angle. F o r example , a certain Kellner eye -
AS: - A PP!>.lt.ENT F IE.1.C! fLP!I! APl'A"'r"" ""&tf piece m ay have an apparent fie ld of 50 degrees --this is
oE €/6LD $££/( TJV(OV~!IJl/F 14'1.l!r-t:~ a fi xed value j ust the sanie as the focal length is a fi xed
va lue . The true field of the telescope e quals AF dlvldrd
by M (formula 8). F o rmu la 7 gi ves the n\ng nlflc alion
when AF and TF are known. Suppose y ou want to look nt
the moon (angula r <ha . I {2 degr ee) using the highes t
po wer which wi ll s how t he Cull disk. Ir your eyepiece IR
50 deg rees apparent field, M e q uals 50 dlvl de d lJy . 5
equ a ls ! OOx magnification . The same calc u lation c-11 11
a lso be applied to any part of the whole field: Assume
you want Lo look at a double star with se po.ratlon of 15
seconds of a r c . You will lea rn from e xperience that if
M - M AGN IF IC1'T IO,., this t rue field angle c an be inc reased to 10 mi nu tes ap-
00- O IAMlT L il OF OGJ l CT IVE parent fie ld , the double will be nicely s epa rate d . F o r -
l'Q - F OCAL Llt<GT" OF 06JlCTIVE.
mula 7 s olves the problem, but you mus t first convert JO
F'E - F OCAL Llt<Gl w 01' EVf.P1ECE
f/o&J.- Tl« f-V"'V~()E. ()AlfCTIVE (J!(!ll'fOI... ~ 771!!{.f minutes lo seconds , e quals 600 seconds . Then, 600
flXJIL lFtiGT!I 11£P/JKI1a IS~f:(AY,f, (4'i!dQIA/ seconds (AF) divided by 15 seconds (TF) cquo. ls 40x,
- which is the powe r needed. I

TE L ESCOPE CALCULATIONS
f.YEP1£c.£

r M:o FO ~ FE
EXA,<IPl£:
M : 10 + 2. :
[D

s.c FE : 10 -:- s ~ 2·
F0 -:: M " FE

FO • 5 " 2 • 10"
[!}

M : 00 .;. E.P ~ EP .=- 00 .;. M @)

(Xl/MPt..E:
M = l.25 .;. :is: 5~ EP = 1.25.;. s =.'J.5" DO:: 5" ."2.S • f.'2.5"

M :. AF ~ TF [2J TF = AF ..;. M @) AF "" M x TF [fil

cXllMPL/;:
M "' '?.O .;.. 6 =5 < TF -= :?.O .;.. 5 "' 6 ° AF .:: 5 " 6 " 30°

_,.._ ,,, _ _;f/4 OQJ~TIVE §j

-f/o6J. : ro.;. oo ~ DO-= FO .;.f/oeJ.QTI FO :: f/oBJ. ic 00
,. . __:..--~
DO/ E'/(/IMPLE :
...t_: ~o • e" -f/oeJ. = e-:- 2. ,,. 4 00 :: B .;. 4 ~ 2" FO .. 4- x 2. • 8 "

12
'
 -
•

OPTICAL SYSTEM OF THE TELESCOPE

: Most Popular £i. -epieces :

-r-
'I
I

J.
f /7
-i.As..er
JfJ.:71o~,,
~

HU~GE~S -FIN.(t 7#12 LM.J' t:lAMSO£.H • U£ £CQ('IOMY

~.UC£ • .E..V4tY CD.i'ltECT EO A:a.P-Jl:C.G, 8£rU< CQ,fK ECUD
8Jl?l.ATEKA£ COLO.e. (J&,£/ffll_IOfJ ZJi4JY .'IVY&FH.f' /Al Aft .R'ltAf{Zr
I f (iQQQ_, CSJ>«!All'r l1T CGtlrGJt G~t:GPr L.lfr11.,11t- cot.OR
•
SO"'tO
'M)•io so• io•
, --- F·~"JA--i:1~ - ... ,...-
- y- --
'I '
I
I
L ._
A
•
: ··· -
l. _--E& . c,J
-1· *-~~
- -t~+~+-H'+~·
-{>
.L - ...
f/6 r/4.S .Beoou•t!O:!> f/4.o .:IQ%m10X,
~VMM If.Tit ICAL •.4.EIL"<lt A!t. T R I P LI: T - CSsCL!ll'lfl.u.Y.J:M OA.TMOSCOPIC-FVtLX.£11"'. f«l: fii:tFLE · e' s'•"""' 1r.P11CJA«r
l:IOMft"AOC SIX/.£· E!X/11.J.il_.T1t S,8Mt:AS A-S".'li!'!t'!JcJ.l!LCilJ....lXCtP.r El> EO/? OtS'r¢/lTIOd. ~ MJUJe .Bl!!. 4 U11Q&Fl.AT ~/Ll,.Q . GOOD
If A&lvt 0{!£•114,tf E. L. 0( t.M.llJ' ClftJ tN T~ E.'lft11N1!T£f ONE &oPE~£'( 1T.tedW AS M.U- Atreo Ul!PJ4ce etr/{(J tav'H OE
//Jb2 ·· ·IS <i"'2!l llST4v:.l~MQi £1.CtrfetfJ;, • •..£Ke4Y£1V£ A.SrltC?_CY(PIEC£ ~oR l/JGll Pot.tlilt THI 06S'Hil:f.'f W'fiflp AtHl..fJe(Q(k
•

What Eyepiece is Best?

-....._I
BY F AR, the objective is the most important p:irt
or the telescope. On lh<' othrr hnnd . th<' ryepiPC('
offers a variable in terms or perrormance and
1111111111111111111111111/' -
magnification, and as such gets the major share or AN'P' Ol,:;,:;U&~
attention. Howc\•er, al sl1ould bc- obviot.1s •hat un · 4..IG/llr S()(NlllC£ -
"'4iOL~ OR.
less the obJecto ve produ<"e• "c t .. nn, sh:>rp image, OPG,.,SKY
no super-duper eyep!ecf' Is goln'l 10 magniry it into
a nice sharp picture. l 1<1'G orO(,
PAPf.A
Thr eyepiece 18 a simph• mngnifier. All types
except the Huygens have an imal(e or focal plane a
short distance outside the f r ont or field lens . You
can easily loc:>t"the !mag<' pl:>n<:> by rxperimenting
with a slip of tracinp; or wax paper . F ig. 2. havirfll:
-...
ink or rencil morks on th<> turnrd · o ver e nd. If you 1'1 ... 01 ... 6 ...
can't see the marks al any position, it is likely you fMAC.£ PlAl"E
have t he Huyncns eyepiece, some1 imes ca lled a - -.:/!,Ji'"".-! '
''negotive" e)'ep i l'Cc• l}C'C":lUSQ it c:1n 't l >r used as a
simple rnagnifie r. ABO: '
:2-~ 4
~
~
MOW Ll(;MT
EYE POS ITION . T he eye piece roces the oh.iective Ef'fTEltS EVE'
and all the whi le is "tak ing a picture" of the o b.Jee·
live . This Image of th<' ohj0r'11vr is known as Lhe
exit pupil, und t'Oll be IOC :\ tC'rl h.v ho lding n piece of
tracing or w:ix po.per behind the 1el cscopc, Fig . 4.
If you have a reflector. the cXIL 1>upi 1 ls 11 mi n iolu r<>
piclurc of Lhc mi.rroo', cv!'n showing the ho ldini<
c lips as we ll as the black s ilhouellcof the dia gona l.
13
 The distance from the eyepiece to the exil pupil is
t he eye relief. ldealfy this should be about 1/ 2
inch for normal eyes. or 3/4 inch if you wear
glasses. T he eye re lief decreases wi th foca l lengt h
and becomes too short with Huygens and Ramsden •
eyepieces less t han about I / 2 inch focal length.
When you use a telescope , your eye shou ld be
at or near the exit pupil to see the widest ric id a nd
"'
1.. E.VPC.
so• e1uo
to ca pture oil or t he light entering the objecti ve,
F ig . 5 . If you get inside t he exit pupil you will note
a "blinker" effect as important light r ays wil l a l-
© DtFFEltf~tl: IN APPARE"T F1£LO ternately strike and miss your eye with the slight·
---- ~'£trl ..a est hea d move ment. Out s i de of the e x it pupil,
e dge -of -field rays miss the eye c leanly and com -
~ !"~~ p letely, res ulting in a loss o r field. The long eye
pos it ion is somet i mes nece ssary, as, ror exam ple,
n 1/4 inc h Ramsden will have only about 1/ 16 inch
1•• L'fP(:, eye reUef. Since t he e nt r ance to the eye is about
WIT~
350A.F. I /12 inch inside the eyeball itself, F lf. 3. it is
plain you can't get in close enough. With the long
eye pos it io n the cente r or !1<>ld re mains fu lly illu -
G) 01FF£1lENCE '" MA~Plll'ICATION
mi'nated so that no harm Is done othe r than the los s

--·
OBJE-tT•VE

-- - -- -
or rield .

A PPARENT FIELD. T he e xtent of field you c an

sec through any astronomical telescope depends
solely on the diameter of the lenses in the eyepiece.
Ae&Rwr eoser10tv @ NORMAL TELESCOP' SYs:TEM The refore, if you want a wide field , all you need is
,,,
t{..OF 0/3.16Crt¥~
--:. ',
Nil.IJ IMAC.E
an eyepiece with big lenses. Howeve r, a b ig le ns
111
\JL--- ---- -- . ._ .
:"\- .,
...... ... era:;. lD!XS
• '
s hows inc reas ed rau l!s or a berrations. To reduce
aberr ations to a practical permissible amount, t he
lenses must not exceed a ce rtain diameter for a
~A-a- 8TZJM'RMT
~' 0_/lfOOJCC<!>llllTI" ~ ._ QEI~ certain focal length or eyepiece . Hence, all eye ·
9 ... 6Alll()lll LE NS ... OOED pieces have a lim it as r egards e xtent of field- -you
c on make a Ramsden with u wide 65 deg1·ce fi e Id but
--G
"
.
- ,-. /
R LTA 1,..1Hv
lllNG
it will nol perform well a l nll, whereas t he same
lenses in a smalle r size or reduced by field s top to
cover about 35 degrees will show a clea n, sharp
--- picture .
The appo r e nt fie Id of n tc le scope is the fie ld or
t he eyepiece a lone . It is normally some 30 to 50
degrees ln a ngu la r exte nt. This is a fixed a nd c on-
stant angle for any specific eyep iece, a nd c an also
be maintained in a series or different focal length
eyepie ces of the same type. The apparent fie ld is
ve r y much like the fram e a r ound your tele vis ion
sc r een--it is nlw3ys t he same s ize. The a pparent
field o f a SO degre e eyep iece ls bigger then the fie ld
of a 35 degree eye piece, F ig. 6. \\/he n t he p ower

Jf you have an eyepiece with a

L. l GNt
MESl £1T good amount of eye relier. It Is easy
lo boost the powe r as much as 4~
by adding an extra lens. wh1ch i s
used as a C :'lp over the eyepiece, as
s hown. The e xtra lens s hould be
kept ns c lose to the oyc piece as
possible, and ca n face c urved s ide
EY£P1ECE
"' in or out aa desired. The shot1e ned
eye relier 1s still enou1h for com-
fortable use.

14
.
. ,
. ,, , F8.fcAL [j] C!J
LE GTM llAME f:tELP 3• f/15 REF RAC.TOR
•
& H ~/8 Rt:FLECTOR
® 11'4CN2MM. ~ OIA· NIA6. E. P. lt'l~i Moollf hAfg 1MA6. E. p. lll'll., ~ ST...fj
y,
. Low 2" so.a 5• l.36'LM 2~ .. '18' 1°41'• 3~· 6'2.. 2A• ~" to ~'9' 33 194
•
POW~R 1;.; ••
ALL TYPES WI L4 1~- 44 .S 5 .1• 1.19" 2.6" '/9" 1•32• 3 46 2.1.C '!- - lo "28' 2.~ 15 0
1,.UOA.K W£1..~ I F
PROPER.1...V MADE .
w1oe C. t £LO ANO
L.ON6 EYE QELIEF
.~ .. 38.1 6.6• 1.01·
~· v.O' 1•20' 2~ 3S ~2• 'Is" 1• 15' 2~ III

·~-
A~E. OESIRABlE
PEATUR:E.S 06TA1,.,tO 31."l 8• .85" 36,, ){{ 1° 6' 2 24 ~8.C 'lo" 1• 3' 2 16
WITH ERFLE., KlU..NlA
,.'1PE 3 1 '°''(Ml'l\ETRICAt.. 1}8" 1e.6 8-9• .76" 40• Y,j' 1° o' 2 20 431' V," 56 ' I~ 01
ME.OIUM I" 25.4 10• .6e'' 45• Yis" 53' 1>4 15 46• 11e· so· IY.. 49
POWER
RAMSOE.l'I ~/1110 MU"r6trf$
A•E ECONOMY CMOIGl
i1e· 2.2.2. 11.4• .w· s:z." ,,
\!( .. 48' 1Y~ 13 SSv i;,/ 44' 1Y._ 38
A/'<10 t-tAV£. SA'TIS-
FAC'rOR'< EYE. REl.IE.F ~f [9 . 1 1:>.~· .sf' 601' ~ui 40' 1Y~ 9 64• YIII.. 31 ' I~ 2.1
()Ou.Ir-I TO ABOUT Y2..
F .L . )(£LLNE.R. i'<Pf
\ tS OFTE,., USED,
~;,,- 15., 16~ _43• j2Y x·
24 3?,' I 6 T7ll X't .) .. ;,:z.: I 20
Al..$0 S'(MME.1RlCAL
DOU&l...t..TS: 1/z" 12.1 2.0• .~· 90,. 130· 21' I 4 96• 116"
1 z.s· .¥4 1'2.

..i I <;f-4 )/s" 9.5" 26:7• .26" l'ZOI' ~ 20' 2.f.i 2 1281' '/z1" 19' ~ ,
POWE~
0EL.Ow 1h" F. L. 11" 1.S ~Ii /.9 3'2.< .'2"2." 1451' ~· 16 ' y._ I 1541' ~ 16' Yi.. 5
~£~1" ,.0 OS.£ Oll't~
O il 0 1M£.R.S' Wl'ftl
MA'(. E.'(E RE.Lt E.F'- 14· 6.4 40• .11 " 18o-t Ys9' ,~ · '6 I 192• 'Ai' I '.:!.' V:; :>
St/W\PC.E Sl1"4c:il.E.
LENSES SOMtllME.S
us£(:) '16H 4.2 60• . I I' 26&• '/91" 9' !4 0 2&).C ~8 8' ~ 2.

([I FOCAL LCl'f&TI( br(.LJM.2 OO~ut..6:ASJU.d.M4'T£R o~ ~1£J.D m S.~IJ!ll!',6/i.8. TNAI![

l.d.lJ2. 10 {t:f.CN&.,$. "'lftl'...!:!1.I
~ .. IS fl«Q..,c:JP-8£S/3
t!11CllOEJ;.(lP€_ 4,."(~
TN&.N t £ffg"""6 €«Pf£«s'
ld.Nl>SR D I u, .. J:oevr
{!J /1xli&!i;_£
~ -~
V[€J<I. '2G-f!!L'-=
TO 11' ""!A:fi1 E.tJ&
Ar FOCAL et.Al't'E PF £ll'll1£c£
( CR 08.JE CTl'(jJ: B8$£D ON
lt:t.(i:
ZJl.QE ,, , .LM!fG£ TJ!IS' S'll(
_a:.· - /. . AG. roR.. 6.,
.AO• Aef't4R£1VT eJ..§.,2 N,aDS IJ.1&&£R 'C.<l.fl.~ ,,..l:tll.r. 4.C. r. VA'' "t-W.LJ.J#£ e.
AS P£R t!07E

of t he telescope ls ; nc reased, the apparent field
remains t he same. Fig. 7, and only t he object s in
the field show magnification. T he true fie ld is t he
angular field cove r ed by the telesc ope and is equal
to the apparent field of the eyepiece divided by the
magnification. If the apparent fie ld is la rge, the
true fie ld a lso is compa rati ve ly larger t h.an an eye -
piece of less apparent field.
WHAT EYEPIECE JS BEST? The r e are no perfect
eyepiece s- -a nd no poor· ones either if properly
made. Some o r the more popular types and t he i r
main c haracte r istics are showounder Fig. I draw-
ing. T he ''c ri tica l aperture" of an eyepiece indi -
cate s t he maximum li ghl beam it will handle. The
Huygens . for example, Is just fair in fielding a
wide f / 8 light cone; it works much better with the
na.r 1~0''' f{ l S beam of a refractor. The more-ex-
pensive eyepieces give 'vider field and better
relief but only a li ttle improvement in optica l ex -
cellence . Apart from type , the focal le ngt h is the
im portant feature. F ig. 11 . F or t he average port ·
ab le telescope , an eyepiece of around I inch f. I.
or a lEttle mo r e is firsl c hoice. If in addition it
offers wide field a nd com fortable eye relief, you
ha ve the perfect No. I eyepiece. A second eye-
piece should approximate ly double t he power- - litt le
is gained with mild inc r eases in magnificati on.
The idealbatte t·y could be 1-1 /8 inch, 518 inch and
1 /3 inch. a lthough I. 1 /2 and t/4-lnch sets are
more co mmon. It is conveni e nt to have a 11 the
same apparent field and all parfocal. Parfocal
means thal t he s houlder or flange distances are
such that t he eyepieces occ upy the same pos iti on --
focu s one and you focus a IL Stock eyepieces can
sometimes be parfoca lized by the addition or
spacer ri ngs .
Tl-IE BARLOW. A popu la r way to get extra power
(if you must) is to us e a Barlow lens wit h an eye-
piece of me dium focal length. A Barlow lens ls a
short f. 1. negative lens use d a little inside the focal
p la ne o f an obj ecti ve. \Vhal happens can be seen in
Figs. 8 a nd 9· - wi th jus t a small increase in the
physical Length of the sys tem , the e quiva lent or ef ·
feclive focal length can be doubled or tripled . T his
doubling a nd t ripling applie s a ls o to the f/val ue; if
you have an f/8 mirror and use 2x Barlow magnifi-
cation , the system works at f/ 16. Th is narrower
c one of light will often work wonders in improving
the performance of a Huygens or Ramsden eyepiece .
C?)'e Any amount of powt?r can be obtained by simply lo -
cati 11g the Ba 1~10"'' at a greater di s ta r.c-e fro rn the
pr i1na ry image p lane . In F ig. 9; this is distance
A. Distance Bis how m uch t he focus ing tube mus t
be extended f rom Hs normal position with eye piece
alone to regain focus with the eyepiece plus Ba rlow .
The combined distance, A plus B, is actua lly a ll
y ou need to know s inc e this set & the power; d is-
tances A and B adjust automatically when the tele-
scope is focused . Spac ing information is supplied
with the lens. T he usu a l setup fo r a Barlow i s a
metal ce !I with adj ustable space r rings. Fig.· 10.
This fi ts ins ide the focusing t ube of t he tele scope
and the eye piece is the n used in a normal manner
except a lillle extra "oul" focusi ng travel is needed.
15
 C.AN VOU $EE
TME LAOY
INTMl MOON?

\ .., Tveu~-····;J-
·
;;'.._ _/.~ E.RE.C.T
Vt E.W ~
•

]/:l'Y'\~ . ':~~·
TME S.UN
••• INTERESTING TELESCOPC
O~JECT Pir 40< "TO 70"' l!>UI
YOU MUST USE A SUN FILTER.
TO A\/OID SE.~10\JS IN.JU~
T O I/OUR ('((. THE SUl'I
SPOTS ARE EAS'I' TO SEE
·~--- -...... •
TME MOON VENUS
MAGrllTUOE - 12 WMEN FULL LIKE All OF THE PlAr<ETS, VENUS
1$ 1~0 1 000 TIMES ~IGMTER ORE!>ITS AROUI" D THE SUN
T HAN FIR'!>T MAGNITUDES.TAI?. ANO IS UGH~o B Y THE S.UN.
CRAiER. "TYCMO (TtE·CO) IS ON Ori 14£R NEAR APPROAC14ES
SOVTM ::OIDE. - MOS"T PHOTO.S 10 T HE EARTK S.1-\E IS
ARE. Sl-\OUJN INVERlEO SRILLlll/JT Al -4 MAGN ITUDE

--
,.....--0,,..ffE/:21!!_.,..
..Esr -......@.
M~tr:l(l,..6S
C.t.OUt> aA"C>S-
C/1~"81.4 ---
AC:ZE TITAr< •S se16KTEST
~WTE-MA6. 6 ,/
,.....-- ..
·--
JC , - - \
,.. • j.
I '.

·\
J <
=-O- I I ,:.,,.... ~
. : (
MARS~
EARTH-· • ) • LEO
•
. •
.
• *.

-_./
MAG.
• OA (IAAt.)
JUPITER .SATURN
B tG .lUPE IS iH£. EASI E.S. T SA.TUR rt IS Tilt P li'El i l EST
PLANEi TO SE.E.--AUJJAYS Pl.ANET. THE RINGS AfE SEErl
~IGHTE.~ THAN -1\12 MAG. PLAINL'{ Al 40x AL"Ti-100(,M
HIS FOVR 01?16!-ITEST MOOll$ INVISIBLE Wl"IH 1>C e1NOCUl.AR.
Cl' MA6.6 $1.IUTiLC ElAcK AND Wll M lllGME~ A:lUIER YOU MA~
i:o1rn-1,c~ANGlll6 NluMTL'< 0C A8l£ TO SH CASSIN!'~ ONl~ION
~--- "~Ao~s
OR01TOI'
•
---MAG. •
. MARS -z.sc"'"~·l GoN!.'TtllATIOl'lS
~EDMAf?:S MAK(S A tl€Ae A CONSTELLATIOl'I IS A <.ROUP
APP!i!OACH TO TM E EARTH OF :>TARS, USUALLY FORM ING
EVERY OTl-IER YEAR, AMO AT S.OME KIND OF PAiiERN OR
SU~ TIMES SOME SUR""ACE "'PtCTURE.'1 PROPERLY', A
DEiAIL CAM Be S(Ert WtTl-I C.ONS'TELLATION IS A
"TELESCOPES AT Z00-'300• SPECIFIC A~A OF iME.SKV

~£YL ".· 1
.- 12'~MA6rltTUC>E 0~
l'AtN,.E.R S"T... RS
IU§!UV£ •
8 '.J2E ' ~
"~, .
---- TH~E K1r<DS 3•• OQ SMALLER
TEU$COOE VIEW
TM E TRAP£?. IUM OF VA1i?IA8LE TELESCOPE StlOWS
IN 0Qt0f'rl STARS Of'iL."f A WA"2..Y
()lSI( OS: Lt61-1T

DoUBLE STARS VARIABLE STARS OPEl'I C.LVSTE.RS GLD&ULAR CLUSIERS

ONE OUT OF 15 STARS IS A
OOUl!>LE OR MULTIPLE STAR
AND ABOUT 500 OF T MESE
FROM 2 SECONDS 10 I MINVTE
OF A~ SEPARATION CAN BE
'5PLn•w1r~ SMALL TELESCDP£S
A VARIABLE STAR VARIES
IN Bl<!IG~l"TNESS. 111E CHANGE
TAKES 'Z. DI\'/$ (AVE!rll&l/i_ _
MAKING THE V.$. A i-ooR
"$;.tOUJ"' OB)EC.i ALiMOUGH
IC>~AL l'OR SYSTEMATIC STUDY
OPEN CLUSTEitS OF STARS A11E A GLOBULAR C.LUSTER I~ A
A FAVORITE TARGE.T 1'"012 !!>ALL OF SlARS. INDIV IDUAL
Ti.IE TELESl.OPE. 40 60 < ,.o STARS ARI?. FAINT Artt>
IS ENOUC.H FOR MOST Gl10UPS. N(E.D 6" OR MORE APERlUl1£
POPVLAI<' PlE IADE5 C.LUSi ER FOR. R£SOLUTION. MI~ AND
IS A. ~INE B trlOCULl\R 06)ECT M Z2 ARE IWO ee1Gl-ITEST

•. i OUR TVPE COr'S. M•

--
.• ·•

• -
.• '-• C,i'lA!C'C" •• -·
... . EN<T•
5'1..... :,,~..·· .; . ;.
:,: OPOf (;.L.
OPl1'4 CL.
M,.,,..,.+..;;'='".,-.,.,..
09£r< (.l.
~/WC.ER

c.PN~MAJ
SAt;R.
3,.'1
'4.6
4 .6
"· • .
·~·
.
·~T.-.2$:_. . ..
.. . . . .
:.::
:::. ,,.
.
61lll.A.Jt:Y
OPE,. a.
Af'IDR.
6E/lf'f1N1
4 .6
s.3
• ..~- .. C.LOC.Ul.A~ J/IJ!Cde.Lt 5 .1
GL.O&UlAR: SRt;Jl, 5,q
0tr:~vst. fft.6 sR&P.
DllFUSE ~5, ORI°"
MS1 PlA"E1ARV .:YRA 9.3
Pl.ANE.TARY NEBULAE DIFFUSE. NEBULAE. EXTERNAL GALAlCIE.S MESSIER OSJEC.TS
PlANETARY NE&Ul.AE A11E. SO A LARGE DIFFUSE C:.AS CLOUP GALA'l(I ES ARE COMPLETE fRENCH ASTl10HOMEI<', CHl\RlES
NAMED ONLY &CAUSE TMEY L16HTl0 BY THE STARS IN ITS STAR SYSTEMS LIKE OUR MESSt ER, MA~ UP 1HE FIRST
ARE ROUND L I 1(£ PLANE."fS. VICIN ITY IS KNOWN AS A OUJN GALAX'<. ALI- ARE LIST Of SJ::l' OB.lect"S OTl-IE.R
"THEY ARE LUMINOUS GAS BRIGllT OlfFUS~ N EBULA. VER'< OISTANT. M81 SHOWN THAN S"fARS(l184). At'..l. OF TMe
C.LOUDS AND ARE A M4z tr< 0'2101'1 IS IMP~~IVE, IS ABOUT AS. BRIG ;.IT AS 103 M·OBJECiS CAN BE SlEl'I
PAICT OF OUP 6ALAlCY EA~llY SEEN WITH ANV"TEL{SCOPE A STAR OF 9ih MA6NrTUDE. lUITll SMALL iELESCOPES

16

Observing the SKY SHOW
UK E a lot of other hobbies. you can
go ror star - eazing • litt le or a lot,
just as you like. Ev~n with the s mall-
est telescope you have eq uipment far
better tha n that used by Gali leo some
35 0 yea r $ ago when h<' discovered that J upiter had
fou r b right moons . T he r e is much to s ee; a lso
muc h to lea r n. It takes the beiiinne r about a year
to become an e xpe rt st•r-gazl'r . In this t ime he
ge ts over the idea that he is going to see huge fi r e-
balls and othe r fanlestlc wonde rs , findi ng instead
a n inc r ea• ing enjoy m ent in his abi lity to use 3 te l -
escope . Wit hout lea ving his ba ckyard, he becomes
a sky ei<plorer with the s ki ll lo g u ide t he big eye o f
his telesc ope to t he most r~ motcco rnc rs o r the s ky .
J:o~or a s la rler , yov w il l wont to look at sl1ow "
11
object s . Notu r o.Uy, the moon and br ig ht pla nets
c o1ne [ir s t . The 11 in o ny atnr book or at las , you
1
will find olhc r s how pieces of t he sky: lhe Lagoon
in Sag ittarius; t he double c luster in Pe r s eus; M4 2,
with the Trapeziu m sci in its g reenish g lo w; lhe
blue-a nd -go ld double s lnr , A lbi r eo; the s tardust
glitter of Ml l ; t he double-doub le in Ly ra; the e vc r -
c harming Se ven Sis te rs; distant l\ nd romeda , the
fa r t hes t you ca n sec.
Howe ve r, many s ky objects can't be seen, a nd
ma ny oth e r s a r e not seen as clea r ly as the beginne r
anticipates . Most beginners g et n "fi r s t im p r e s -
s ion" o f the s ky show from photographs , wit hout
realizing that t he s ~ pic tu r es a r e I ime exposures .
\Vhen a Light s t rikes the camern film it makes a
b r ight spot; the longer the film is e i<posed, the
bigger a n d b r ig hte r the s pot b ecomes . Sky photos
r e pres ent a since r e effo r t to show sky objects as
they r eally a re, but some of the effects have a
APPAltENT Sl?.E OF SOME POPULAR
Sl(Y OSJECT~ . D~Ult NGS ARE SCALED
SO 1'14AT S.EEl'I AT AVE.RAGE READING
C>ISTAl'ICE. ( tO"), THE V ARE. SAME
DIAMETtR AS IN TEl-E$GOP€ AT 100~
MAllS M57
VENUS S.AlURH
•
section ~
strong eleme nt of t r ick photogrnphy. Don't e xpect
to see most sky objects like th<'> arP shown In
photogr aphs. T here are some exceplions ·-you
can see the moon as biA and clear as any photo:
Saturn, Jupiter and Venus all look bett Pr t han
t he ir pictures .
You may find the sca l<'d sketches below Infor-
mat ive . Look a t t he m with on<" eye from a distance
of about 10 inches and you gt't the same size effec t
obtai ne d wit h a tele scope a t JOOi<. Moybe you a r P
surpr ise d ihat Saturn and Mar~ are so sma ll and
the m oon so big . Even sc a le d drawi ngs a re not
ent i r ely r ealist ic . M57 , for e xam ple, looks like a
big e a s y target b ut is act ua lly quit e diffic u It - -close
your ey e nearly s hu l to reduce the li11ht and you
will get t he idea . S at urn fo r n il Its oppa r~ nt s m oll
s iz e is bright and c lea r in any t~ l cscopc at 40 x o r
mo r e and s tands ma gnifi c a tion bc " utl fully . Ma rs
is m uch mo r e diffic ult . B ig objerts ore not lacking
with nearly a ll o f the ope n c lusters a nd diffuse
nebulae r anging f r om Jup ite r to moon s i2c 01·
lar ger . The eas iest ty pe o f objo<' l Lo sec is t he
open c lus t e r ; g lo bu la rs a r e eas ily visible ~ ! t hough
you do n't ge t s iz e a nd d e ta il like photographs.
P laoeta r ies a nd e xte rna l gula xies are dim, d iffi-
cult . IOOx is enoug h powe r fo r mos t obj ects a nd
bette r seeing is a ma tte r or a b igger d iamete r ob-
jective rathe r t ha n me r e magnification .
J oin a c lub o r sla r-11azing g r oup so tha t you
can e i<cha nge i deas a nd talk shop about the big s ky
show. Other than sta r -gaz ing, you can use you r
astro telescope for land-gazing to sec brll lla nt da y-
time views t hat are amazing in clarity a nd det ail.
Photography--land or sky--is a nothe r popul:\r hobby
where the te lescope adds new thrills.
, .. .~
... ..
o··· .
\,,~oo .
f or dlher ob;ects: E"'
rA&"E rlt!L~.Ji.<LU:Ul JUP!Tl t
0111..tf'/ Siif:(}JY_ll.f .Qe il/X _ 40. 0 "
POI/ff OEl3..MP PJ.AC£S_ .40
i._
f7
0 ~~ o
MOOl'I
'
1600 StCONOS
~P£ .BY 2. .20 : 9 I NCHtS DIA.
_A!l~g I~ SIU I (/ Id~
17
 •

The POSITION of a STAR

C.Et..£STIAl.. How it seems... E VERY S TAR has a permanent address in the
SPHER E
~ .-. ....
.. sky- - if at times you can ' t find a certain sky
object yo u can be sure it is not off wandering
• • .... . around in another neighborhood. The star's
. addre ss is given in terms of right ascens1on

. • .... - hours and minutes and declination degrees and

TME CELUTIAL .SPMEAE
l$ A. 8 "- tMAC.I HAltY&ALL 1,.UfTM
o ME EARTH AT ITS C£NT'R
•_ . . I,,,,N sf
... TM6 £AQT H $.TAN OS
ST ILi. WHIL E T ~ E CELlSllAL
SPMEll:' ll:OTAT ES Al!OVNO ll
minutes. A knowledge of star positions by R. A .
and Dec. becomes absolutely necessary if you
use setting circles and 1s otherwise an inform-
ative study even if you do your star-gazing wi\h
nothing mo re than binoculars.

THE CELESTlrl.L SPHEKE . The celestial s phere

LAT ITUDE ON EARTM IS
@ the sam e manner as latitude and longitude lines
is a b ig imaginary hollow ball with t he earth at
its ce nter. I t is so large that if drawn to tho same
scal e as t he earth in Fig . l , it would ta ke a sheet
of paper bigge r than the whole UnHcd Slates lO
chart even the ne a r es t star. Soni e stars arc nea r -
er the earth than others , but a ll a re very distant
and a ll a re i m agined as being proje cted to the
in s ide s u r fac e of the ce l es tial s phere. Vi e sec
OECLI HA'TION IN SK'<
the cel esti a l sphere f r o m the inside, a gi::i nl dome
of blue by day a nd spangled by sta r s a t night,
rotating west wa rd . Yo u don ' t have to be a wh i z
at a s tro no rny to know t hat this apparent westward
move m ent is actually caused by the earth rota.t-
ing to the ea st.
The su rface of the cele stial s phe r e is plotted
wi th a syste m of i maginary guide lines in about

-
LON61T UOE BECOMES R,tG llT AS CEHSION ,• •.'2.£N lTH

.~ .
EQUATO~"
0
.+>-

D~CLINATIOH
DIAGRAM
' l AT ITUC>e 'IC'N
'\
® '
DEeUNATION LINE SllOUIS HORTH ·SOUTl-I POSITIOtl OF A SlAR AND 4LSO INOICA'TES ITS PA"Tl'I ACR.OSS SKV

18

•

F'-tOFlO•DECLINATION
PA2Al.lU.
s.
MOU Q. Af'l(,L£ OF T~f;
S10EQ.£AL - VEll,..AL EQUINO)(
TIM£ - oa
TME Q.1c;llT ASC.£,.srotl
OF VOUQ. MERIDIAN
are used in plotting the s urface or the earth.
Like the earth, the ce lcstial sphe re has an
equator and north and south poles. Latitude
on earth is the angular location of a place
north or south of the equator. and, similarly,
declination is the angular position of a star
north or south of the celestial equator, Fig.3.
Longitude in earth geography gives t he position
of a place at so-many hours of solar time from
the prime meridian; similarly, right ascension
is used in sky geography to indicate position
at so-many sidereal hours from the prime me -
ridian. The prime meridian for right ascension
is the vernal equinox, which is the point on the
celestial equator which the sun crosses at the
beginning of spring. On this network of de-
clination and right ascension lines, every star
has Its own fixed posit ion, different from a ll
others except for certain double and multiple
stars which reside al the same sky a dd r ess.
Note that in Figs. 3 and 4 you are looking at
the celestial sphere from the outside, and
the familiar figures of the constellations are
thereby reversed left-to-r ight.
•
MOUll AJ<GlE
OF VEttNAl
EQ.UINO ~
'l.'
4•
I
R.~.
OF
MIRIOIAH
@
- w
'H TME TIME ; 4h SIO~ll.EAL TIM£
~
DECLINATION. The declination of a star is it s
angular distance north or south or the celestial
equator. A circle through this point parallel to
the equator is a parallel or decllnation. Such
a parallel not only marks the star's position
north or south of tbe equator, but also shows
the path it takes in its east to west journey
across the sky, Fig. 5. It is worth noting that
stars on the ce lestial equator rise and set due
east and west . This can be seen in Fig. 5 and
also in the diagram, Fig. 6. I! your location
is at latitude 40 degrees north, stars at 40
degrees north declination will be exactly over-
head when on your meridian, but will rise and
set far to the north; stars at 50° N and more
declination become circumpolar and never rise
or set bu t wheel forever around the celestial
pole. Going the ot her way from t he equator, you
can see that stars below the equator· make shorter
a nd shorter journeys across the night s ky, a nd
a star at 49°S declination wi ll barely l lft its eye
above t he southern horizon.
RlGHT ASCENSION. The right ascension of a star
19
 DECLINATION ANO HOUR C IQCLES IH
is its distance from the vernal equinox, measured
eastward , On sky maps, the grid or hour circles
is spaced al conve1uent 1-hour intervalR, marked
0-hour through 23-hour to 0-hOUI' ,
Hours of right ascension increase toward the
east, This is a fundun1enial In positional aslron-
oiny and should be memorized . lL is worth noting
again that the grid or duclination and right ascen-
sion lines on Lhe aky sphere are fixerl guide lines
which rotate with the sphere. The hours of R.A.
make agiantskyclock. Your meridian is the hour
hand, but unlike an ordinary clock, il remains
fixed while the sky dial rotates to the west, Fig, 7 .
You learn quickly that it is 0-hour s1<1ereal time
when Pegasus is on ~·our meridian, 5:30 when
Orion stalks across m1d-,;ky, 18:30 when bright
Vega is overhead- -ancl eventually you may mas-
~er the whole sky clock.
Fig. 7 shows the 4-hour circle of right ascen-
sion on the merldian--i. ,s 4:00 •idercal time .
Kotice how the hours or right ascension increase
toward the eastern horizon. Since 4-hour R.A. is
on your meridian, the vernal equinox Is four
hours lo tie .vest- -it has an hour angle of 4
hours. This illustrate!! the basic de fin it ion of sid-
ereal time: Sidereal T1meisthehourangleof the
vernal equinox. The position of the vernal equinox
ts also known as the l'·irst Point of \ries. Aries
is the Ram, and the symbol hkl' a pal r or horns
is often used to indicate 0-hour R. A.
It will be obvious that if it is 4 hours from your
meridian to the vernal equinox, it is a l so 4 hours
from the vernal equinox to yotH" 1nerldian, Fig.
S. Thus, there is a second definition of siciercal
time . Sidereal Time Is the i·lght ascension of the
meridian. The 1Vay the whole thing works out,
sidereal time Is the H.A. hour which is on your
meridian at the moment.
20
HOUR ANGLE . The hour angle of a star is its
distance westward from your me riclian. Hou1· an-
gle always means a measurement to the west, but
for convenience hour angles to the cast nre also
usE!d, but must be so designated . Since the sky
sphere is always moving westward, the hour an-
gle of a star is always changing and can be deter-
n1ined only for a certain instanl of side1·cal time.
To find the hour angle of any star, you subtract
its R.A. from sidereal time . If the result or the
calculation is positive, the hour angle (lf the sta,.
is west; if negative, east. Most star-gazers sim-
ply subtract the smaller from the larger number.
Then you must remember if R,,\, is greatE r, the
hour angle is east; if sidereal time ls greater,
the hour angle is west. Examples a1·e "hown in
the drawing, applying to Figs. 7, 8 and 9.
THE KORTH SKY CLOCK. Fig. 10 shows the
north sky clock. It is about 17: 10 sidereal time .
Above the pole you will find hours of R . A. in-
creasing coward the eai;L, following the b;:lsic
rule. Below the pole, R.A. increases toward the
west and the stars rotate to the east- -everything
is backwards! Around a sky circle like this there
is no actual east or west; if you start out at the
top of the drawing and move east, you are pre-
sently going south, then west, then north. In the
north sky, directions and hour angles should be
taken from that part of your meridian which is
above the pole.
SKY MAPS. The sky maps on opposite page and
following are sufficiently detailed to give you a
start in sky geography, Star positions change
a little from year to year, but the change is so
slow that maps up to 50 years old are substan-
tially correc t.
•
0 6•
TtLU<.OPI Ft~LO'
CHART OF NORTHERN SKY WITH DAIE SCALE FOR a:oo
S'~/flfl!JCN.r:
MEAN TIME

TO C.MAln SC.All C..1 OPEl'it CLU£.T!.R

''· G lO&Ul.AA. ClUSTEA.
M~/lllTVJ>U: o Nlii.&ul.A
F IR1'T •
~EC.ONO e
TMllt.0 •
~0Uc:t'T t4 • ,,. c~
Ftt=TH. • <>~
. "..r
. .•" •
-- -·- • /
..,,...• •
•

I'
,...
~\~(·

. .
~· ,.
/
,.. 1
. ~
~

~
"'
N f
•
I
v l ···
vr' •
~

1:)

......---
.. .......
~

•
/, _,.
\ ~
""' ..
•
'

I-low TO USE Tl-llS Cl-IART

(9'a.m ,,le:. oc.T. 6
fAGE NORTH. TUCl.N PA6E TO PUT CURRENT [)ATE. AT FACE NORTH. TURN PAGE TO PUT ocr. 6 AT TOP.
TOP. THE. STARS WILL THEN SE IN PROPER POSITION IE DESIRED you CfW. ti.QI Q TH£..a/8ALJR{ig_R.R
FOR e:oo LOCAL. MEAN TIME. TH£ BOTTOM £.OGE Q£ .fi.l{Etf OV€RHEA0 712 f!jJT IT /IV SAME PrANE AS' SK:(.
CHART ULil.4 B£ YOUlLJIORTd HORIZON - roe. PART ~OTE. AT OCT .6 SETTING, 2Jh ON HOUR OIAL IS ALSO
111#.L $HOW STARS SQtJ.It:JJ2E..20L,dBIS Z:0 YO<IR ZEIVITH AT THE. TOP. Ti-llS IS THE. SlOERE.Al.TIMI> AT e:oot."1:r.
OF AFTER e:oo L.M.T., TURN ci-IAR'r couNTE.RO..ClO<W1SE AN l-IOUR LATER, THE SIDE.RE.AL. T IM£: WILL BE 2.'2.h
AND THAT t.10\JR Sr!OULC> 0£ PUT AT TME TOP
Tl-IE TIME. INTERVAL YOU ARE. PAST &:00 L.M.T.
21

•
 STAR MAGNI TUDES SYMBOLS
• •
0
•- . Z•. l - 4• •
5
f\/\AY
16 12.

•
DQAC.0

t .,
M.19

• LACER'TA
•
'
CANES VEN~IC I

.. - ·
...i!J i6 :)..
•• • • C.OIM BE.RENICES
0.M64

2.0° •

•
'2.fh 18 " fJh 14 h l'?>h 11h
18 I I :i:.;~:J.!;LJ..:1~3-9~~~~·..!..l.:.!..~~~~ll~~:....,::l0~
16~2.~2.~1~8~l4
::.,,~~..t...~~...!:.~~:.J......:l~~rJ!...:.ll...:.1,~l~>.;:_ll__.!
7__.:=3...t;i::.._:i=.t.:f'
NOVEM&ER OCTO&ER ><> SEPTEM&tR 3 A UGUST JI ,,JUN E )I

DA 'TE
8.'00 l. M . T.
(EYENWtJI
SCALE_,?( (Jti A
~""''''
.-.l'le • TIME: JULY 3..0. oi oh (miclniol.!I). ANY LO.CATION
-1
' lFAC.6 $0UTH. USE TOP SCALE. LOCATE DATE,JULV .?., ON
(f ACE SOUTH. LOCATE. CURRENT DATE. SCALE. A VERTICllL t,tue <.ti.BU QAr.C. .sttautr BR1G1:t"C VEGA.
ON DATE SCALE. US6 l!>OTTOM SCAU: IF NfA8LY O/J YOUR MER.Jf21.AJ</. Ifie J:EAl>OT (Sl/G1rrl/Bl<JS)
T IME IS 0:00 l>·"'· USE TOP SC.ALE IF IS 01/E SOl/T.tf. REo llNrARE.s ts ABO.fLT .1. HOl/8$. f(/$$
TIME. IS MIDNIGHT. iL.YCRiit:fi.t..L!llE TH/?11 .SI DEREA L TIME 1.s 18h 44"' APPROi<.(from =1.e)
O!lIEJJ//Ll 8£ YQllRM£81PIAN ,4[ THE MO/rlEf'/T (COMl!A8E U11Td 18'9; ~(rli8fE:1..)

22
•
 "ZONE.
l'IUM8E.R _,. +6

C.l.l'"rRAL - - - - - ._ 1'20°
fo\ Clll OIAMC
0~ 'r'IMl .li · TIME CORRECTION
1:.0N~ 1:1 • •• IS NEEDED TO CHANGE.
£,:\ STANOARO TIME. TO
\2!/ MEAN TIM£ a.rwt. 'llCL\USA
C.ANAOA
:Jhe C.ORRECTION FOi!. AN'f

STANDARD
® - ,
LOCATION lS 4 MINUTES FOR.
E.ACH OtC.RU. "fOIJ ARt AWAY
I' ~OM TllE. CE.l'ITRAL M£RIDIArl
O~ YOUR TIME "2.0NE
TIME
J e-: AKgo,.i , oH •o
ZONES
.4L&. PLAC.U IN Tl/€
SAhfE Tll!J.E ZO<fE
t(At'L' T/16 SAtr'I T~
.......
)
\
P .
~"" 8 1°31' WEST
LONGITUDE IS
AT

6°~r'(b.s ) ~PilM C.£.l'ITRAL.

0

-· MERIDIAN OF Z.ONt S
=6.S "4:; '2.6M•~.
- - -Po
'I
(DAAE.G'TtOrl

IJF YOUR. CIT'< IS tH UST &E.-

~~ ; 1.0UI, THE. TIME C.ORRUT!Orl
IS 1\IE M\OU"'T 8'( WfllC.11 TllE.
- ••: 0
..... ....:
......,..... F' TIME. 6tVE.rl OIF~ERS
F20M 8:00
1ilf.. FO(.l.(Xpt!VG PAG!.SIJO!IJS.
.• '1 ·.. \l:'' rl'f'·.. +:'
Jf • '
' · ~'
'
lPJJ I!f£ ctJ/JJ?Et:T!Ot' IS US.Ell

.. '

TABLE I
8 :00 LAT. a:oo LAT. LOHC.. e:oo LAT. LOHG, PLAC.f. 8 :00
P L A CE ..... .. T.LOll<P. PLAC E. L . M.T. P L.ACE L . ...~Y. ...-...... lAT. l0"6.
'KiON, 0/111(1
AlaANY, N, ¥.
e t6 I .ros'
, 1r' 4'1)9
ai--~·
,.3 ~r
OAYltw, wuo 8 1'1 I
&WYTCWA "1£kll 8 :14.
~t/41/
%' 13
&4~1'
&I 01
1 0 . ~')"'46'
l.Ol'fl .l~ACN~Oll
8 l• t • • ~6
!OAAI~, 'JHIO
118~ II'
02 10 S(/l,/VICr..bY
&36f q')B
tA4'1""""'1~ ""'~•
, 561 ........
.,, S6
e:r...·
.,_,_,,,,_,,....
AUll(/Vl~I

ALTOOlllA, N.
60,. VOS 106 3'
801. I
• •• l
"°
DICATtM,
lS :I& /)£1'(1/L.Jt, ffC
'.16 18
-«> :>1 :14 NS "'ftOtWIS,· -
il.f
"'.. 4139..,35
,eoo
e.,.'
39 .Jt 88Sl iorIM'CFt.EI,.:.
~· 34
10459 lOlllJVll.U, 11't 1, 4),
O)
3e IS
9331 '-""'I"-,.,.,,,,.,, 1 4Sl 42.le
11& 14 ST..Jtlf&PH, -
M<\6 ST. l.t>uJr, ,... 801< ""
e
19 c
"'6 ""
,,.,;e
11 ., 11. Ptlf111.. _,.., 8 11 " 4451
51
9012.
»""
....,~!~! 7,~. e 4,, 'lS 12. lOI 50 ,.,,.,,,
(JCTJe(H~
en 1 4220 elOl 'A:~r-a. 841< 33 lS IOI 51 tr. '£TiH4rt"• & 3 ' & 2.i 46 e2.J8
"'*'~"'"'­
A:IH1~1Ui,"1U. .
~,-~
/lrlAl'rA, &A
~rm;111J.
a 'lS''
8>0l 35 >6
&Ml• U4S
42.0
, ,. < ")& :19
~~s ()fJ/JllL tlrl',, ~
8'-n ()Vunli ,.,,,,,,.
8236 /')(Al/!M~i "'~•
8224 I ' Af.14 Tit
1 S.• 39 Z2. .,,. :IS &U1AMr1, ......
.....
, -40,.
&otlc
906e )6
..,...,
n..s
JI ...
, 5'1. 40-40
°'
°'
100 C/)111; ~ .

1&54 l'MJl/t'.
~
~
10629 MANION,-• 8~•, -«>35
......
e~• 31 so
9206 MofA'~wrl'. 1 sac -u 00
1 16• ~~
M6/11Vlllr; ,. eooc 3S °'
&l& $1fLTLAKI l'1" & lbM 40A$ i1t n
8'U f*'IW'fCWNJ,nt. 8 l4' ~ l6 98~
,I l.& SANNINtfll/DHJ '1 ....,, 34-01 ,,, 11
6)10 $411 Dol~<"tU.. , ...~ p 3'2. "4_),
9003 s,1~1#~11<0 810P 7/<Cl l'll."lS
111 °'
8U>t 33.,,, 8 1 ... ua."" eoo 1 eoos
I~
A'1~A, 42. O'I Jlfll4MJ, ,,_.. e>'l.I I S/111/.JDS4I 4 "'- • 808P 31 2.0 t1t $3
.,., ...
.... 2S 41
Al/ttflS/11, AU
AtaT/114 f l t,
/JMnMtilK, NO
•-"""""'- Ml .
.... , aw.~./.
...,..
"1 ).9 l "'19 fFi.,, $"'£'If£, ~6.
8)1

1 )SI
)0
39
06
n
£VAJt.tVlfUt; •N
'16 31 F--£.<-
4448 6846 F.+1"1,,..,
~ 12. p
150<
'l ...SI
grie
440)
~la

......
ID 06 ~J''tl•i:tfZ,(.w
1n>4 MIN~,;4/lf)US
41 ~ 11 09 ///f0/#1.£. -
964, /flfOLIN~, 1-.._
__,...
'"I S2C

1 nc :lO 42
e02c ~ 31
~
8 l?t ( ..... st

nu
01. UJIPA~... ., 59• :lo" 2S 119 ~
INtfTA ~e.......... &04~ ).S 41 16S
6003 fAVlt/llllAll, ""'- 824• :nos e100
~~ S~Al'fTO#(, ,_ 80)! ""'f 25 1'540
8001 39 S2. 15 01 FL1,q; ,,.~,.• 35• ~01 8342 , ~5C 8619 Slllrn.£, _,,., 809P ~131 t%2.2D
#f7f>tl~'·""
""71U.....:
e " " 4:)36
MYtlf'f, ll#l'Cll.
&l6•
8 O'T C )0%!
'1219
9 J II
85" II
83S3
FQPTllM(lt/,M
~""'~,,....
'*lllllO, ~-
., 41 c
8 2.9< ~
'l' St II' 36~
...
41 04 85 06 /llf(Jl(11ftl/A, ~
~20 /1111/NCll, 1~1t.
1 50• 4416
1 '17.C 40 11
119 4l HlfrKVIJ.J.£. r""11. , ' f l ( 36 10
n~ SHlllWIWt, i.t. 8 I S"' ~3' 9:)45
8523 SIO<Jt ("IJ.s- B2.6• <n » 961.S
8647 SIOVt /:A ~ e 2.1 • 4l 33 9644
UAV~m. 816 c '.lO 05
8UIJMlfJlllll, H(,; e 10' 4846 1Ul9
9406 c:;lfD.J/),lltl., .......
GM. fll'10I(, Th e e....
144< 34 OJ
,84!1
15'29 ••
Ill:> 01 NEtVAllK, "'•"· , 51 l 40"4
94 46 N'lllM Ol<NIQ, , 44• 41 311
-.4 IO SQMl~JJ.U, 1 44C 4113 ,, 06
..056 JOtJTJl4/;tl ,..,,. ,. 4S"C. "ti '41 86~

-
NWl~'i_ CM , 80.P 3, S2. fl.2 (6 (;,4KY, ,,.,•• 41 l6 8111 1(¥"4JU/Ttlfl'I,' i SI f '41 40 12.41 tJM1.CNil.t"~" 8 l.8 ( :'A 5, e1
au~ .... ,.,.. 8e ,,.,_, 4031
,,,..,,. 15"'3 &KJIN()IAlll#I;...
45 41 108)0 l.Rill'f~ ....., •
4258
"1 S2C 4'I :II
e&40 hfftl NAVh".~ow.. 1 SJ.I 4' I&
8801 NAll~IMllf, , ... eooc 29 Sl
1256 $/'Ol(Alll -""'· 'l' SOP 41 40 ,,, l6
9004 SP.flN~,&/I~ 1 59c '3~4& 8'3'
./l~S'"""""'

61~1111...

IJOIJ.I, IOA/llO
...... eo4'
/j/J/lf.4~K, ,#,Q, 84)(
a~,.
42.06 1> S5 GRtrlff'°'°-"'~
"T 41C 33 21 864} &iiil'NJW, I.<
46'48 1004"1
43 31 116 ll.
i;UIJPOl'T,~•4t,
l/AM /t7'0/ll o-;o
1
~19C 36()<1
l01J M51
'7 Sb c :lO 2:l
8381 39 lA
"19 41 NiJ,Vl'~."-Y. 1 S61 1 'i04S
61."" NIA&IJNJt ~AUJ 816•
eo °"
e.o;u
NO~FOl.K. VA. 80S<
0AKl.Al'ID,"'4.
s1
SOOP
i°" 46 I
1400 ~"'"~"~
~n
SPlllJIU-ll ,,.. 8
190l :s~~~#llA
1 SOL
l3 e 4l.06
16 ST-'"'"'*~ t-! 1 54£ 41 03 "13 3.2
1L "l6
31 1:1 9318
e 3S 6 39 S-6 8348
llO.J7tw, -..-. 1 .... 42 21 71 Ol "'"lllfdv.f.,, .. 808• 4016 1613 (>(;DIN,.,,~- 8'18.M 41 ._.., Ill S& rTIVl/liVIU.I,•. $ U.E -40 ' l l eo-n
641'~...... 1 Sll 41 II n11 llAkr~tJ.•-~ 1 SI I 4 f 416 11.41 OKtA/l()illtA(ny 8 JOc 3520 97 ll tTCXl('T(W1 CM. 8 06P 31 S& Ill n
_ ,.,
.t.to(.lf~,.,,,,,.. 1 .... 420S 11 Ot
&lOG 2SS4 9130
HSL6,._, _,._ e 28 #I
so '
46 36 111 02.
4:J. fl. 11.ll
OMAJIA, 1¥£8. 8 l.4C
Olli.N'IOO. "'-" 8:16•
16
~
j! 9SS6 SV'l~/Ollt,.,•t, 8 08, 46'1:1 9206
8 113 ~€US£,1t~ 805'- 4:l0~ 1609
...,,...'"3 "',.. e ts• 42U 18 5:2.
l/Ot:IOl(E """'"- ...,
Kou.Ii~ r•r & 2J c 19 ~ ')S 1>. PADt.JCAJf, <fY 1 54< OS 31 :rg36 ~ ...... ,,, 8 10, 41 IS tUl6
...,..,.'*"'
-=-"'·
1 Ol 4'129 Ut> 11.,..,,•PflN..... 8301 J815 82.~1 l'ASAN/iillt,c-- 1 SlP 3409 II 09 TA/lt'fP1'1 ~4.A. e 3o0l -rt s-i 82.2.1
"409 17M&NMIJE,,..,, "7 SOc. )9 28 8'r 24
~­
C/fMllLlt, .#--'.
8 lO• '16 OI 112. JO.
144• -'li.U 11 <»
e oo•
395'1 lSOl
/MllUA'°'-4
lo.MtnY,-
JM¥tt:Yt, ,._
a
, 4$ C
06C
)81
)') ~ 86 IO
"41 .4Q !II 3:2.
42. tS ~24
P.rn~--. I 5"1 l 40 SS
J?Utt:At:aA,,-. ., 49e .}(>:is
l'COlllA, ""'- 1 58<. 4042
'f'OLLDO,th.,. 8 ~E "41 39 83 )~
;~ TOP#KA,~. &Ue 3903 9540
t'AlfTON ••• 8 24' "!048 Bl 13 ~-"" 8 01 c 9011 ~/l£lPJl/lf 801 E
;)2. lb :!9 SI ,s09 TllNTWI, 11J. 1 S9l «> t.3 "'1446
a-~ acne <It "" 91 40 ~. -- 811( 3020 6140 PllDrtrtr,..,.a- e '28# J.)%1 112.04 T.COY, ...... ,;: 1 SS• 42 44 ,}41
C/iNff'IM~, ,.,. 1 nc 4001 88•S .J£Jts~'I' t'ff'Y ., s;;' "IO "14 1404 Ptm~H e20• 402.6 8000 Tl.ICIOH •4n &2.'41wl 32. J3 110 S8
./()IU(f/btU'( M , 8 16' 40,., 18 s.s P/TltHEU),IWIL f S:l E 13 IS 'TULIA,•~ e~ 3609 9600
i
CllA#UnlW, • ' &lO< ?.241 1956 4'1. 2.1
e 1.i' & OJ l 4'306 is 14
3.S t4 g!,~ """'""'""''~
tJIAllUt'lftt( ...... 38'.IJ &>S POlirAll1M.t( 1IU Bt6C l9 Sl 9lS6 ~JCA1 N Y,
CNAIM_!'f!t"!C· a a.\.1 l(AllfM ~ .<M. 42
~c t 3"9 11 94>6 p~~. 141 E
42. en 'll40 101S' ACO, r1~. &2.~C .l 1 :il 91 oe
Olm•_,.. '"' 41 c lS03 a> 19 KAlltAt ,,,,.._ t l9 OS 943S POltfJANJ), Oilt;(. e II P 4S:>I tlJ.-'11 MJAU.. $1MlLA 1 S~P 44 04 118 '20
eNIY£NN(1 •'l'D , S")M 41 06 1044') KEN'1rK1t,11t1;s- "r 5'1 C 4'l.36 6150 /IO/mMWIH, ,... 80SE Y>SO '16 18 lU.ffWtll'&T~1oc.. 1 808, 3854 ; , 01
,, :i.r '4lf/IUABI/. I~ 1 S'Z. E 4 1 3~ ;ao~
... 5'2. 81~ K£"Y"'l7, """· & l.l I 2A 34 9146 Pli<Jr/NMl,A I . 146•
~re
ell•Clf&d, ,.._, 'f 51 C
">&•
0

3906 84~ f1:%:,.1ti6,"""' e l6 ' JS 5& ins> /lACIN~,

Pr!EIJ.UJ, Cd!&.. i s8111 104}1 w.r61t1.001 e o'o 4l.30 92.>0
(llllttNl'fllfJ,--.
(UYIJMI, ""''• & 2."1 E 41 30 81 42 rtm 11¥1;1. i 6f
e 4025 86.54 P;Al..fi1~W1r. , 51 c -'tl.44 in~ WN6ll/N61 W_. & l.~i 40 04: 804:'-

~-­
CfNJ/lfl8M, M .
.., S9MI
809c
38 '°
'Ill S1
10449
92 :lO
tANcAt.fU,M. & 0 I 'iO 02 1616
l.ANl'IH~ "'~"· 8 38• 4244 8433 RFAl»V6, 111t. 8 04E
,_.,,. 8 ISE :lS41
40 '20
18 WICNlflf,x;w, 8 l.9C ~ 4"2! 91 lO
lS f6 /IJHN11~MtU,r611. B3l• 3) SS 981.9
cotJJltt4lff, .r.c, 82'1• 3400 81 en. tAk~l>:.u,.., 8J8C XI JO 9931 ~E/'IO, HIV. 1 S9 P ~31 1194, W!tKlt·8A•,M &04• 41 IS 1S S)
co~."" 8«>• 12. 2.& 8't 9 lAS VS. , JllP. 141 • 36 10 llS09 R.1ellmQl'lo, v•. 8to ! s7~ Tl'l.6 U/lf.Mllt&'7()1/, eo2• ~4> 1533
t:ou.f/l!flitll, OM,. 8>2.1 8300~se IA~61:!'::' 1 4S I 4242 11 10 ~OAl'H)KC', _.,., 8lOE , 16 19 Sl W/lfl11Nt•SIUIM 62.I f :l6 06 eo1s
~~"·*
(OJN1tlJI
DfUA.'1 ,.,.
, "°' 'll 12.
11 3l. iiXlfl/6 1 1(1'
Ci/11'111 &30e 11...., 91 l.4 l/>1~ t>1ti10
e2:1c 32-4l 96"8 ''"' vi,~
"4 V&lfJtJllT. ,..,,.. ecn • 41~ 90.!G 1.-Jm&ll:rJ<X.
i1 Me 3801 84!0 k0rll£f11"-
)6 I -40~ &406 liOOIF~ ,,..,._
l.1 6 40"9 Pf,~ ~l(';>()>f~,
09C .)44S 92.11 ~llffNTO
Ml.
8 06 P
8 IOt 4401
8 10 E 4310
i S'6 G 42. t6
36J.S
'nla ""°""llTPl,.-u. 141' 42 t6 11 '48
Tll6 YONKEll~. "4V. 1 S6E 4oS6 "1354
.!'r~ ':?o:~ 8'.13• e01• "!9se ~44
41 06 l~
rMU.r ~,UO.l.fOlrt 7111 ~~A(,M"""1</N

25
 you must use local mean time. L. 1\1, T , is calcu-
lated by applying a correction equal to £our min-
utes for each degree you are away from the cen-
tral meridian of your time zone. If your location
is in the list of cities in Table 1, you can deter-
mine your time correction by i.n spection since it
is simply the amount by which the time given dif-
fers from 8:00. However, Jt is nearly as easy to
calculate your correction, Fig. 5. The time cor-
rection is used in converting your standard time
to mean time or vice versa. Rulesfordoing this
are given below.
GREENWICH MEAN TIME. G.M. T, is the mean
solar time at Greenwich, England, located on the
zero meridian, which is the central meridian of
Zone 0, From the description already given, it
will be apparent that Greenwich mean time is al-
so the Standard or Zone time for all of Zone O.
UNIVERSAL TIME. Universal time is exactly the
same time as Greenwich mean time, that is, it is
JUSt another name for the »amething. The desig-
nation U. T. ls popular in astronomy. while navi-
gators prefer G. M. T_.
DAYLIGHT TIME. This is called advanced or fast
time, daylight-sa,·ing time or Summertime. If
your standard summer clock time is Daylight
hme, you must deduct l hr. to get regular Stand-
ard time, and then take it from there for any
needed conversion.
Tll\fE CO:-IVERSIOXS. If you dabble in astronomy
or use a telescope, you will have to convert one
kind of time to another kind of time. The simple
formulas for doing this arc given at the bottom
of this and other pages. Although the formulas
are easy in an arithmetical sense, it takes some
study to understand the how-and -why of time con-
versions.
If a football game on the Pacific coast starts
TIME CONVERSI ONS
MEAN 7lJ STANDARD 011(/ STAlllJ4RI) TtJ MEAN
/I= YOI/ A Re WeST 01= TIME 201\/£ M £ R t DIAN
STA,.DAAO
TO MIOAN L.M.T. =STAfJCARO TIME M!NllS TIME CORRECTION
S6~ PAL.Vtt>u.S
MEAll TO
STAl"~RO STANOAAO TIME: LOCAL MW TIME PLVS TIME. comcno,.
/I= YOU ARE eAST OF TIME ZONE ME.RID/A/\/
STA,.OAllO
TO ME.AN L.M.T. = STANDARD 1'1ME PLUS TIME CORRECTIO~
MEAN TO
STANOA~O STAllOAAO TIME= LOCAL MEAN TIME lr1U{!JS TIM.E ~ON
26
at 2:30 Pacific standa1·d time, what is the time at
Cleveland, Ohio? Technically, a problem of this
kind is covered by the general rule: Standard time
varies the same amount as the difference between
zone numbers, the place to the east having the
greater time. No doubt you are still lost because
you don't know that Cahfornia is Zone 8 and
Cleveland Zone 5. But with this information
known, you can apply the t•ule already stated - -
the difference between zone numbers is 3 (hours)
and the place to the east has the greater time,
The time in Cleveland is 5:30. At London, zone
0, it is 10:30 p.m. at the same instant.
The conversion of Greenwich mean time to
local mean time or vice versa requires the use
of your lon2itude in time instead of your zone
number. The general rule for making this conver-
sion has a familiar ring: The difference in time
between two places is the same as their differ-
ence in longitude, the more easte rly place having
the greater time. This is the general rule for any
kind of time. This same rule governs local mean
time within any time zone. JI you are west or the
central mcr1d1an, it means the central meridian
is the more easterly place and has the greater
t Jme. How much greater is exactly the same as
the difference in longitude.
T il\IB OF POSITIO~. All sky objects have some
movement of their own, but over a period of
several hours, even the near and fast-moving
moon practically stands still in relation to the
rotation of the earth. Fig. 7 shows planet Saturn
on t he meridian at Greenwich, lO:OOp,m., G.1\1,T.
In the space or a single night the planet is pract-
ically stationary. The only movement that mat-
t ers is the rotation of the earth. If you live on or
near the central meridian of time zone No. 5, it
will take 5 hours for the earth to rotate enough
to put your position directly under the stationary
planet. It will then be 10:00 p.m. local mean time
at your location, the same transit lime as at
Greenwich. The point to remember is: Ir a transit
AKRoN Ohio
e~ ,_ . LO. . T1Mr. cOkiUicT10N::. u;,,..,,..
<JMMT\.fK'L· AS.(CJMI''9'1!
TJMI IS 1!09o,m.l.s.z;
PAO•
LOCALMEANTIM6., 1:00 -26m "' 6:~4 t..M.T.
S'TANDARDTIM6: 6:l4 + 26"' :1:00c>JT1.,e.S.T.
LDCALMEAl'l TIME= 4: 00 + 7'" = 4 :07 L..M.T
.STAN OARD TIME= 4:07 - 7"' =41:00.t.m.,P.S.r.
•
\
tim e of any sky ob jec t i s gi ven in Greenwic h SATURN MOVES A&clUT 2MIH. o~ ARC PE~ OAV, WllJCtl IS Aeovr
m ean time, thi s "time of position" w ill be just 2 SEC. CF TfM£ fr( S ~ltS• . •. .• / TIS e&!CTtG4li.r'41()llMLEC£
the s a me at your location, SAIUR!:-";"».O f., ,.,, 1CELESTIAL ..~,. tiy SHBS.
,:-1 -T " SP~ERe ""t.. ~I Z1Af,f, rPJi.
APPLICA TIONS OF T IME. Some ast r onomical ~ ?· fxuAtP£~""'·~..... X0!a .A'~
-{ .L!Jli/IDIM I . -.., ~Cd-?
Movf 5JIR$.
•/'. drfiNJri~i!. I · ·l' f,;
event s are time -at-the -same- instant. This is not '.1. .-;,, i• ~\ /' \'
concerned with the position of the outer space '!.
1/
CiuU(IVl<I{ . _:..!.•• i:- fll!/tP!l!(d
1,. _
/>()
,..1
I -- ,I --.; -- 1
obje ct , but with s omething that happens on or to E WE - W

the obje ct itself. Phe nom ena of this type include

EAAlH" ~wTA'1es s J. LATER
ec lipses of t he sun and m oon, configuration of
Ju piter ' s s at ellites, minima of a variable star, 8 Q G 8
maxima of a m eteor s howe r , and others of simi -
lar natu re. If the t ime of such event is G.M. T.,
you deduct your zone num ber to get time-at-the-
G.M.T.
1o:oop.m,
·- Your r1,.,.,.,_.
s:oo,;.m.
- - rRANSIT IS S'llME 71.M£ - -
G.M..T.
~!00 a.m.
_......
Yoo-r r;,.,,
10:00,o.m.

s ame-i nstant at your location.
Star maps for us e at a certai n hour always
mean localmeantim e . lfthemapisfor 9 o ' clock,
it means 9 o 'clock L. !1.1. T., and you mu st convert
9 o ' clock L.M. T . to s t andard time .
A r otating star map (planisphe r e ) p r esents
somewhat the same problem -- but exactly oppo -
site. T he clo ck dial on the planisphere is local
mean time. You could change all the numbe rs,
and in doing t his you would be converting mean-
to-standard , However, the usual ci r cu m stance of
using a star dial is that you look at your standard
clock and note tha t it is a certain standard tLrne.
You then convert this to local mean t irne, which
is then used for direct setting of t he clock dia l.
SIDEREAL OR STAR TIME
SIDERE A L T IME is based on one rotation of the
earth in relation to any star. This is a sidereal
day, Like sola r time, the s idereal day ls d i vided
into 24 hours, but the day itself is about 4 minutes
shorter. A sim ple explanation of the diffe1·ence i s
G) TIME-OF- POSITION IS ALWAYS LOCAL M£AN TIME
shown in Fig. l O.
So1ne particular point i n t he s ky is needed as a
zero index mark for 0- hour s id ereal tim e . F or
this, astronom ers have select ed t he vernal equi -
nox r ather t han a star, F ig. 8. How eve r, the
ea stern edge of t he great s qua r e in P egasus is
in line with the vernal e quinox and suppl ies a
convenient vi s ual guide--whenever you see Peg-
asus on you r meridian, i t is about 0- hour si -
dereal time .
A c lock keeping s idereal time will run a bout
four minutes fast per day as compared to a solar
cloc k. More exactly, the daily differen ce is 3.94
minutes. On about Sept. 23 o f each ye ar, the s un
crosses the e quator going south, t he crossover
point being the autumnal e qui nox . \'lhen the
autumnal e quinox is coincident with the sun, solar
and sidereal clocks will agree, F ig.12 . The si -
dereal c lock starts t o gain i m med iately, and t he
4-m in, daily d ifference soon makes the sidereal
clock hopel ess ly at odds with solar t ime. T he

TIME CONVERSIONS

STANDARD
TO (;., M. T. G.M.T. = STANDARD TIME + Z.ON€ NO. G.M.T. ::. l ". 00 -t- 5 = 12: 00

C,.M.T. TO
.STANDARD STANDAQD TIME '::. G.M.T. - 7.0N~ NO• E.S.T. = 12:00 - 5 :=. ., :oo

.51Ut1£ €)(i!MPJ,&:

L.OCAl.MEAN TIME TO 6.M;r and. G.MXTo L.M.T.

7! 00 €.S.T. 6: 34 L.M.T.
( see QPPOSIT# Pl#ti/; )
=
LOCAL MEAN
10 &12E'.EN- G-.M.T. = f...M.T. + fon~itlld.e W&ST
G.M.T. = 6 !'.;4+5 !16= 11"60"'
UJICH ME.AN . G./Vl.T. 121>oorn

GRE'.E.NW ICH G.M.T. 12hoom "' I I "' 60"'

loogi:t.ud.e WEST
ME.AN TO L.M.T. ::
~- ~~a:u~ "1.~9. s"' lkl'n _,. 5h 26"'
LOCAL MEAN ~) ~) ('f9JJ.f!-~ i..M.T. 6" 34"'
Neu: rHE TrME. FORMVVI" AR6 ~B 11NY LOcarroH W6sr oF ILf?eervwrcH. 1~ EAsr. S«11TCH Pt.v.-,.,.,oN1tN<J,r$1CJYS

27
TABLE: 2

SIDEREAL TIME Al Oh GREENWICH MEAN TIME (G.M.T.)

MIONIGl/T
DAV JAN. FES. MARCH AP~ll MA'< JUNE JULY AU~. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. t>AY
I 6.. 41"' eh "'14"' 101< 34'" 12~ 36'" ~h 3S"' 161. >I"' 191.35" 20"31"' 22h40"' 0 11 38"' 2."40"' 4"'38"' I
2 6 45' 8 48 10 38 12 40 14 39 16 4 1 18 39 20 41 2.2 44 0 4). 2. 44 4 4:2. 2.
3 6 49 8 52 10 4'2. 12 44 14 4'2. 16 45 1843 20 4S 22.4"1 0 46 2 40 4 46 3
4 6 53 8 56 10 46 12 48 14 46 16 49 1841 2049 2.2 51 0 so '2. 52 4 so 4
5 6 57 9 00 10 50 12. 52 14 50 16 53 IS 51 20 53 22. 55 0 S4 2 56 4 54 s
e.
,
6 1 01
1 OS
9 03
9 01
10 54
10 58
12 56
13 00
14 54 16 5"1 18 55 2051
14 58 11 01 18 59 21 01
22 59
2?> 03
0 58
I Ol.
3 00
3 04
4
5
58
01 1

.,
8 1 09
7 13
9 II
9 15
II 02
11 06
13 04
t 3 00
t s 02
IS 06
ll 04
11 08
19 03 21 05
19 01 21 09
l3 01
2.3 l I
I 05
l 09
3 08
3 12
5
5 10
06 8
9
10 1 11 9 19 II 10 13 12 IS 10 11 12 19 11 21 13 2.3 IS I 13 3 16 5 14 10
II 1 21 9 '23 II 14 13 16 IS 14 11 16 19 IS' 2.1 11 :2.3 19 l 11 3 2.0 S" I 8 II
.
11 1 25 9 21 11 18 l?> 20 IS 18 11 20 19 18 2.1 2.1 23 'l.'3 I 2.1 3 2!> 5 ).l. 12.
1.3 1 29 9 31 11 2.1 13 24 IS 22 11 24 19 22. 21 1.5 23 '2."l I 15
- ?> 2.1 516 13
14 l 33 9 35 11 2.S 13 2.8 15 2b 11 2.8 19 26 21 z.9 2.!> 31 t 2.9 3 31 5 30 14
15 7 37 9 39 11 29 13 32. 15 30 11 3'2. 19 30 2.1 33 23 35 I 33 3 35 5 34 15
16 1 41 943 11 33 13 '36 rs 34 1136 19 34 21 36 13!>9 1 31 3 39 S' ~7 16
l"l , 45 941 II 37 13 39 15 ?.0 1140 19 ?.8 1140 :2.343 I 41 343 s 41 11
18 l 49 9 51 11 41 13 43 1542. 11 44 19 42 2.144 2.34"1 I 4!:: 3 41 5 45 18
19 1 52. 9 55 11 45 I.?> 41 IS 46 11 40 1946 ll 48 23 SI I 49 3 SI 549 19
20 1 56 9 59 11 49 13 51 IS 50 11 5Z. 19 50 2 1 52 23 54 I 53 3 S5 5 5?. 21:>
1-1 8 00 10 03 II 5> 13 55 1s s~ 11 56 \9 54 21 56 2:; 58 I 51 3 59 5 51 21
'l.1 8 04 10 01 11 51 13 59 IS 51 1800 19 58 2.2. 00 0 02. 2.01 403 6 01 2."'2.
l.3 8 08 10 10 12 01 1403 16 01 1804 20 02 2204 006 2 05 40"1 6 05 23
).4 8 12. 10 14 1'2. 05 14 01 16 05 18 08 20 06 21 00 0 10 2. 09 4 II 6 09 14
'2.5 8 16 10 18 1'2. 09 14 II 16 09 18 11 20 10 22 12. 0 14 2 1'2. 4 15' 6 13 25'
26 820 10 2"2. 12. 13 14 15 16 13 18 IS 20 14 lll6 0 18 2 16 4 19 6 11 26
").., 8 24 10 26 1"'2. 11 14 19 16 11 18 19 2018 2220 0 ll 2 20 4 23> 6 21 2.,
1.8 8 2.8 10 30 12 21 14 2~ 16 "ll 18 23 202"2. '22. 2A 0 26 2. 24 4 2.1 6 25 2B
19 e 32. 10 32 12. 7.5 14 21 16 25 18 I7 2026 22 2.8 0 30 2 2.8 4 3o 6 2.9 '2-9
~ 8 36 ll '2.8 14 31 16 29 18 3>1 20'2.9 2.2. '?>2. 0 34 2 !>'2. 4 34 6 33 :,a
31 840 12. 3'.2. 16 33 2033 2'.2. 36 'l. 36 6 31 ~I
M£4.H TAB.LS MM,/l£D FROM Tiii ~J'lKAN ll'/'ll/t1£1CIS
'\rH1s TAE!>LE as vR££Nw1cH J:.10ER£AL
l"IME ((7.S:T.) AT O" (i..M.T.
e'vo.mt'lt: ~OUR ?ON~
l.DCATION IS AKRON 10HIO, 11'1
5. IT IS. .JAN. I , 2.0:00 L. M.T.
Vo s:1No LOCAL s1oe.2£AL -rtM!O (L.s.T.l Wha..t IS SIDE.REAL TIME?
ust TMIS FOR.MULA: ·············:.···-·······...
,.··· (ra O'.E/!Wr ': $.QLllTlON:
·:f:_L.M.T. IJOUB. ; L. M.T. whoom 'lo
.
L.S.T. "' L.M.l' + <:..S.T. +(R TIME ZONE .. Aoo 6.S.T. 6h 41 "' ~ <'\I~·
..•.
• I
.
•• :: '
.... 6 •••.••. ······. .• · "· .......... C041REC'TION 04m ..... ~ ,,.4-i;
• ~IJJJf!.Ll.: ··· ..··~f······"··-~
rd#;
~ ~~~ MA.t~!:!. :2.6"4S'ln
-~ 2.4h OO"'
~a;~~
LE.S.£
~ L.S."T. IS 2.!;45 ""AT '2.0h L.M.T.

28
•
)
 time of any sky object is given in Greenwich SA"rVRN MOVES Ae.QVT '2.MIH . OF ARC PER C>Av, WHICH IS A80<lr
mean tin1e, this "time of position" will be just 2 $£C.. OF TIM£, I~ $ lol~S • .• ••• fT IS P8Act/CALLY6t2?7Qt!"L£:C£
the same at your location. SATURN ,..,-•~.!..... ,, I CEl..ESTIAI.. ...~- . ,,.. ,.. I('{ 5 JlllS.
,:' • >'. SPHERE 0 .: • I.iJ!tf,£ XJlJL

d/,,.?·mu,o,,:t;ioli;'·;."
APPLICATIONS OF TIME. Some astronomical
dT~!ltfWK/l I Ya:t.t. ·~~
·(
.t0e ,....,.if-, Mavf
;l/ .Mf:BID{Atll ~~~1(?S°)
suss.
events are time - at - the-same-instant. This is not
concerned with the position of the outer space ;1. "8€Ed/Vl(J(.""'" . -1. ;;-- Jil!ft'MClf "" ' 'I.

object. but with something that happens on or to e.;

' -
:w E
·'• j
__.. -
--- ...
I"'
£AAlU"' ~~i sh LATER
the object itself. Phenomena of this type include
eclipses of the sun and moon, configuration of
Jupiter's satellites, minima of a variable star, 8
G. M.1".
Q G
Yhur r1,,.,.. G.M.T.
8
Yoetr r;,,.P
maxima of a meteor shower, and others of simi-
lar nature . If the time of such event is G. M. T.,
you deduct your zone number to get time-at - the -
·-
I o:oop.m. S!OO p.m.
..... _TRANSIT IS SAME TIME---
3:00 a.m.
.-
10!00 p.m.

same - instant at your location. G) TIM£-OF- POSITION 1S ALWAYS LOCAL MEANTIME

Star maps for use at a certain hour a lways
mean local mean t im e . If the map is for 9 o 'clock,
it means 9 o ' clock L.M. T., and you must convert
9 o'clock L .M. T , to standard time ,
A rotating star map (planisphere) presents
somewhat the same problem-- but exactly oppo-
site. The clock dial on the planisphere is local
mean time. You could change all the numbers,
and in doing this you would be converting mean -
to- standard. However, the usual circumstance of
using a star dial is that you look at your standard
clock and note that it is a certain standard t ime ,
You then convert this to local mean time, which
is then used for direct setting of the clock dial.
SIDEREAL OR STAR TIME
SIDEREAL Tll\1E is based on one rotation of the
ear·th in relation to any star. This is a sidereal
day. Like solar time, the sidereal day is divided
into 24 hours, but the day itse lf ls a bout 4 minutes
shorter. A simple explanation of the difference is
shown in Fig. 1 O.
Some particular point in the sky is needed as a
zero index mark for 0-hour sidereal time . For
this, astronomers have selected the vernal equi-
nox rather than a sta r , Fig. 8. However, the
eastern edge of the great square in Pegasus is
in line with the vernal equinox and supplies a
convenient visual guicle--whenever you see Peg-
asus on your meridian, it is about 0-hour si-
dereal time.
A clock keeping side real tilne will run about
four minutes fast per day as compared to a solar
clock. More exactly, the daily difference is 3,94
minutes. On about Sept. 23 of each yea r, the sun
crosses the e quator going south, the crossover
point being the autumna l equinox. \Vhen the
autumnal equinox j5 coincident with the sun, solar
and sidereal clocks will agree, Fig.12. The si -
dereal clock sta rts to gain immediately, and the
4- 1nin. daily difference soon makes the sidereal
clock hopelessly at odds with solar time. The

I'!.,..N.o•
TIME C-ONVER.SlONS 't/}IUm,.--.• SAME TIME /IND,
AS OPPOS17liP!/GE
!>Lb:.#

PLACE: AKRON,Oh;o , 51.z.6~ W.

l_ONGlTUPE, 'U)Ne S
STAHOAAO TO 6.M:r. aM. 6.M:T. Ta STMCWZO TIME: 7:000-.m.
&._()ANJN~
E.S.T.

STANDARD
TO c;.. M. T. <;-.M,T. = STANDARD TIME + 'Z.ONE NO. G.M.T. =- l: 00 -t- 5 ;: 12 :oo
C,.M.T. TO
STANDARD STANDARD TIME ~ G.M.T. - 7.0N& NO. £.S.T. = 12 :00 - 5 =- 1:00
SAM£ EJ(AMPLE!
i: 00 €.S.T. ::: 6: ?A LM.T.
LOCALMEAN TIME TO 6.M:r a.nd. G.M:TTo L.M.T. (.see. oeeosae P1t&e J

LOCAL MEAN
lo C,12E.Ell · (].M.T. -= t..M.T. + lon&itu.d.e WE:ST
G.M.T.:::: 6!34 +s:26 = 11~60 "'
WICH ME.AN G./111. T. J2hoo,.,
GREf.Nl.U ICt-I G.M.T. 12hoom" I 1i, 60"'
ME.AN TO l.M.T. = G~- Longi.tud.e WEST /Jj,lNU.S. '1:1z.~9. s"u."' ~ _sh 2.6"'
LOCAL MEA Ill ~) ~' t~~ t..M.T. 6 " 34"'
I P EA Sr, SWtTCJ( PL.u~ AND Ml.-VVJ'. S/&'Ns

27
T ABLE 2

Oh GREENWICH MEAN TIME {G.M.T.)

.SIDEREAL TIME AlMIONIGl/T
DAV JAN. FEB. MARCH APRl l f'r\AY JUNE JUL'f AUC:.. SEPT. OCT. NOV. OEC. OAY
1 6t. 4 1"' ah~.. 10• 34"' 12~ 36"' 14h 35"' 161. 31"' 1eh3s" 20h31"' 22h40"' oh 38"' 2."40"' 4°' 38"' 1
-l-- -l-,.;;....::...--!.- - -1-- -1-
2. 6 45' 8 4 8 10 38 12 40 14 '39 16 4 1 18 39 20 4 1 l'2 44 0 4l. l 44 4 42. 2.
-I--~
?> 6 4 9 8 52 10 4'2. 12. 44 14 4'2. 16 45 18 4:!. 2.0 4S 22.41 o 46
L - - . L - - - - l_ _ --1..____..1--_...:......J_:_
2. 4S 4 46 3 -+--~

4 6 s3 e 56 10 "l6 12 4e 14 46 16 49 10 41 20 49 i.2 51 o so 2. 52 4 so 4
5 6 57 9 oo lo So 12. 52 14 SO 16 53 18 51 20 Sl 2'2. 55 o S4 2. 56 4 54 5
1--- -1----1-----1-----1--- - l - ---l-----J
6 1 0 1 9 0 3 10 54 . 12 56 14 54 16 51 18 55 20 51 22 S9 0 58 3 00 4 58 E>
4----1----ll---1-~-+--
..., 1 05 9 Ol 10 58
L-----.1...-__;--1._:__..:..:.-1..;.;._ 13 00 14 58
___..1--_--l 11 01 18 59 21 01 230'3 I Ol. - 3 --1--
04 5 0'.2.
- 1
8 1 OCJ 9 11 11 02 I!. 04 IS 02. 11 04 19 03 21 05 l3 01 I 05 3 08 5 06 8
L--.,
___..__ 7.....;_
13--L....:9:......:..15:......:..Ll..;.l_0
.:..6--!..:..
13_0..;.8-1 15 06 11 08 19 01 2\ 00 2.3 11 I 09 3 12. 5 JO 9
10 l 11
L--.::..._1----_ 9 19 II 1-0--1--13 --1----...:......JL-----J......::..._
12 15 10 11 12 19 II -1-_
21 13_,_1'3_ IS_j__ I _13 ....._3_16_,_5 14_ _,__10 __,
II 1 '2.1 9 23 II 14 I~ JC> 15 14 11 16 1915 1.1 11 2.3 19 I 11 3 20 ') J8 II
L __ _ J i __ - i-----1--- --1----l----1-- - · ~ ' - ---1--- --1----1-- -ji----1- -I--~
11 1 2.5 9 'l.l 11 18 13 20 IS 18 11 '20 19 18 2 1 21 2313 l 2.1 3 23 5 2.l. 12.
1~-1-----.....J...:....:_.1- - --1-----1----1--- - 1- -- +-- -
13 l
L----1------l.. '2.9 9 31 11 2.1 13 2.4 15 2'2. 11 24 19 2.2. 21 '2..5 2.3 21 I 15 3 2.l 5 16_..___13 __,
14 l 33 9 35 11 2.5 13 28 IS 26 11 28 19 26 2\ 29 2.3 31 I 2.9 3 31 5 30 14
1--- -1----l'--- --1----1--- - 1 -
1_ 15 7 31 9 39 11 29 13 "!2. 15 '30 11 "3'2. 19 30 2.1 33 2.1 35
...:..._-1-_...:......JL-.....:....-l- I 33 3 35 5 34 15"
~

16 l 41 9 43 II 33 13 36 15 34 ll 36 19 34 21 36 13 '39 I 31 3 '39 5' ~1 16

I,
---1---~~--'-~1~~--1---
1 45 9 41 11 ~7 I~ 39
i__:__-1-----..JL....:._ _J
=----1-- --11----1--
I S :!.8 17 40 19 38 2 1 40 23 43 I 41
--l-----l~---1---
3 4!. 5 41
- +---!
11
18 149 951 11 41 1"343 1542. 1144 1942 2.1 44 2.:!.41 1 4!; 3 41 545 18
1----1--...:......JL-----l--~-1--- - ·l - - - - l --
1~ 152. 955 1145 1341 1546 1946 2148 2'351 149 351 549 19
1140
- ~-1----l
W l 56 9 59 II 49 13 51 IS SO 19 SO 2 1 52. 23 54 I 53 3 55 5 53 1{}
11 52.
' - - - - ' -- --1-~~-l--~
'l.I 8 00 I0 03 II 5?. 13 55 15 53 _
11 S6
. J . . _ _-J..
19 54 21 56 :i.:; sa I 51 3 59 5 51 _,_21
_ __,

2.'l 8 04 10 Ol 11 57 13 59 15 51 1800 19 58 2200 0 02 2.01 4 O:!. 6 01 2.'l.

l--~+---l---4 --+--~
13 8 08 10 10 12 0 1 14 O:?t 16 01 18 04 20 02 2.1. 04 0 OC> 2 05 4 01 6 OS 23
'---- '--- ~--+----1----~-~--1----+--~

.___ 12. 10 14 1205 1401 16 OS 1808 20 06

:l.4 ........8_...:......JL...._-l-~ 2.2 08
~--
0 10 2. 09 4 II 6 09 2.4
2. 5 8 16 10 18 12 09 14 11 16 09 18 11 20 10 22 11. O 14 2 1'2. 4 15 6 13 25
~---l-----'-+-'-'--4--'---+----l---4~~-1----1-'---
16 8 20 10 2./. 12. 13__,_ 14 15 16 13 18 15 20 14 l l 16 0 18 2 16 4 19 6 11 2.~
' - - - - ' -- - - '' - - -_._ __, - - - l - -- -1---+-
'l.1 8 24 10 26 1'2. 11 14 19 16 11 18 19 20 18 2.2 '2.0 0 21 2 lO 4 23 6 2 1 2.1
1----1--...:......JL...:---l--~-l---l--'~--!.--_j_;.:__..___-I-_ _....._ ~1----1- --1'----l
2.8 8 2.8 10 30 12 2.1 14 1':!. 16 7.1 18 23 202-i J.2. 2A o 2E> 2 24 4 2.1 6 1s 28
l.9
30
8 ?.'2. 10 32
8 36
12 25 14 21
12 ~ 14 ~I
-'----'
-1----1-~~-1----1----1
16 25 18 Zl 2026 22 28 0 30 2 2.8 4 3o_,_6 'l.9 '2..9
__,,__
16 29 18 31 201.9 22. 3'2. 0 34 2. 32. 4 34 6 33 30
~-..._ _ _
-.1-- - 1 - -- -1---4 ~--'--I -~-1--~ - --1,__- -+---l
31 840 12 32. lb 33 20 33 2.2. 36 1 36 6 31 ?>I
ME.AH TABU co,.,,tt.£.D ;ROM Tl/.£ llllt1£A/G4N £/tHIMlltl..S
'\?HIS TAe.LE IS GREE.NWICH SIDEREAL f:"JA "'i.JA; ~OUR LOCAilON IS AKROl'l,0H10, IN
TIME (G.S .T.) AT o!. C..M.T. V~•·t'P' ZONE S. IT 1$ .JAN. I, 20:00 L. M.T.
'\i'o l'INO LOCAL SIDE.REAL TIMe (L.S.T.) Wha.t IS S IDEREt\L TIME?
USk TIOS FORMULA: __.. -······:- ···········,,
,.·· (Ip ttMRE,<r \ S.OU/TLCW.:
~L .M:r. HOc/BJ · L.M.T. 201> OO"' -io
6.$.T. +~ TIME ZONE ...
+
L.S.T. :. L.M.i
; . : .... 6 ;,.· ····· ... ... .
ADD
(,. s.T.
COl!fW;TIOJll
6" 4 I "' ;;..f 4"
04"' ... ·· ~). ~
I "''""

: 1 /.. ~ ··········}····•·-"·····'"' .•.•.••..

~ 1:/;rJ/t:~ 104(~~><
2.6.,45'"'
• .t..ESS l.4~ OO"'
~ Wffe (~ Pf~ L.S.T. IS 2"45"' AT '2.01\ L .M .T .

28
•
 Lime difference ullow:1 Lhe sLars to advance west-
C>(GASV$
ward for 4 min . before tht• sola,. day •
is com -
ClUSllAl..
pleted, and Llus !lmall advance repeatc>d night ~U"l0..
after night gives us a constant ly chang1n~ parade
of stars.
CONVERfl~G SID E.REA L T I ME. The usual
method of doing tlus '·' to cor•sult a. table
which gives the sidereal time a< midnight fot·
h °""""....... ,.,,,
each day. lf, to this tabula~ed \•ah.c, ~ou adrl 0 S l0£UAI. TIME OCCllRS OAll'I' \llUIJI
the number of hours and minutes ) OCJ a1·e past TME. V~AL £1(111M>: IS ()II '!Oil~ M{Rl(XAll

midnight, you Y.111 i:ct the approximate sidereal

ttme at ~our location.
The complete formula to convert local mean
time to s1derea 1 lime is given at lhe bottom of
Table 2. The table itself gn·cs the sidereal
time for each day when it is 0-hour (midnight)
at G1 ccnw1ch. lt :;hould be noted that 0-hour
(midn1gh1) 1s a ''station" in tin'e the same as
12 -hour (noon) is a Stillion in tlmE' . Your noon will
occur later than noon at Greenwich, but when it is S10El!E.A1. = HouR ANc.1.e o~ "TME
TIME VE.RNAL E.Q.UINOl(
noon at your loca11on it is noon, 12 o 'clock, and
the sun is on the 1ncri<lian. lf your location i s 5
hours west of Greenwich, midnight al your l oca-
tion will occur 5 hours after m idnight al Green-
which. But wltcn it coin es miunighL at your loca- /"\
tion, thl' sld<.!rl'a l equ ivalent of midnight will be ORBIT
OF EAR,.H ...: . ..
the same as at Greenwlch.
In brief. siciel'eal time al Greenwich is the ® SO\l'T+I Sl:V
6.'T 8 O'ClOGO::
same sidereal time at your location. However, StOEllEAL DAV IS .SMOIZTEIZ TMAN
SOlAR DAY, CAUSI NG STARS TO Dl11~T
you have a moc11,st correction to make. ln W£STWA20 ASOUT TWO M~ . P!R MOr<TM
practically all cases you will want the sidereal
time at ioome L1 me past 1n1dnight. So, to the
t.lbulated time, you mui;t acid he hours past
10"I ' (11; 10 j l
1 I >. tO
I'
"- tO

e 1i:oo.' ~3 'a
9
n:oo: ' l
a 11:00 •rs&ffT. • n~oe.J
midnight . i)Hring tlus interval, the sidereal
clock gains on the i;ola1· clock .~ t the stated 1 s '7 '
~.1 ,_5
L.M.T. SIOER E.Al. L.M.T. St DER EAi..
ra:e of about 4 minutes per day, or 10 seconds
per hour. Tlus co1Tccl1on must be added . Also,
the tabulated sidereal time at midnight at vour
loca11on wtll occur 5 hou1 s (in Zone 5) later,
an<l chis means anothP1 50 seconds added . The
~ormula 1n J'able 2 CO\Cr6 C\c1·ythi'lg. @ THE SIDEREAL CLOCI( C.All'IS 4 M1H . PER DAY

Two Simple Ways to Find SIDEREAL Tl ME

M£THOD No. I -No CoRRECT!ON METH OD No. 2 - w1rH APPROJ(.(.QRREcno1'
• L.S.T : L. M.T + G.S.T. at oh L-S .T.:. L. M.T + G-S.T. of o.,<Yw04r
r:.l:/}'U-'
""-hie:
''Y'
.$AME A~ OPPOSITE PAGE
Pl.ACE: AK~ON, Oh;o
~~o.mplc!.: SAME
TIM'! 20:00 L.M.T. 5 0 1.-UTJOll: l . M.T. '2.0h oom
!iOl.U1LON: Plus 6.S.T. 6 45 {fram rllfl'=ii)
L.M.T Oh JAN· l. J
Pius G-. s .T. ..... '2.6 4S ,e,11.a.8.
o•JA/'1.1 rJ!i-,f' ... ··l_ess .2.4' 24 00 ....·JJ£1J~"il~;~1
Less ;i.41t il!tJ. L. S. T. 2." 45""" ~-~IS
e $,;QfJl'l
~rs
L.S.T. ~tJ'93J,_1ltQ l ~·t'·

29

•
 VARIOUS methods a r e used in locating sky objec ts
w it h a telescope, ranging fr om coarse naked-eye
sighting lo pr ec ise pin-pointing with the use of set-
ting circles. All methods require a good mount --
it must not vibrate unduly, It must "slay put" at
any position and it must work smoothly on both
axes. Other requirements are a planisphcre ond a
star atlas . The planisphere is used to determine
the general aspect of the sky; the alias then supplies
the detail maps. Don't expect to find sky objects
by random sweeping- -you must know exactly what
• you are looking for and bow to get there.

.
•
.
• •
...,
.......
•
•
...
STAR HOPPIKG. T his is the finding mt>thod most
used by beginners. The idea is that you hop from
a bright star you know to another star you know,
• etc. , and in t his way reach your target, which mav
• . be invisible to the naked eye. An important p•rl of
.•
•• • this technique is careful plotting of the course on a
M 11- oP£fll CLUSTER . . star atlas . Make a " fie ld plotter" of clcnr plastic
•• •
MANY TJN"{_ S TAR.I'
Whore is M 11'?
..• as shown in drawing, scaled to tht' degree marks
which you will find at the edge of all atlas maps.
GIVE /I (; l.OW/IVfc
liffECT. QllSYTO St~ • •
If you don't know the fie ld of your finder, find lt by
/lllTH 3 TO 6" llT 1 0,t
the method shown in boxed drawing below.
Now, let's plot the route to 3 typknl telescope
obj ec t , such as M I J. Altair will be your pilot
star or star ting point. Note In drawinii tha l a G-
degree finde r field will take i n the two guard stars,
which wi ll make ide nt ification po~itive w hen you
locate Altair in the sky. Move the field plotter,
keeping Altair in field but •tretchlng out to another
sta r along the r oute . T his wil l be Mu, as shown.
Keeping Mu in the field, you can reach Delta.
From Delta to Lambda you will have o Httll" bit of
bliod hop, but it will not be hard to pick up the
curved string of stars ending nt the to p of Scutum
(SKYOU -tum), the Shield. Below Ela and Beta In
Scut um you will find three faint stars, anu about
half degree east and south is l\t 11.
::-lote that the general direclio11 of your roull" is
• west and south. The drawing shows the 11ta rs as
.S.T.Aa MOPPIH6 they appear in a naked-eye ,,.;ew facing aouth. If
your finder is the usual Inverting t)·pe, all this will
be upside down. Hence, turn the drawing (or at 1~~>
upside down and it will then agree with th~ view you
will see later in the eyepiece of the finder. Mem
orize each step of the route; call ou1 each star by

FIELD OF A TELESCOPE
A .S,.AA. ON Ost Ht.A A: TM &
EQ.VATOR MOV•S. W&STwAAO
AT THE R"TI!. o r FI FTEEN
D EGR EtS PER HOUR •••
£qf.IAL$ 1• , ,., "4 M IN VTf.$
OR. 15' l t'4 I M 1HVT t.
~y TI M ON (.
THE P"~S A.- t TllE/11: OW I OE TIME IN OA: MULTI P LV T IM& IN
OF TH E .ST"R "CROSS T HE M l NUT ES SY 4 TO (.ET MINVTES SY IS' TO (.ET
F I E.t..O OF V I E.W, v'OV C AN F IELD IN 0 £GR IOES F IELD IN M IN UTES
OETE~INE. TME. ANGU LAR f , 1•APPAOJ(. 4 .5 ~ I S':. 6"1.S''
F IELD OF TtlE. TELE.SC.OPE EiC: 4 ( 4 .5' o il 1• iY1

30
M ~9- OPf.H ClUSTf.R
AOQUT 2$ ,S"riA~
MOM 11tt;. 6. £ TD JO.
I/SI!, -fp TO " ' " ' ~ . .... . . .•
• ••
./

STIEPPIN(i.·OFF
THE DISTAHCE

CY CO.NUS
(HP8TH£VI CJ!ptt)

ANGULAR
SC... LE

; RIGHT ANGLE SWEEP - DENE8ToM39 ;·

name. Careful attention to the atlas plotting will
make the nctual finding of M 11 a ra!rly simple
matter. Jt will show as a misty patch or llght ln
the finder, while the telescope will reso lve it Into
a myriad or tiny sparklers.
RIGHT ANGLE SWEEP. \~ith an equatorial mount
there are just two possible movements: (!) Any
movement on the declination axis will follow a
meridian, (2) any polar axis movement describes a
circle around the pole. These movements are at
right angles and correspond to lhc g r id or lines
shown on :'.lll atlas maps. In making a right angle
sweep you first locate a pilot star and from this
step orr the required number or degrees in two sep-
arate movements, measuring the distance by the
field of a low-power eyepiece. The finder is not
used.
M 39 is shown as a target object, with Deneb
the pilot star. You will need a little car·dbourd
scale, marked to atlas scale. This serves to
measure angular distances in both dee lination and
right ascension. The scaling is not exact on most
maps, especially for the crosswise R. A. distance,
but is accurate enough for the purpose. As shown
in the drawing, M 39 is 3 degrees north of Deneb
and 8-1 (2 degrees east. A low power eyepiece
with a field of about 1- 1 /6 degrees (the average)
is convenient for stepping off the distance, the
slightly larger field eliminating the need of mea-
suring exactly to the edge of eyepiece field.
J\fake the declination sweep fir3t. You will be
able to see many faint st:'.lrs not shown on the atlas
and these serve as sp~c!ng guides - -you pick up
any star at one side or the field and then move the
telescope to put it al the opposite side--tbat's one
field or 1 degree. Arter completing the declination
step. lock the declination shaft. Step off 8-1/2
fields to the east, moving only on the polar axis.
TIUs should bring you to M 39. If not in the field,
sweep cautiously in the immediate area-- M 39 is
just a bright splash of slar11 11nd is not outstanding
against the rich background of the Milky Way.
In any right-anirle sweep, ii will be apparent
you have a choice of two routes. Sometimes a con -
venient bright star wt 11 simplify the whole operation,

IS FOR ALP~A TME GREEK ALPMASET (lllPHA) (SETA)

A a.
ALPHA AL-fut\ I IOTA L-OH - 1.uh p p RHO Row(Yov.. .,,..,,
e ~ BETA 8AY-tu.h K '
J( KAPPA CAP-u.h 1: <T SIGMA SIG- mun
r 1' (:,AMMA GAM- u.h I\ A. LAMBDA LAM- d.u.h T r TAU Taw
l!.. 6 DELTA DE.LL-tu.h M µ. MU Mew or Moo y v UPSILON UP-sih-lon
E C,& EPSILON
z ~ ZETA
H '>I E.TA
E.PP-~ih-lon.
Z.AY-tu.h
AY-tu.h
N
-0
"='
ll
t
NU
)(I
New or Noo
Z j (KOT£ 2 $OVl'fJ) •..,
~
ti>
K
PH I
CHI
Fie
Kie
0 OMICRON 't>HM- ih·kro.wn fl' PSI Sie (siehl
e e Tf.IETA THAY-tu.h TI' .,,. Pl Pie .ll OMEGA Oh-ME -gu.h
•ttKe Omel,t, Olftn//Jur "'

31

•
7 I
-
•
- - -i-1s•
-+14·
_j _,,_
()eJlCT

""e -'-18'
,... ,., ·""' .,,
'M'>l;
• ""'2.0
/II\ 1'1
,.,. ?3
- - · 20·

M'14
•
""'25
--zr
•
•

SAG.I TAR.I I.JS

•
•
- - • - -2s 0

I
- -24•
• I
EtE LD OF
• ~6.0 CtctC>4.~ •

•
of.a :f{o •
•
• •
t:DOD 'lllCl<J.ltd I
--9" _l _____, ____ - ~ !
I •
- - -1--

l
Lr-,._, l ~,~~=----,!J=s
~
-=~~'~--'='~6'="q l I
"Sr-
L so 4.5 40"' 3S 'U:f" IS S- 181'
>

as, \Vith l\1 3r•. tl.t' :iltt•1·r1.1tE> routP shov.•n has a
turning polnl :>t RI o, Plim1nat1n~ the need of mra-
surmg tht> an1tular di~t.1nC'P. \Vhllc i11 tl.r Cygnus
area, starti [)Pneh and OC'ltn provirll~ ,'\ <"OOY~nlent
check for 1hP all11n1~rnt of your rrount!ng to the
pole- -you st.ould be ahlPto sweep from one ;t:>r 10
the other with polar•xls mov('n·cnt only. Tllr st'p-
aration of 10 de" recs can I><• us rd to cht>c-k :l\ las
scale and also :your own ahlllt' 10 ~tep oH the di"-
tance with cvepa'rt' f'etd.
If you ffiO\'f" l dcgt'CC' nortll (rorl l.at1 t>tfll ,11 d<.•rl1·
nation and thensv.et"p lo tl>l" "'ct>t ''" R. ;\ .. ''n11 w1ll
not fail to pick cp M ~. the ponular J,•goon 11rbut...
lt is l1nfor~unatc- lhito splenrlid ob~~,·t "'~1"'\1 t>t' vit•wC'cl
undcri•:e lum1nous 8kLes ofst1mn11.•1·, ~anc·t• 1•vC'nlhis
small amount of hght dcslro,·s the nchulosll) whirh
forIT!S '1c lagoon, lca\•in~ only o f:..tt1· a1nr· c.:1tl'ilt·r.
V1r'v this on a rt>allv d"rk n gilt ;ihoul 1 1<lnl1?h' and
you will understnnd ho·.- 11 got ii~ n.1rrr- -It do1·s 10
dt>ed rcserr·blc- a misty Jake dntll'd 1hout w th hl(htF .

SWEEPING JI\ SACll I ARIUS. ThP Sag1ttar1us-
Scorpius region V.'a~ :\1t"SSier's rn\ 0rJlC" J1untin~
1 r i us, all eas1l~· 1oc-ntC'dwi1h rn<"3Rl1r·rdsW<'<'J>.i: frorl
ground and 1norp than A qun1·trr of hi$ popular list
ran be found in this 1·irhly•span,::ll'd area of lhc
sk~" Sagittarius is csp.-c-ially good fo1· n·cnsurc-rl
right-anglt' sweeps, using 1·c<Jd1Rh, third ma{!nitude
Lambda as a p ilot stor, as 'hnwn 111 map above . A
little triang le of s ta 1·s dll'P<'lly undc1· l.ambcln will
make iclenlificatinn po~llivt' . If ynu pul Lomhda at
the edge of u low powc·r r1~ lclyou c:>n r>iekup a faint
glow ut lhe opposite edgP of fir Id . This is l h<' glob-
u lar cluster, M 28, of "Pvt"nth magnitude . A
brighter globul~r is M 22, w inch lops th<' fnmous
l\1 13 clusle1· in Alze and 1s vf'ry nenl'ly os bright.
Tl1Pre arr mart)· fjnt• OJ•<"n rlt>~1Prlili in SJ.~ 1t1~1
Lan1bda. i\1 25 .;.1nci '-1 23 ._11·c.- 1>c1J>\1l,11· l(•W-ll<>Wt•l'
fiPlcls; l\1 24 paC"ks:...lbOUt f·rt~:--1.llR irl t1 tin" 4 ltlirl
u1e fieldandnccd~ u 3 ltJ 6-int"hol>jc~:ltve.•t1 11J11 '-'ci1
um powe r for good rrsoiulion ult houl(h I h•· l1t·il(hl
glow of :i l)OUl fifth magnttuclr i' p;osi Iv Bt•rn with
sma iiest lclcsrope 01· b inoc11l:11·11. Sagittarius o f -
fe rs a good test sweep fro111 Z~ta ll'.I n Plla of rwa 1·
ly an exac t 11inr- degree-Fi separat ion lt 11<I cl n n<'nrly
the same paralle l nf d<lclinul1011. /',rla is " fine
douhle (mags . 3 . 4 and J. G) hut thP ~rraration of
less than t second puts ii bryond th<' '"'"J!'' of
porlable telescopes.

32

SETTING CIRCLES. The scientific way to find sky
objects is to use setting circles. One circle of the
pair Is used to set the declination of the object while
the other sets off hour angle as determined from
right ascension and sidereal time. The hour cir-
cle la a bit complicated to use but the declination
circle Is easy; many beginners find the declination
circle alone a big help. A typical setup la shown
In the drawing above where a 7 -1 /2 Inch declination
circle la used on an Edmund light-duty mount hav-
ing 5/8 inch shafts. The 3/8 inch floor nange
shown Is bored out on lathe or drill press for a neat
turning fit on the shaft. In this particular size
combination, the thread is not entirely removed
from the flange but provides .e nough of a flat for the
purpose. Suitable flanges for other sizes of shafts
are listed in the table. If the mounted circle is
sandwiched between leather washers, It will have
enough friction to "stay put", yet at the aame time
it can be allp-turned by hand.
In use, the declination circle t.e adjusted by
pointing the telescope at any convenient bright a tar
or known dee llnatlon. In summer skies, a good
star for this purpose is Antares at 260 19' South.
Center Anh.res exactly in the field. Then, lock
both shafts to make sure the telescope will not
move, o.nd slip-turn the circle to read 26-1/3 de-
grees, ae ehown in small drawing.
Now, with this local adjustment in declination,
any object In the area can be set off directly in
declination. Suppose you want to find M 10, with
declination or 4 degrees South. Simply move the
telescope until the pointer reads 4 degrees. Then,
with declination set and locked, all you have to do
t>ECll NA'llOl'i , . . . , - - - - . - - ---.
IRCL'S;,, SHAFT F-LANG&
~74,e& Yi' ~ ..
S/&" l'.,•or~
¥4" ¥a·
,.. ¥4•
• 0Qf ff!W1%;.~
~M>
DECl.INATIO..
C.IRCLI! ON
LIGMt-- 011T\'
MOUNT
. ~·
Acmtsx111c; .,11e c:u•C.Ll - llll11t
$COP£ CELfZr~ ~..A"t718l.t, ~·
Tt{8W' CIR'L' zz:> DCC. OF4drANS
is sweep in R. A. until you reach M 10. Other ob-
jects in the vicinity can 17e set of! directly. No
change in the adjustment need be made unless (1)
you switch from ones Ide of the tripod to the other ,
(2) you move Into another area a considerable dis-
tance away. By working in this manner, you cor-
rect your declination for a star in the immediate
vicinity, thereby minimizing position errors. You
can use this system perfectly with any portable
with only a very rough setting to the pole position.
STAR ATLASES. While the few maps showoenable
you to find a few objects, !t Is plain you need a star
atlas to locate objects ln other parts of the sky.
Among atlases, Norton's Atlas and Telescope Hand-
book is a long-time favorite and is thoroughly good.
Becvar's Atlas of the Heavens is also excellent; ii
consists of unbound charts, available In two sizes,
the smaller field edition (l2 by 18 inches) being the
best for outdoor use. Webb's Atlas of the Stars is
detailed to magnitude 9 and is a useful supple-
ment but less useful as a first atlas. Norton and
Webb list sky objects.
33
 tJ.c•
16~
NAVIGATORS
PL.OT THE S"'(
·~-
COAONA WIT~ l\N
IMAGINA~'(
~EALIS
GRIO OF
• S.H.A. Cl llCL.ES
S l RP ·
CAPUT J

' ,,, ' .•. '.

J(""l.4· HOUR SCALE OF RIGtn"
A$CEN$10N • •• IS USEP
FOR {)JR.EC T lliPEtf(!VG
!E

How to use
0·6·0·6 SC.Al-E IS
HOUQ. ANC:.Le SCALE
I T MWlllUS l:IQ.llS 8.NGI.§
€/Z.QNI THE 1!1£81QJA/I/, .Qfi.1
fR()NI A PILOT Sr/l~~

SETTING 360° 51 OE RE.AL HOUR

ANGLE. ( S.H.,11.) SCALE
TJllS SCA'I l!(P£YANiS OE

UIRULES ABC MAY 8 6 11,flfD

INSTEA D OF 1?1G 21' ·a'<!"!
R • .lf• .SCALE

SETTING CIRCLES are fun to use and lend to
your star-gazing a cert ain amount of scientific
magic . Even in t he daytime sky. with familiar
skymarks lost in a field or blue, you can pick up
bright stars and planets by simply dialing the
proper numbers in r ight ascension and de-
clination.
Setting circles are made in numerous patterns
and various diameters, The size range is about 3
inches to 8 inches diameter for portable teles -
copes, the 6-lnch size being a comfortable med-
ium. Two circles make a set, one for declination
being marked in degrees, while the other for r i ght
ascension Is marked in hours and minutes. The
circle measuring R.A, 18 known gene rally as the
"hour circle." The main scale on a n hour circle,
Fig. 1, is the continuous 24-hour scale, which is
comparable to a 24-hour clock dial. This is the
only scale actually needed. A second scale with
24 divisions marked 0- 6-0-6 will be found on
many hour circles, Tlus measures hour angle
only and can't be used for direct indexing. Some
hour circles include an S. H.A. (Sidereal Hour
Angle) scale, which is degrees of arc . This sys-
tem of sky addresses is explained in another
E dmund book, ''Time In Astronomy: '
FOUR ARRANGEMENTS. 1'here are only four
possible arrangements of a 24· hour hour circle.
It will be immediately apparent t he number se-
quence can be c lockWise, or it can be counter·
clockwise. The other variable i s that the Ind ex
can be either fixed or moving. A study of the dia-
grams, F i g. 2 , will show that arrangement Dis
the only completely satisfact ory syetem for di·
rect indexing. Arrangement A would work, but the

34
 r-:;., 4
_::::- •
IM AG.INAR'I SIC'f/
"" \=1
TfiE POSSIBLE. WA'(S TO USE. A
2.4-MOUR HOUR. C:lllC.LE
C.LOC.K OF
---... R.A. 14CuRS
~ FIXED ~MOVI N G
INDEX INDEX'

MOVING C.IRU.E Fll(EO CIRCLE

UJL CJRCLE TlJRtiS THE C!W!f .rnwQ(
IA!JiE.NT)lE w .. SillL tl/HMI T!{C
C<mOCJS '('Jllif¢() IElEKQPe ts TtllWEfl

OK READS INCREASING ... OoEsNar N. G. REAOS OEc.REASING

HOURS OF R.A. UJHEN TELES- MATClf HOURS OF R.A. WHEN
COPE IS TURNED TO EAST •• ,&a: .. SKYCLIXK TE.!.ESCOPE IS TURNED TO EAST

• 1(5
€s
@ Ft>C'£o @) MOVING- >-,
INDE)( INOE.)(

MO\ll fll~ fll(EO CIRCLE

C.tllCL£

ttG. REAOS OfGREASING

HOURS OF R.A. WHE.N
sK RE.AOS INC.REASING
HOURS Of: R.A. WHEN
~K-A.IJllNS
MAU:JIGO
TEL.£Sc0PE IS TV~ED TO EAST TELESCOPE IS TURNED TO EAST TO $!1'.Y !1pCK

numbers on the hour circle would not match the
imaginary clock in the sky. The other two sys-
tems do not work at all- -they simply do not Index
or point the telescope the right way. However.
even these arrangement& can be ueed lo set off an
hour angle.
The proper arrangement for direct indexing
in R.A is D, Fig. 2. As can be seen, this requires
a counter clockwise sequence of hour numbers.
The index moves- -which means the circle itself
is fixed . A "fixed" circle means only that it does
not partake of the turning movement of the tele-
scope. The fixed hour circle has movement in that
it can be slip-turned as desired. lf a clock drive
is used, the fixed hour circle is attached to the
worm gear to partake of the clock movement, but
it is still a "fixed" circle in that it doC's not turn
when the telescope is turned, The clock motor it-
self should have counterclockwise rotation when
viewed from the end of the clock shaft-- lhi s will
drive the telescope in the required westerly
direction.
INSTALLATION OF CCRCLES. Direct indexing
35

•
 fNSTALLA"rlON OF F't~: t..£V£i. Tffe
HOUR CIRCLE @ {£Cf1NA'T/Ot" MlfS:T
Wm/OUT A CLOCK, It/.£
CIRCl.E QJt{ SE AT £:tnlER
_£IJil> OF--Itl£ POLAR
,SHAFT HOUSIN/5

5~ "D1A.
HOUR
Cl lZCLE
\..,. ~

se:r
• SC.ll:EW
®
5EtTING THE HOUR
C.I RC.LE I N DEIC

preferable because j l calls for just one pointer

-------
@)
, If youhave ac lock drive, the hour circle should
c--1N 0Ex'
(CJ. , PLllSTlc)
HOUR CIRCLE
Rf.TAIN'R (BlJ46£8 ll!a<i)
f - HOUR Cll~C.L( HUB
~ ~ ,...-WORM GEAR D~~~~oll
@ same way as the telescope itself. The same ad-
MOUR C IRCLE WITH
EDl'fUND CLOCK DRIVE
requires a double- ended Index in order to read
at either of the lwo common posilions of the tel-
escope, i .e ., east or wesl of pedestal, The index
is attached lo lhe polar shaft or shaft collar, or
to any moving part of the polar shaft. The hour
circle is attached to either upper or lower end of
the polar shaft housing, Fig. 3. It must allow slip-
turmng, and the commonest way to obtain this
feature is with a set scl'CW, J?1g. 4, So one setting
circles are supphcd with a mounting hub or collar
but most are just flal disks and you have to pro -
vide the slip-tui·n mounting yourse lf. The same
situation applies to the index .
The declination cu·cle can be ltscd either fixed
or moving. A moving circle means a fixed index,
and, other things be ing equal, the fixed index is
which is always at the same fixed location , II a
fixed circle is used, as in Fig, 6, it is best to
have an index on both sides of the crad le lo per-
mit comfortabl e viewing at all positions of the
telescope.
be mounted as part of the clock. This means It
must be attached to the worm gear or to some
part of the drive that partakes of the clock move-
ment. A small - diaineter circh.l can be attached
directly to the worm gear, but a larger' circle
will require a position somewhat apart fro m the
worm gear to gain cle arance . The usual Install-
ation is with a mounting collar or hub, Fig. 6,
which is supplied with some units.
W ith or without clock, the moving index has a
permanent position. To obtain t his, you set the
declination shaft level, Fig. 5, and then turn the
index to stand vertical, pointing to the mer1d1an.
So adjus:ed, the moving index will 'point" the
justment is made with clock drive, l'ig. 6,
DIRECT I:>.'UEXIKG. Like it sounds, direct In-
dexing means that you index directly to the R.A.
and declination of the sky object you wan1 to find.
Direct indexing is always used for setting •he
declination, but direct indexing in R.A. is poss-
ible only if you have the proper kind or hour
circle properly installed, as already deKcribed.
The whole procedure of direct indexing 1n R.A.
is shown in Figs. 7 to 10 inclusive. In the first
operation, Fig. 8, you obtain sidereal time in-
d irectly by pointing the tel escope ata star whose
R. A. is known to you, The second ope ration, Fig,
9, m atches the hour circle to the sky c lock.
With this adjustment 1nude, you cun then Index
directly to uny object in the sky. Errors Jn se t-
t ing the telescope to the pole position can bo
1ninim1zed if you use a pilot star near you r in-
tended target lo set the hour c ircle.

36
 DIRECT INDE)(ING IN R.A.
HOURS OF R.A. ON .. S.10£RE:AL TIM£
IMAGINARY ..·• (IT 13 10 O'ci.O(f< 10
SI<'< C.LOC I< <~- 10
•J\~1--;r---;.9:..._ 8Vr Yov IUEO /'(OJ
.. \\
•
~ ,,
~
•

Sl;tlGMT .STAR
( AdY STAA
.
~~THE. 1t!f1,}'Uff: >
8
,KHPW '!HtSJ

'
0- . .,,
/\
SRIGMT \
STAR ,---.,
YOU K/VO<N} / ' D;IDUW/o/l:,J_•
-.--..l- l.JK£ TliL :a.J..- ">
l N0£l( - ffCflPE . THIS
QjA(iRllM Sl/()WS 16 1$
\& 11 16 15 WliCOP£ is I~
~
'°' 4f
{/
ON Tiffi
M£8 !DIM/ ~
ti
iV
~---'
.SOU-ll'I
i:s
~

0
® /

'\?HE HOUR C.IRC.LE. IS IN ANY CllANCE \POINT TME TELESCOPE AT Al'IY

l'OSITION. THE MOVING I NOE)( POINTS BR.IGl-IT STAR WMOSE R.A. IS
IN SAME DIREC.TION AS TELESCOPE. KNOWN TO YOU. C.ENTER TME
THt IND£!( SE'f7'11Vt; IS A PEIM1/W£Nr ~TAR IN FIELD OF E'l'EPIE.CE.
IJD.lf/STtYl£/'IT... SEE OPPOSITE 1¥16£ R.A. OF STAR SMOWN IS 11 11 30"'

10 10 9
\\ \\

I
S.TA~ VOU
>
l.UAN1" TO
FIND AT
R.A. e•
10"'

- -
~I 'tt
(\' It tI

~L.IP·1'URM 1'H£. HOUR C.IRc.LE TO 0NOE.)C DIRECTLY TO TMf. STAR

PUT R.A. OF PILOT $TAR (11h30"') YOU WANT TO f:INO(B" 10'" 11'1
11'1 LI NE WITH THE INDEX. ORAWJH{;). IF 01' CLOCK ()lfJVE, YOU
NorE THE J.IOUR. CIRCLE NOW Cl/ti COHr/NU~ {/(/l&Cr /l'ID£1(/HG 1'0
<ml~ SKY 04/ECTS /IS aw> AI1tl<l llkE
/rlATCH£S THE .SKY CLOCK

INDEXING BY HOUR ANGLE. In this familiar
method of star-finding, the R.A. of the star is
subtracted from side r'cal lime at the moment.
The result is the hour angle of the star from your
meridian. The most convenient scale for setting
off an hour angle is the 0-6-0-G scale. with one
of the zero m(lrks set to the meridian. This meth-
od is cun1bersome and time-consuming--you use
it when you have to, but otherwise you are miles
ahead with direct indexing.
DIRECT INDEXING WITHOUT A CLOCK. Al -
though direct indexing works best with a clock,
it can be used without a clock by frequently re-
setting the hour circle to any convenient pilot
star. Working wi•hout a clock clr1ve, the st(lri;
will drift to the west al the rate of l degree in
4 minutes titne . This mean11 that after Setting to
the R.A. of the target by direct indexing, you
must make a small additional westerly move-
ment in R.A., equal to the elapsed lime since
you set the hour circle. \Vith a lHLlc p1·actice, you
can get good results with this method by resetting
the hour circle at intervals of aboul 15 minutes.
37

•
THE BEGINNER should put 1n an hour or so of
practice on land objects. Even though che image is
upside down, you will gain valuable experience in
setting up the lelescope, focusing the eyepiece and
other basic operations, all of which must be lea r ned
by actual practkc. Then, In the night sky, the best
starting sky Is at dusk. This also of course is the
only cime you can see i\1ercury or Venus as evening
stars.
EYES MUST BE DARK-ADAPTED. It takes at least
ten minutes to dark-adapt your eyes and slight im-
provement can be noted up to half-an-hour. If the
weather outdoors is a bit chilly, you can get your
nigbt eyes more comfortably by staying indoors with
your eyes closed or in a dark room. r.teanwhile, you
have already setup the tel<'Scopc and It too is under-
going a slight change in adapting to the weather . If
vou want to look at maps or notes outdoors, use a
lamp or flashllltbt covered with red or brown paper
or a red filter.
EYE POSITION. i'oureye mustnottouch the eyepiece
but at t he some ti me it must he cen te r ed on the em -
ergent light beam. This Is Impossible lo do when
your eyes are not dark-adapted. After you get your
night eyes you will note that the sky as seen in the
telescope is not really black but a rather bright,
luminous gray. Given this target, your eye will
automatically center on the eyepiece. Obviously, a
low-power eyepiece is easier to use because il has
a bigger exit pupil. If desired, you can cup your
hand around the eyepiece to serve as a guide until
you get your eye centered on the light beam.
A second Ceature or proper eye position is that
your eye must be at or near the exit pupil point. If
you are too close, you will get a hit-and-miss shadow
effect; if too far, you will lose valuablP "rea in the
field-of- view. High-power eyepieces always require
a closer eye position than low-power.
If possible, try to master the trick of keeping
both eyes open since this is much less tiring than
the usual one-eye squint. Two-eye viewing is easy
on daytime objects or any bright night object, such
as the moon. For other ni&hl targets where the em-
ergent beam is of low luminosity, your only chance
of staying "on target" is the one -eye squint. How-
ever, practice with two eyes open whenever you can.
IF YOU \VEAR GLASSES. Take them off if you are
far sighted. Your unaided eyes will then see distant
objects clearly, while the removal of the glasses will
let you crowd the eyepiece when necessary. r.tyopes
38
have a different problem: If you remove your glasses
you lose your eyes for distant objects. The best
practical solution here is to keep your glosses on and
use only eyepieces with long ey" relief of i /2 inch
or more . Note, however, that e ven with eyepieces
having short eye relief, a long eye position means
only that you lose fie ld.
FOCUSING. There is no such thing as exact focus -
...
ing of a telescope. \Vhat happens is that the image
forms at a very p reci se nnd exact image plane, but
you c a n see the image at various settings of the eye-
piece because the eye can adjust for either long or
short focus. The bes t l(eneral practice is to focus
"long". Thia is done by extending the eyepiece a
little more than necessary ond then focusing in just
enough to get a sharp image. The "long" focus
causes your eye to focus as for a distnnt object- -
the most comfortable position . If you focus to the
maximum "In" position which yet retains a shar p
image, the eye accommodates as for a close object,
This position gives slightly greater magnlflcetion but
is somewhat more tiring. In actual practice, you
will us e both the long and short focus since fr eq uent
change s wl LI o.l\ow you to see c le a rer without eye
fatigue. Also, as a matter of fact, objects low in
the sky require a slightly different focus then ob-
jects at the zenith; a bright object like the moon may
require ditrerenl focusing than a dim nebula. Exact
focus on star objects is simply a matter of obtaining
the smallest possible star image .
Out-of-focus focusing Is sometimes useful. For
example, iI the finder telescope 1s set slightly out-
side focus, the star images will be big and easily
seen; you C:'ln even make fine crosshalrs visible in
this manner. Color ed doubles are somet!mes seen
better slightly outside focus although too much of
this tends to dilute the colors rather llU1n improve
them. Jl your eyepieces arc no! parfocal :ind you use
a series from low to high-power for finding and ob-
serving, it is sometimes practical to focus only the
high-power eyepieces . The others, if not too m uch
out-of -focus, will show lorge star images which
serve quite well for finding and tracking. l f you want
to see something spectacular, off-focus a bright
star near the horizon and then tap th~ eyepiece tube
llghtly with your finger--you will see a flaming pin-
wheel shootlnfl off re d and green spar ks!
AVERTED VISION. On luminous objects, you can
Increase visual acuity by one or two ma"nltudes by
using averted vision. The Idea is to get the target
 •

... WHEH ST"Ae$ 1'WINKLE. Lll<:E STARS SMIHE WITM A FAIRI..'(

-·-
,1,.
If'-

CR:A"2.Y {AIC DISTV/?4!W«) STEAD'< LIGMT (rl!UJ~ttsruorJ

/.9

~
· - t:t:o.(~)
eoflltc-J-.....
,+/llG.4·D-. 3,1\ 4 ,; "'"'
~·~.4~,.~-::J.:4:.i;;;,
'.! .. .......... t~
2.2 ri..;,,.(oJ 4.4
f.9 .. s.~
tdMNmtot!-!-.. ... 2~S ;JJ ~

•. • W.iEN YOU CAN'T SEE ~MAG. YOU CAN SEE MAG.5 STAi;tS
STARS, SUC~1 AS ME..G2EZ . NAKt.C EYE', sue I\ AS Et.a.
( ltl/JleAtE.! SkY IS trl2T CUllR, AS.. i:>.Nt> 'Theta. IN TME LITTLE
€RO/rl {!L()(/!Jt, SMOG, FOIL o.e 11/iZ#) D1 PPE.R (711€ 1118 t$ Cf.UR) ... l-IEA1'£D ~OOF TOPS

object in the center of the field, and then instead of on many things but specifically it is concerned with
looking directly at it , direct your gaze a little to one the atmosphere or air . The main body of t he earth •s
side. T his technique is especially useful for star atmosphere is about ten miles thick, straight up. At
cluster s. The center of your eye sees the sharpest, 45 deg rees, it is about 15 miles thic k, and the a ir
but the outer porlion is more sensitive to light and blanke t increases to over 100 miles for stars near
movement. Try lookingall aroundafaintobject tode- the horizon. Obviously , the best seeing is at the
termine if a certain part of your eye is more sensitive . zenith where t he air blanket is thin. The atmosphere
is consta ntly in motion- -shifting, swirling, boiling
VIBRATION OF MOUNT. At 50x o r less, a sturdy .... and it is a rare night when you can use powers
mount can be pushed around wHhout d isturbing the over 350 x rega r dless of the size o r excellence of
image: you can do con tinuous tracking. At higher your telescope. On the other hand, atmospheric
powers and at all powers with light-duty mounts, it disturbances are seldom a probl<>m at 50 to lOOx.
is not practical to do t his. Instead, you must hold You can get a first - hand introduction to air dis -
the scope as s teady as possible, focus on the ta rget. turbance by t rying to look through an open window on
and then get your hands off the mount and lei it settle a chHly night. The warm indoor air wl II make a
down. A vibration period of 6 to 8 seconds is norma I; violent rush to get outdoors and will make quite a
anything over 12 seconds indicates a poor mount. commotion a round the telescope. Tu rbulence is es-
When making the initial sight on the target, a llow- pecially bad with a re flector since the air flows
ance should be m ade for drift. Assuming a south through the t ube as well as around it. You don't
sky object, t he object should be positioned at the actually see the air pattern in the telescope, but you
west side of the eyepiece. Then, you take your do see the image is wavering, wandering, shivering.
hands off the mount, after which it will do its 7- oversize and distorted- - seeing is bad! Open-window
second shimmy and settle down, allowing one to four viewing is practical only when indoor and outdoor air
minutes of viewing t ime, during which period the ob - ara about the same t empera ture. Even so, a power
' the field to the east side of eye-
ject will drift across of about 50x represents the maximum for t his kind
piece. The operation can be repeated as often as of obs erving. It is inte resting and instructive to
desired, the Le lescope being moved around the note the effect of atmosphere on a daytime object.
polar axis only. Use lOOx or more and look along t he e aves of a
house ; you will be conv inced that "seeing" is more
GOOD SEEING. The star-gazer's "seeing" depends than just a matter of good optics .

~~~ \iau~-ia1,.\ug ·. ' .. - .. . .. . ' '

For an erect image with an astro
P~ISMA'T IC. ElilECTOR
retractor you can use either apris-
\ matic or lens -type erector. The lens
erector only can be used with a re-
flec ti ng telescope because the re-
flector does not have the several
inches of "in" focusing movement

... .,..,... .... ...

, ............ ,·Ii•· needed for a prism. One way to see
' erect with a reflector is by turning
,, ,,,)·;~;II--,, ,•
..
~ ·· your back to the obj ect, as shown .
,.........,.... ,.," ' •... . .·..... "
39
NL'lE PLANETS make up the solar systom but only
\"enus, Mare, Jupiter and Saturn rate as Ideal tele-
scope objects. Fig. 1 shows all oithe bright p lanets
as they might appear in the sky. If you are good at
visualizing, try this: Face aouth . Turn the drawing
upside down and put a straightedge (ruler) connect-
ing earth and sun. This is your horizon- -turn the
page as needed to make It level. :Now. keeping the
Imaginary horizon level, rotate the drawing slowly
In a clockwise direction, with the earth ae pivot. You
will notic e that little Mercury is seen brteay after
the sun sets ; Jupite r and Sa.turn are prominent in
the night sky; l\lars will rise in the east and Venus
will be seen as a morning star before the rotating
diagram shows the sun coming over the horizon.
TllE INNER PLANETS. l\1ercury and Venus are
conveniently classified as inner planets because
they are inside the orbit of the earth. Both are in
the daytime sky every day of the year because
:\lercury can never get more than 28 degrees or
two hours from the sun; ,. enus, thr ee hours. In
the circular race around lhe sun, the planets are
now abreast, now lagging behind or pulling ahead
in relation to the earth. Certain of these positions
or aspects are named and should be leerned. Fig.
2 shows the aspects of an Inner planet; the cycle
40
follows the order of orbit travel, that is, fr om su-
perior conjunction to eaetern elongation lo inferior
conjunction to western elonga.tlon. Any angle east
or west or the sun is an e longation. You can see
from Fig. 4 that if the plonot is east of the sun, it
wlll appear as an evening s tar after the sun has
set, Fig. 3.
Like the moon, the inner planets show v arying
amounts of illuminated surface. Venue is most
brilliant at the crescent phase, being then nearly
six times larger in angular diameter than when at
superior conjunction. Mercury is brightest be-
tween greatest elongation and superior conjunction,
Nearer, larger and brighter, Venus far outclasses
!l!ercury as a telescope object. Thirty-six days
either way from new. she is at her brightest, a
glowing c re scent outshining Siriu s a dozen times
and of an apparent size when viewed at 40 x equal
to the moon as seen with naked eye. i\~ercury should
be viewed at greatest elongation in order to obtain
a "high" sky position. Even so, he is hard lo see,
being lost behind trees and rooftops surrounding ·
the ave rage backyard telescope.
THE OUTER P LANETS. The aspects of an outer
planet are shown in Fig. 5 . Here, opposition is
the aspect of greatest interest since it is at oppo-
•

30.S'"

&LffTNAN~•

JUPITIER ~ q.~· Q4.2';of4.f. ov•·.,.;/

,.t~
-..._.;:,.. Mi. ~URV URANUS PLUTO

Q) MAXIMVM-MINIMVM DIAMETERS OF Pl.A.. ETS to srote

Nl2 II
'
SllADOUI
INTRAllStr JN TAA/'IS'IT

®
I
I
, SATELUTU ~JUPITER

I
P\.ANIT

~,w
C.ON.JUNGl'IOH loll. QUADRA'TURl OPPOSl'l'IOH E.QUAORA'TORE
Pl.A#IT hr£S "'"" Pt.A1'£ T RISES AT PtAIY#r IN.tis JU 7111 PLANLT /llS'ES AT
TH£ SUN A/¥() t:A1''r MJ()Jlll&Jlr AHO 1$ all .Stl/'11 .Sl'T'$ ..,.,D IS /!IOON llHD IS tw TIM
BE S«1' 11' &MY SfCY MERIOMll AT Silil'Nld£ Vl'S'ISt• llLt. tvl~NT ,M£RIDIA"" ArSVHS~T

® C.YCL E o~ ASPECTS OF AN OUTER PLANET (MA~, J UPFTeR, SATURN)

sltlon that the planet is nearest the earth and at lts
biggest and brightest best. Opposition means simply
that the planet is opposite the sun. When you have an
outer planet rising in the east just as the sun sets,
you know that the planet ls in opposition and ideally
placed for observation. The other aspects are read-
ily determined by the location of the planet in re-
gard to the sun, Fig. 6.
MARS. Opposition distances are not uniform.notably
in the ca1e or Mars, F ig. 8, where it can be seen
that 1971 was the last favorable opposition and 1988
will be lhe next. This best-to-best cycle runs 15 or
17 years. At a favorable opposition, Mars I• both
big and brleht at about 24 second of arc and -2.5
magnitude. He does not fade a whole lot in the op-
positions on either side of a favorable one. The
minimum planet disk of about 14 seconds al a poor
opposition le still big enough for a nice view. At
conjunction, Mars fades to 2nd magnitude; with a
long synodic period of over two years, be is bright
one year, dim the next. Unlike cloudy Venus, Mars
has a fairly clear a tmosphere and shows a maze of
surface detail, most of which is beyond the ranee of
earth-baeed telescopes, large or small. In 1965 the
11,!ariner flyby produced photos taken at 6200 miles,
These reveal detail n!"ver seen before- -even the
experts were surprised to find Mars heavily c rater -
ed ve't'y much like the moon. Needle ss to say, you
won't see craters wlth a small telescope. But Mars
is always a nice object at opposition just on the
basis of color and hrillinnce. Dark areas can be de-
tected with even a 2-lnch at50xbutit takes at least
5 in. aperture and 200 to 300x to define these with
any measure of clarity.
JUPITER. Big Jupiter is the most consistent per-
former of the bright planets; he is never under 30
seconds in angular diamcwr, Fig. 7, which is big-
ger than Mars at his best. Even the four bright
satellites are 5th and 6th magnitude, easily seen
with binoculars. Fig. 9 ls a sketch view or 1he satel-
lites In orbit, but our actual view ls nearly edge-o~
so that the moons merely 11huttle back and forth. A
satellite in transit is difficult to see because it is a
bright object seen against a bright surface. It is
much easier to see a sh::idow transit, which is a
black dot on a bright surface, A random view will
usually show all four brlght moons. From the data
on satellites you can see that lhe ma.'<imum true

41
 OINMTfa PISrAllCE·MIUN>td °'MIUS PEltlOO ~ HITUOE
lt(\/OUITIO!t ~
AHGUIAll OIAMLnA
PLANET 1N ;,.,,,,. SUN from £A~M
S£t:.tk<IDS O~ AAC £l!!"A8U
TE
MIL.ES MA'/(. Mt.i. fM'{. MIN. SIOlw.& 5"fMOOIC PutSK.
ftitUS MAM. MEAH lort1£1t 11\A(. MEAi< Mtrf. POwEA
MEllCUltY

VENUS
t;I
9
2,,00 43.3

1,600 6"!.6 66.1

28.6 136

161
so ea
25
"""
2'2.S
-"'""
-"'"
116

584
29.1

21.1
-1.9
-"~
•4A
-1.1....
,,,_
-4
.. v.c:; •.i.
+0.1
1114 ••.;

-3.3
1111.,,, t.c
11.9• 6:r"

64.0 16 .0
'4."'J ..

9.9
40- 120

20- 1'2.0
-
EAl:tTH e 1,91l 94.4 91.3 - -- 36,J_ - 18.5 - - - - - - -
N\l'ft.S

JUPITER
(f

'21
4,'W<> 1S4.1 1'28.3 2"'18

86,800 506.1 459.9

m ·11,soo
600
'!>S

361
1.9
,,.......
,,......
11. 9 -
180

399
'"""
1s.o

8.1
.2.e
-'2.S
-1.a
"".,.,..
... l.'l.
AV. o'A

-o.... ..o.o t0.9

•:l.
"ONJ.

-1,..
tON),
'2.S.I

49.e 37,,
6.1 rr 3.5

11)20.S 11.3
30,s
14.1 40-300
100-~

2.0-300
-
SA'TUl:tN li. !1110,00o 936 831 1028 144 29.S ,.,.w
3ia 6.o ll49.2 41•• 3s.2.
YH- lf1":0#.
-
\IR.,..US 0 29,400 1861 1699 1960 1606 84
Y/tT.
_,
310 4. '2. •r.1 ~ITTU CJllW&I 4.2 1.e 3.4 ANY

NEPTUNE \Jf
PLUTO e
28,000 2.811 2110 'l-910 2.611

3,600 460012160 4100 12610 248

---- -
165 361

,_.
36'1
3.4

3.0
•1.6

.. l"I
J.Jrrte~llAl'l&a

lJ1'TUeJ/Nlu
2.4

o.>.& o.2
2.3 2. '2.

0.16
/JNY

NS6DS
/0-l"tl(

00 BALL (!) ~ING SYNOOIC PERIOD 1 T"1M£ 8£rJ<;£11V S.G. .... . . .SVP#•~ C<>1VJVNt:r10/V
SIO£REALPEAIODI rtMli ro MllKE svt:t:cHtVE SIMIJ.All ASPl!t:rs . •• IFt?V"'-,,. AV. 6.E. , .,l/VG!l,11t:G ~s11r,nr£UlNt:Ar101V
(Jf{[iIUVOWrtoN AROV/'10 SI/#•.. PJ.ANl.r~ ()Ht "biP"1/ll ~.«£ 1.1J/rH e111tr>1 A.eou/\lt>.r1111 AV. OPP. A i/£/?A e-6 '"'MlllJV OPP<>J'ir'""'
'')"G,o,<r' IN rlFl?MJ' OF £AllrH r1Mli III scr ;:1~ ~Foll oPPOs1r10,v 01A,.urur COH.J• •. COIY./l/#Cr10N

~ ERECT
BRIGHT S ATELLIT ES
0
MILES OIA. .

• INVERTED ./UPff£1l
Moon

I
'2.160
OIA.
MILC$
(Jo) • .,,.,,..;. 2.100
~1• a"

1' 1e•
!&So ~' 13'
SEP.
)I'
P("!tOO /lfll"ltl'rU MA<7
2;.)'
-11

s.s
'2 {Eure/¥/
3{"4Av~ 3'200 1'4" s.~
3-1
-
6.1
s.1
4-(C•llittoJ 3100 16• 18" • 10.3 6.2
SAruRN
3(1;.IAvrJ 800 1• 2 1• .1 ' 10.6
4 (P/"'7<!) 100 'l' re'> 1.0 10. .,
s (Rne•/ 1150 ""12• 1.3 10.0
6 (Ti~..,., 3000 164 3.1 9.3
-
8 { /ll./l#Cvf/
• -,N.;/W 1000 80' 9.0 10.e

q E R T ED
s EP. - .$•PA#llTION ~llt>NI /11,AN~ - "1JNll1'H "'/tM

field or the moons cannot exceed 16.2 minutes
(Ganymede plus Callisto), making it possible to go
to 180-200x with a 50-degree eyepiece and slill cap-
ture all four moons in one view. The planet Itself is
banded wtth tan, yellow and b rown belt& readily
visible at I OOx. while spots and smaller detail show
at higher power. The~e markin&s are atmospberic
and changeable; new cloud bands often form over-
night -;ind few spots last over s month. Jupiter re-
mains bright right through conjunction and If visible
at all is always a good telescope object.
SATURN. The ringed planet tops them all as a "show"
ob,ect. You can't see the ring naked-eye nor can you
see It 11\ith binoculars, making ii all the more de-
lightful to have it flash into view at 30x or more.
This planet has a clean-cut appearance nnd can
42
stand a lot of magnification ifyou want to blow It up
real big. Cassini 1 s division can be detected with a
3-inch when the seeing is good and Lhe rings well-
displayed in open position.
Saturn has nine satellites, of which five are
brighter than 11th magnitude and can be seen "-1th a
6-inch reflector. The brightest, Titan, of 8th mag-
nitude, can be seen with any small toleS!!ope when
well-separated from the planet. Saturn takes 2 9-1/2
years to wheel once around the sun and during this
tlme maintain& a constant angle, For this reason,
the rings show a top view, edge view, bottom view
nnd edge view in succession, Fig. 10. When edge-on,
the ring ia practically Invisible for a peJiod of about
a year. Also, since Saturn gets more than half of Its
light from the ring system, the magnitude fades as
the ring closos.
 OBSERVING THE SUN
F'OCUSI~
?'
TU&E
THE SAFE and sane waytoobservethesun is by
projection. Equipment for this is simple, being
merely a cardboard shade slipped over the focus-
ing tube and a piece of white cardboard held be-
hind the eyepiece. Hold the cardboard screen 4 to
'
6 inches behind the eyepiece and then extend the
eyepiece just a little from normal infinity posi-
tion to focus the sun's image on the screen. Sight-
ing is done by watching the shadow of the tele-
scope tube on the ground or on the s unshade.
A simple setup is a round cereal box slipped
over the focusing tube, Fig. l. This allows a 3 to
4-in. sun image, which is abou t normal for a
small telescope. Other equipment ideas are
shown in Fige. 2 and 3. With any setup using onl y
a simple sunshade, the enlargement should be
between I Ox and 20x. The situation here is that
you are in open daylight, and if'you enlarge too
much the daylight will wash out the projected
• image. With a closed box, or inside a darkened
r oom or with a cloth thrown over your head, you
can go up to 50x enlargement.
Assume for example 30 in. f.l. objective and
desired enlargement of 15x. Table 2 shows the
image will be 4- 1/16 in. diameter. Then, Table l
shows the " t hrow" needed for l 5x enlargement
using various eyepieces. \Vi t h 5/ 8 in. eyepiece,
the throw is 9-7 / 8 inches. This is a bit more than TMllEE SIMPLE SETUPS
provided by the oat box setup, Fig. l. However, F02 VIEWI Mc;. TME SVN
&Y P'WJEC.TIOH
you can get !Ox easily (6-7/8in. throw), and the

-11..
~
· .51JN PR.OJEC.TION DATA { IV&Pl&C~
!$~-----
• "' . ;
. ; !_\
CAuT10,.: UJnltS_4.Jlldl CAN DdMAfitl
C£MflUED £"(CP!Er£ LLtitFr - V,S& ll/tflttlS'Nf(
. )f~ -- -
OR NVYlf~ CDt;/A<tY tv!lrf/ (t/.Jl/lL!L ' - - - - -. . PQllll"ARV
IMAG>C
~ - -
-1
•
Ml~T, U (ZJPB/f.CTIY€ 11 OYCll~LTL! (.C0••06J. F.q TNROW· "1

TA&LE I - EVE.Pitel TO SCREEN OtSlAlllCE (lllROW) TABLE 2. • O IAMETl.ll OF .SUN IMAGE

~OJECflOll
MAG>.
l'l'IPIEc.& FOCAL Ll.Nc<Ttt
'/4•• I/,_" S/9" J/4• "'le~ , ~

·~ ..
OSJtCTIVE
F.L.
...
IMAC;£ Sit
PROJECT!!> IMAGE
10• 15JC 2.0it 30• 40~ SO it
Sv 17.& .. 3 " 3~~· 4/S" sY., .. 6. 7'>." 20·· .180"' ~.H 1'%. 2 "/,; 3fi" 5'}'~ 7-JM• 9•
2!; sli ~ 13~ 30 ~ 2~ 4 .1.1, s~ sit 13~
10•
'"'
6 '){, sff, /( .27/ 10Ji

IS• 4 8 S>~ 12 131' 16 I z.o 440• .361 1% 3fr. s~ 71'4 10~ I ,....IS 1st,,
20• sr.. IOfi /3 tsl:t t8k. 21 26k, 4S' .40$ 2. 4~ 6116 8ir, 12~ 16}4 :x>r..
30• 71:, !Si', 19Y,, 23~ 27 3/ 38~ 4e" .4.il .21-s 4'.ff.. 6~ 8!8 /J 171'.,. :21.ft
40• 101'+ 20!S. 2S~ 30~ 3S~ 41 s1f4 sc· .f!rl ~ ...~ 6~ 9 /3!!. 18 22!$.
SO• 12 lt.. 2.Sli 31§/i ~ 44#1 Sf 63~ 60~ .541 :ill', slit. 8~ 10!4 16"4 211' 27
• WIL/,,. /!2 r: l!tWl8, £'8J.. IUA/tfLT.f.SI ~ S..fll! "70.. .631 3l'a 6~• 9Js. 12.~ I /9 I 2Sff, ~Jr..

43
 image at lOx (fromTab\e2)wlllbe2-3/4 Inches.
TABLE 3 TRANSMl"IO,.. OF VARIOUS While small, this size will show sunspots clearly,
SETUPS FOR OIREC.T VIEWING-
A little experimenting will show you that the
TYl'tOF LIGMT TlWIS- LJ61n'-~- xo 6E,.. whole procedure is quite simple. If you smoke, it
REDUCTIOlf MISSIOI' I/Cf £Yl- HO. - H&
M UCH
is instructive to blow smoke at the eyepiece to
ONE l!EFL(GTIOl'I
F~ GLAS.S Oil 5"1. S1o I.~ 20 TOO
8AIGHT
reveal the cone of light concentrating at the exit
ONE 5°-'> FILTf.R
pupil and then fanning out to form the image. Put
"rUXI RER.ECTIOHS TOO
OR S"lo fl LTERS sr.•s.4 .2sro 2.6 400 BelGM your finger at the exit pupil point and you will pull
it away- -fast; the heat here will char newspaper
f'ENTA ?A.ISM ~4"5% ,16,.. 2.6 600 TOO
(NOT SILVERED) •4:1'."96'l &lllGHT in an instant.
ANY COM&. OF 01(
Huygens and Ramsden eyepieces are the types
TMRU lllUUCTIOriS
S°k• s'l. .01'2.5% 3,-, 6000 ~R 1.. commonly u sed for sun projection, with a alieht
o il S'l'o FILTf.ltS .. s%
preferance for the Huygens. A Ramsden will per-
.tol'IE SUN FIL"IE~ ()1(
.01~. .01% 4.0 10,000 form somewhat better ll the spac>.ng is opened up
(J'O. 4 ovanr ~ a little. Cemented lenses can be used i!desired,
ANY COM&. Of
f«llt ltffl.ECTICINS
s'l'o•sr. .0006'7. S.l 161,ooo
crl<
but there is always the chance that heat will
'tO "3"
•5".•S%
OA 5°/o FILTERS
OIE. ~ f LEGTIO l'I
OFl 5°/o l'ILTER °"'
s,. .i•t.
OR. .ooosr. S.3 200,000
O'k
damage the cement. Eyepieces must be clean
since any dirt on the field lens will show more or
ONE 51J"1 FILTER• 1"4" sr. ~~ less in focus on the projected image. So before
~~ PARAl.L&L 35% 3S~. :46 3 IY.£.'11.'8 you get excited about a " new discovery" on the
~ ~ .JJS§R sun, try rotating the eyepiece- -a real-for-sure
'f ... AT45°
(! C li!OSSEO
20°4
3•;. 3,.
20°4 :'I
1.SZ
5
33 "'"""' sun spot will stand still.
QENSITY IS ST8f!IR!tll>O 'Qlf. .p:;AU US£Q_f'Q8. mTE&s.
I DIRECT VIEWING. The direct view through the
DENSITY • l..06 TltANSMISS ION telescope is a trifle sharper than by projection.
>(0 ttJ.EAt:J.S. nM£$ Dl.hJ.ict.tsH'-Q However, t her e is an element of danger involved-
* No.4 Qel".S.l'lY /$ /Mlll/¥..S.tdl'IDIJPDASA ':smfiLT£Jl," • just one momentary flash of the intensified sun-
di.TJIO a::. IS. $OM£Tl/'1ES, '[])(J_mJ/,~tf.'C. ,r:op COt<t1BJ!II light can scar the retina of your eye causing par-
tial or total permanent blindness. So far as " sun
filters" are concerned, there are good ones and
TABLE4 OE.HSnY '40. 10 TAAHSl'\l.SSION % poor ones, but practically all are safe ln that they
limit the sunlight to an intensity whi ch the eye can
•UTRAL W£LOIH6• TRAHS•
OUISlTY FILTERS )CP 6-E"... endure. The danger is only that the heat of the
FIL.TUU MISSIO"'
Ptll (TIME.S aAT"ING concentrated sunlight may crac k the filter. Then
DEllSITY T S..-o€ OIMJlllSlllJ>,
NO. HO. : ..0. ~I faster than a bullet, the white-hot needle of llght
2.s 0
,'Jl. /o )00 ALL 100
will pie rce your eye and strike the retina. The
S~IGllT least damage you can hope for is a small, per-
2.9(, 8 .11°/o 900 {!.£N1rrY manent black area in the center of your vision.
3 ,10°/o 1000 ~~am Perversely, the average sun cap for use over
) ,40 9 ,04.,. 2so<> E'lf. "ls an eyepiece is located very neatly at the hottest
3.5 0
.0'!. /o 3}00
Pt.s J.o
o_,ri,~ - part of the light beam. Fig.4. The coolest location
is in front of the objective, Fig. 5, where t he
) .81. 10 .01s•1o 6,600
OK filte r i s exposed to only normal sun heat and Is
4 .OIO°lo 10,000 no more likely to crack than your eyeglasses. A
UP TO
'2" similar setup is popular with reflechng tele-
4.2'.2. II .006°/o 11,000
AP£1llUll£ scopes, Fig. 6. The filter should be. a free, shake
4.5 .00) 0/o 33,000 fit to eliminate possible warping pressure which
4.10 l'2 .002°/. so,ooo might break the glass. A minor disadvantage of
s .001°1. 100,000 OK the filter- in -front is that defects in the glass or
any departure from a plane surface will cause
5.10 13 .0008°/0 \J.5,000 2·'11) :!> •• greater deterioration of the image than the same
OK
S".5'
s.57. 14
.000)0/o 330,000
.0003°/o 333,000 A.,3-11
w;e....t filter used nearer the focal plane. However, you
will invariably want t o look at the full diameter of
DIM the sun, which automatically limits the magnifi-
6 .0001°1. 1,000,000 TOO
FOA. 3'' cation to about 50 or 60x. At this comparatively
r II.I l 1.1.SQl:!· l.llli 1,.0 28 liQlll!'-. IJl£.£RJ/l'!/.8f.£h.'C low power, ordinary welding filte re are practical
OE/</SJTY al!ll. T8Af!3.MllJ.12ft. dBi d l!'Rdj(of "8Lll.£$. for front mounting. The se are available in 50mm

44

•
N<JRMA L
SIJfl tfEAT
HEIM @ P~TH Of L161fT TllR0\16"4 T£L£SGOP£
I'
"""-->lfjPt.'llUOOO
® flCl''ll AllEAO OF 08JEGTIVE
SiCTIOC
!'$"Pl.VWOOO
,;
l!!fta-.UC
@ REFLECTOR WITH FRONT FILTER
rounds and 2 x 4-in. rectaneles In fifteen different
shades, 1'os. 10 through 14 being the darker
shades most useful for sun viewing although
tighter shades can be combined for the needed
density. 1'os. 12, 13 and 14 welding filters are
dark enough to use alone; Ughter shades may re-
quire additional filtering at the eyepiece, often
obtained with an inexpensive polarizing filter,
Fig. 7, which allows a fair range or density con-
trol. A star diagonal provides a convenient mount
for a sun or other filter, F1g. 8, and you can in-
crease the safety factor by using three or more
filters, the general idea being that all three sure
ain't going to pop In unison. As a further pre-
caution when using a filter at or near the eye-
piece, the simple action of taking the telescope
off the target for a short cooling-off period does
much to prevent a dangerous build-up o r heat in
the glass. Always swing the telescope a little
away from the sun when it is not in actual use .
Seen with the usual sun filter, the sun i s a
greenish yellow. The intensity should be about
the same as the full moon viewed without a filter.
~·o,,.,.
SV"
FILT!A:~
8
With a 3-in. refractor, this takes a light reduct-
ion of about 200, 000 times. Tables 3 and 4 pro-
vide useful data. Filter tolerances are very gen-
erous. No. 11 welding glass, for example, may
run from 13,000 to 33,000XD, with the average
transmission at about 17. 000 XD. as listed in
Table 4. From this and other va1-iables, the
"safe" range for viewing the sun has a consid-
erable spread. A comparatively weak filter may
be safe but uncomfortable to use; a "long" eye
position will reduce the light intensity.
REFLECTION FROM GLASS. The classic meth-
od or obse r ving the sun calls for one reflection
from bare glass, plus a filter of about No. 4
density. Unlike the filter lllone, this system is
practically foolproof; the initial reflection from
bare gla ss reduces the heat 20 times; the re-
duced heat will rarely crack the filter. Even i!
t he filter cracks, you have enough prot ection
from the bare glass reflection alone to avoid any
permanent eye damage .
Oldest and probably the best of the bare glass
45
 WM:
S'"
7,,
AASMNQ
I/ I

Rt'MT Alf(,ll PltS1'\ MERSClfEL Wl06£ PENTA PRISM

®REF L ECTION FROM 'BAl?E. GLASS ELIMINATES HEAT ltl SAFE MANNER

reflectors is the Herschel wedee. shown at

center, Fig. 9. The usual equipment for combin-
ing this with a sun filter for use with a refractor
TO FIT
is shown in Fig. 12. Like the more familiar star . ovut
diagonal, the sun diagona.l requires about 3 in. of , '"F·
"in" focusing travel. This is avall3ble with most cll«M
~SU'T§O'AO
_L_
refractors, but not with reflectors. The usual m rl"ret!I
~ .. CAP
setup for a reflector calls for the substitution of
the wedge for the usual flat mirror, Fig. 11. The
sun filter can be either in the eyepiece tube or at
the front of the main tube in the manner shown in
Fig. 6. Even if a front filter is not used, the re-
flector is preferably masked to 2 or 3 inches
aperture in a like manner but without the filter.
There will be no loss of resolution from the
lesser aperture because the atmosphere in sun-
light is always turbulent; practically all the re-
solution you can get in a sun image can be obtain -
ed with 2 or 3 tnches of aperture.
In common equipment, one reflection from
glass plus a suitable filter is the only method
of direct viewing which ls entirely safe. You
should never but neve r depend on a single sun @
filter located beb.lnd the eyepiece. USE OF M£RSCME.L
\.U(.06E IH REfl.~lOlt

'H'llSCHEL
WE OGE
EOMV"'I
_ _ _ _Wo.30,.t.66

1~1. 0.TU&IHC:. HO.~ DEMSITY

/!i(IS' FIT- SUN FILTEI!

BfMOVAI!(.£'
,~· o. o.

T~&1>'c;..:~~~~~r'9::::;

$10E
SteCTIOH
i.\.o-----3~."-----~

46

•
 Splitting the DOUBLES
OBSERVING double stars Is an interesting phase of star -gnzingwhich
can be done with any telescope. The beginner should start with easy
doubles, say, 10 seconds of arc or more separation with companion
star no fainter than 8th magnitude. It should be noted that close
doubles near t he limit of resolution ror a specific telescope can be
s pl it only when seeing conditions are excellent.
,,-JJJl9YT I ' Fl£Lil How much power? A fundamental rule in telescope optics states
I" SU/).H!!:/. .. , ts Of/LY
SMALL PART OF that the true angular field of view multiplied by the magnification
FULL Ft&LD equals 'the app:irent angu lar fie ld of view . This rule can also be ap-
plied to any part of lhe field. For " xample : The popular double star,

v(AI,,.) D~GO of''\

,___.I" -
ZJa.

BIJ!!a
MizBr, is separated by 14 seconds of arc . This is the real or true
field angle, the same angular sep.'lration as you see the stars with
unaided eye . The human eye can't "split " 14 seconds or arc, so you
have to boost It u bit. A n>agnificatlon of 43x wlll increase the angle
l>OPUl.AIO LOW• i'~ '£tMJn to about 10 minutes of arc (see drawing) . This you can see q uite
POWlR DoU&LE. ' MM.u<- easily. About the closest star separation which the eye can distin-
£.-N WITM 1 < 0 11 MOii£
guish is 4 minutes of arc . Twice this distance or 8 1 apparent field
. / ASOiJT $ 1
FtEl.p angle Is a more practical value for comfortable viewing, and in some
" ...tf:'fJ1i/'d'
Elf/ "" • .. cases you may want a separat ion of 20 o r 25 m inutes of arc . The
EJllG• Ar J<n.• powcre needed for these various apparent angles are given in handy
tabular form below .
Make l\fiza r your first telescope double. It is easy to Clnd, with
Alcor alongside supplying positive identification. An 8th magnitude
star can be seen south from Alcor. Star distances a r e always
amazing: The tiny space you see between A and B l\li7.a r amounts to
i (E!>Sllon} LYRA nve thousandths of a light yea r or about 30 billion miles .
TMi FAMOUS DOUBl.E
DOU&.£. NEEOS
MIG!' POWER

ArlGUl.AR FOlf MPM£1'T SrM!fAr/OH OF

SU'ARA1'Kltt
4' 6' &' 20' 2.S' II 4 ' 6' &' w·
2.5'
8.S 28 '12. 56 I'll 176 10 IS' U> so 61
1.1 .,,.. 200 300 9 w S'I l.D 166 10 20 '18 60
27
'"
· ·~ 160 -;J.t/O
9 .S 26 39 S2 126 /56 8 17- 16 l/O 50
l ,i
1----+-
/'JO 2/0
10 """'
'2.'I
11 ,.,..,. 22
36 1(8 12'> 7
6
/0
9 '"
12.
3</ C/3
37
1 " 120
1----'-""""--1--
ISO 2'10
-+---+--
I'll/ 192 .__.__
33
"" /09 .JO
2. S.,._
3 ~A.,.,
96
80 { 20
l/80
/6(> <\'t>O
12.
Ila-.. 18
20 30
.28
1/0
36
/00
91 /IS s
6 8
8
12
/0
27
2<1 "
10
) .S 68 102 136 3ll3 14,M',...,. 17 26 3<1 86 /07 ss,,..., s 7 IO 22 2.7

4 }LLD 60 90 120 .J()O 15 16 ].</ .32 80 60...... ., 6 8 2D 2S

65,.,.._
"., 8 2.)
16 15 2.2 30 75 6 19
l"J 70 -ro 6 8 n 21

•e-
l'I
13
21
:i.o
28
i6 f;/ 83 ., s 8 16 20
I~ 12 19 21/ ~ 78 3 5 6 IS 18
s
,..,
ZD... e ..... 12 18 ].I( 6() 75 3 6 1</ 18
90,....,.. .) 6 n
'2.1
Z2,_
I~ 17
16
S7
SS
71
~5> «>• 3 " 6
II(

/6
23
If
/0 16
22.
21) .n
68
6S 100& .3
"l/ 6
13
fZ. IS

*8 A2t!
~llll /11111, Ill ll\l'\,\'\1111111111 I I' ' II \ 1I I I I I MINIJUS'_ APPARtNT $'LPA8Art<Mo' IS RE(;DMMff'tDED
USY V14Wtl_:JV. NOT£ It{ blAWlrJ A'('E;r T/.llS AN&LE /$
Cll:Al<L'( VIS/OLE' AllJJll L!/Mlt/Qf/S PO!NT'S {STA~) AIU!
4' 6' 8' zo· 2.5' MO&t Ot£ftCULZ t:N(t:£rs. llttl>fJLS:£P~r10N I S/tlVll(t
IF TJIE C~PANJ0/11 STifR IS hl(NlE rKAIV ,,.,.~ MA~lll/Nf
EQ.Ul'l/ALENT
SIOPARA'TIONS EAttftlS U{M /Y?I~ Ll_OT6 2S I SEPAR..TJON /[
filt!SLY W!Pl,>I or. ""°°"' S{ rH WITH NAKED 4Ye

47
 selected SKY OBJECTS
D OUBLE STARS R. A. MAGl'L S'PAl!A- POWE.fit'
DEC. REMARKS
/(6.,.-.) ARIES .
,,.,,.,_i.tm
,. 51• •'9• Ol' 4.7. 4.4
TIO,., Me£0£D
8.4" :>0-140 Wl-lt'rE ANO V£Lo..WM,.. E"$Y
I.401 -TAURUS 3• 28" +2:7°2.4' 6.S 6.e 11 '' 25-110 00TH WMITE. J'f.W. of r>t.£tAOlS
UJ. :Stl'VIN"'40/

- {f'(7'1<1&·q,.,) ORION
T1t.r TraJ>eU""'
a!,a.:a. - CAPRICORNU~
5h 3)"" -s• 2s· A6.&C S.4 A·&
&e

20.._tS"" -1z-40• 3.8 <l.S

8 :J ..
Pr.c (~ ..
06.a A-C> 1J4•
30-140

6' 16" 7•ond.ul>

tN (!.s:tl"MT Ai:t£A Of M42..
SEE 01"6~AM
PR:f.T"TY' '<EU.OW PAIR. &OT.,.
1--'AV6 l=AtHT COMPANIONS

'J'(G,.,.,.,._) DtLPlllNUS 20"44" +1s-sr '1.5 s.s 10" 25-120 YELLOW ANO wHr. £.ASY AT40

8JNAR.Y. S•PAtlA'rlON ,,_. ..

61 -CYG-NUS ii• 05'" +'!Hze/ 5.6 6.) 2.7.4" 10 - 50 CR:tASlrtG- ~ROM 16" IN li60
<19SlJ

Tllf TAAl'E~IUM IS SUN PLAlllLY ,J.< (/Yl.,J CYGNUS 21• 4-z.• ·u:f~1· 4.1 6.o t.S"' 16o-eo< 'l"EST FOR 4- INCH

IN 6" AT 50 (. R/A61lA1'1 SllQWf. -oo ,,.

~ {z.""'-J AQUA RI US 22.lo,.26M 4A 4.6 2.0• I~ BOTH WMITt. TESl ~OR 3"
llMl/T ~ 11/EMbl YOU $EE Irr 50K .
,o ll.'. OPEN CLUSTERS R .A. oe.c. MAGN.• D IA_ Rio:MARKS
FIELP
N6C '7S2-ANOllOMEDA ,. 55• +~T'25' 8.S" 1• NIC.&6~POFA60UT 'TO STARS

M '!A - PERSEUS ,,. 3<:j• 141°)4' 9.5 30'

M4S -TAU RUS 3i. 44" ...24• 00' 4.5 1°30' Pl'!;E,...,..... O~JECT .•• use I.OW POWE:R
1heP/e~

M ~8·AURIGA 5• u.· ·~S-4&' 10 20'

M SO· N\ONOCEROS 1• 01"' -a· 16' 10 10'

•
M46- PUPPIS 7'-40"' -14°42' 11 24'

E.Rc.c. r M 2.5- SAGITIA!i:IUS 18'2)'" - 19• 11' 8 45' LARGE Al<D .<.MALL ~TA~
SOUTH
M II - SCUTUM 18'~ -6· 20· II 15'

G-LOBULAR CLUSTER!> R. A. oe.c. MAGN.tr DIA. Re MARKS

Ft NEST 6L01?MJL.Aji. '" St<Y' P.>OT" 'rOO
w{Omer-J CEN"rAURUS 13" 24'" -47•0)' 4.3 r:i..'J 1~·
""R SOU'rH 1'01> /Mt<V U.S.~'iERs
M4·SCORPIUS 16.. 2.1'" -'16•24• 6A- 14 14' A LltTLE 01/ER 1° WEST Of' An"rARES

M I~ - HERCULES 1&'40"' +36• 3i.l· 5.6 13.6 10' R£SOLVAG'-E <UfTM 6-tMCH

M 12.- 0PHIUCHUS l6'4S" - 1° 52' &.6 14 9' &LA"?.E AT CEl'1TI>~ A&our"2.' DI~ ·

M IO·OPMIUCMUS 1&• 55• -4.G ()l.' 6:J 14 8' i?.£SOL'IE.O w .,."" 6-1 ..Gft .. Slit.\CiMT

M 92 • l-IE.RC.ULE.S 11" I&"' +~·l'l.' 6. 1 14 ~ LvM1,.,ous c.E.NYeR .. .. ~ RESOLVAst.E"

M9 ·OPHIUCHUS ,, .. 16"' -IS"<a' 7.3 ll.S 2.s 1

$MAL'- BUT' BRl6tlT BALl..01' StARS:

M'2.7. - SAG-ITIARI us 18'34" ..23Cl'S'l' s., 12~ n· 0>1G A/'110 BklGftT FORA GLD&ULAR ..
E..A~Y TO SE.E WITH , .. BINOC.Ul..AR.
, /$/JAL MAf:r.O/: UlllOLE CiVST~,e P#O /IV~ MAO. OF' //"fbl-.'/DVAL ~rAllb:'

R. I'.. DEC. MAr.N.• S rz.E REMARKS

SPIR.At.. GA.L.A'il''f. OHt.."'i A.eooT "20' NI'
o" 41"' ~41°0}' 5 40'•160' Clil<TER IS SEEr<. EASY WITH B1t10C
DIFFUSE Neeu1..A. c;ooo O&JECOT,
M4Z-ORION s• :l3"' -s· 2.S' ~ 40' I NCUJl>&S 8' (ri<E. T/MPEZlllM}
SP11tAl-GAl.A1N'. LOW-POWElil: ~ I ELO
M 81 • Ui;t<.;A MA..lOR. 9" 52.m +6'J• 1e· e 1d ..6' SHOWS N.SO M87. AB<XJT l°j4° No~;H

MS · SA<.ITTARIUS 18" 01"' -24•2r 6 '!$-i&:l DIFFUSE NEB IUITII Cl..LISTE~ •.• G
7'
Pt.>,NE.iAlit'f.~ SMAt.l. SOT BRlCMT"
/'l(;C 6512· OPHIUCMUS 18hlO'" ...6• so'
11
"1.S 10 -No, to"
01i:fUSE rtE.Q AROUND A SMALL
Mn-SA61TTAAI $ 18'18m -16°12.' 9 30' CLUST&.R OF ~'"' TO C'2.'"" MA6. STARS
~ NB
Pl..ArlETARY MIOB "'NOT SRl6H"r• .,
M 51-LYR~;
ULA
re• s2M -t-3'2"58' 9 65" 1.IK" MA'Z'.Y 9"MAG STAR. UI€ Ml-POW
l'IGc. 166'1-A/IDICOM EDA u•24"' 2" 14' 9 30" PLANETAltY •• , t).tl. M"6 CENTER STAil
l'!IAPRc>lf. VJS<Mt.. NIA~rruDJI!.

48
E. w, -.,SUN

fl46 MQOH ts ttl

11
•

wa.. "«-Tll sud A«p

MZT UUi 6f 1Uff/CUX

Target
MOON
PRIME target for telescope obser-
vers everywhere, the moon at a
compa ratively near 240, 000 miles
shows a m azing detail in even the
smallest telescope . Over 100, 000 0
obj ect s are shown on maps and
photos, a nd the beauty of the whole
thing is that with a good 3-inch tel- 0 ~
escope you c an see eve r ything as 0 0
clear as the very finest photos.
0 0
Any and all powers can be used,
Since th@ moon is about 30 minutes
o f arc i n angular diameter, the ma x-
imum power whic h wllt show the
whole surface is a bout 90x. The
s mallest crater you can hope to see
is two tim es Dawes Limit. Thus, a
3-inch telescope can show craters
as small as 3 miles diam e t e ' "
Twice this (6 miles) is a more prac-
tica l working value. Much s maller
detail can be detected when in the
for m of a line ; you will have no
trouble seeing The St raight Wall.

Sll.E REMARKS
(/11/LErJ
CRATCjl ON A ROCICV Pl.ATEAU IS e,.11t1GHTE$,T
2 Al21S1AACMUS {a;,.;,.TAll·k-sl t~TER 29 OM. 0&.JE.C.T ON TMk. MOON
ONE. o;. TWE. &e.sr.. i:OR:ME.C> C.RA,.E~~ JN
I MlfTIUUS ('-''·I• ·711.l·~•} C:llATER ~ 0111. p. ,..,,.AGNIF=ICE.Nr MOUtlTAI N SE.TTrNG
R I N6E.O FINt tXAMPLE OF A R I N6E.C> PLAIN C RATER.
2 COPEltHICU~(.to·A>ee-qk.f·us 56 Diii. MAI<~ &RIC.HT RAYS IN /MMED/Alt VICINITY
?lAIN
) GltlMALDI {gri·MALL- <tt} WALLtO !>ARKES.T SPOT ON 1'ME. MOON
PLAIN 20 Diii.
BAY OF ~AIN80wS
C.RATER SMAl..1.. CRATEFl SPt..IT &YA GA.EAT Ct.EFT (CllAcK),
I tlY(,11'1 US (/U4 ·.JINE-u.<) PIT 4 D / A. C.L.·tFT C.Af'I l\E: S~EN 11'1 SMALL ,.Et.E.SCOP~

4 PETAV I US(pel< ·.,.,,...·ii< ·as) Wl\L LlO

PLAIN \00 OIA.
£.A~Y O&JECT Wl-ll1'1 MOON IS N&.W CR:lSCf.NT.
MOVl<TAI N AT CEN,.Ell wrn\ CLE.FT £1'nN01r<6S.
SOLITAR.'( &R.tGMT HIGH PE.AK IJ.IHl~H CAST$ A LJ:>HG-
2 PITON (P1E-twtJ t'l\OUNTAI N 1~.. 111611 Sf-IA DOW Wi.&E.r-' ON TER.MI NATOR. WAllE:O AAtPC • SO-,.o1SO"U. ()JA.
11
TME. G~EA"T &t..Aci::: LAKE." ONE OF 'T~E.
2 PLA'TO ( PiAY- to~J WALLED
PL..AIN 60 DIA. DARKEST SPO,.S 01'1 MOON
1..UALL(O
3 PTOLEM'V (TOl-,,J..•ntt) PLAl l< ~()/A. l!.l~T~ ALP DNSUSl!,,O"""E~ Ar<D Art:z.ACOlEL
OMIL6t A Ptl Ml~E. ,.. LAMDMARK

:z SIHUS 11211)UM { f.1Js%s) PLAIN 13S(wn

PRf.TTV L\JNA"' LA.HOSCAP€. 1-lER.W:LIDES
(J,o;r ·(JJ.•Kl/E ·tl.ut / FORMS .. MDDN MAJ O!iN"
MOUKTAIN
2. S't2AIGl4T RA"6E PEAK 40""""" STll:A 16MT Lii<6 01' MOOlfT'AIN PEAl<S
SUQ~ACE. J:.AUt..i WITf-t £ 'ST $10E 80C> FT-
3 S"TltAIGMT WAU. C.LI FF "10 LCl'G ~Wll" ,.MAN -.;E~T. etST S((N AT I.AST Q.UAaTtR

l"IN6EP \IJl.)Er-1 MOO,.. l~ f=OLL, S21G'°'T RA'f'S MAK~

TYC.MO (Tte-coJ PLAIN 56 DJ/I.
T'(Cl-IO MOST PiieOMINEl"IT LUf"i!AR oeJECT

49
 •
QUICK GUIDE to sky shooting
Wk.at f6 5koot EQUIPMENT OPTICAL SYSTEM M E TMO O - REMARKS
ANY CAMERA F~OM A N'< LENS, -i." TO SET CAMERA LENS AT
35.."' Sr?.E UP TO AP.iour 12" F. L. INFINITY AND POINT AT
STAR 8 IC 10 INtll. CLEAR APERTURE TARGE.T. MAKE. A TIME.
TRAILS CAMERA MUSr SE. SHOULD BE. AT EXPOSURE OF 10 MIN.OR
ON TRIPOD OR LEA ST S/e'' AND MO RE: . .Sis::r 1111.us.r:. BE. DAJ?C-
OTHER SUPPORT PRE.FeRASLY LAll6ER Of2. l/.Ql,S/;{OOT /111[.ll MOO# IN SK'(

R EFLECTING. OR 4S"10 80• E .F, L. UllTH Fl){EC> MOUNT, use.

1
RE.fltACTING 11:.lE.~ - APERTURE. I 1 OR FAST Fii-Ni TO PERMIT
COPE. WITH AOAf'TE.R MORE, f/e Toffao S.1-lORr E)(roSIJ~E oi: Yroo !.f.C..
MOOH FOR CMlf.RA BoDV. OR.. LESS. WITH CLJXK DRll/E
C.LOCK ORll/E. USEFUL
f/{X)"' IMAGe DI A . USE SLOWER, FINE·GRAll'I
BUT NOT ESSENTIAL :: .009 1' E.f.L. ~I LM a.NO LOltGER Ell'POSURES

TELE$COPE A140 SAME. AS FOR WITH llMGE. AT FULL MOO/oJ

CAMERA. 6Y FILTliR MOON. USUALLY ~IGHTMESS, FAST EXPO-
oR OTHER ME.ANS:, MOT LE.SS THAN SURES OF \lloo TO Ysoo
SUN "THE LIGl4T MUST 1-" APERTURE., f/8 .SECOND C.AN SE MADE
B6 REDUCED TO TO f/00. USUALLY A ON SLOW FILM / SUCH AS
l'ULL MOON INTEHSln' PROJECTION S'a'STEM HIGH CON"tfi:AST C.OPY

A NY CAME.RA· THE P RE.Ff.RABI-'< NOT USE FAST Fll-M. GUIDING

"T£LE.SC.OPE IS USED LE.SS THAN 1"UEAR C.ONSTANTl-'f' llJ ITl-1 TEL.€$-
.STAR FOR C.UIOING ONl-Y. APERTURE.. 3"To 12." C.OPE. 1 MAt::'.E. "Tf/l'lf. ElC~SURE.
FIELDS A CLOCK DRll/E. Wl'Tfl f.L., DIRE.C.T O~.ltl:· OF 10 MINUTES OR /'llORE.
SLOUl-MOTIOl'I CON· T l "E. FlE.LD SllOUl-D~ Gooo STARTER ••• ERS/E.ST
T~L IS E.SSENTIAL fl.AT l CDMA-F RE.£. TN!YET ~,g 6<1tPfl2. "ZQ.~

CAM£RA, LO'' OR f\IOT U:SS ll'IAl'I 2 " Gu1oeo TE.Lt.SCOPE, 1s M1'4.

OPE.H MORI:. F. L. TE.Lk.S· 11.PEllTIJRE -- I1LE.. OR MORE TIME EXPOSURE.
COPt: u~o ~R Gu101rl6 LAR§.ER z11e s.e.fB:IllRS. THE. LONG f. L. ~ CAMERA Mo1tES
.STAR SUT IMY &. THE. CAA- l1le. b1.0ll.~ :.TARS VtW GUIDING ~E. DIFFICULT - A
CWSTERS ERA' Ill w1-1u;11 C.ASE A CAH Pl/01'D&RAPH. F.L SU>W ·MOTION MAY BE NE£DE.D
lDNG F.L.GUIOE~ll TO SUIT TARGET SIZE ON OECLif'IATION SllAFT

CAMERA IS Ol=T£N Nor LE.SS Tl-lAN 3' Use FAST FILM. SOM£ NtSS
HE&OLAE "Ti.IE. TELE.SCOPE IT-
SEl-F. 01G APl:.lm!RE.,
APtRTUi:l.E.. 20"To
\OD"f.L. USUALLY
ARE. BRIGHT AND C.AH BE..
CAPTURED ON TRl-X FILM IN

GA~IES LONG F.L. NEE.DEC-

UOCK DR.IVE WITH
Dlll.EC.T O&.IEC."TIVE r-OR
LOW f /tWM&ER 8UTPQO
AS LITrLE AS 10 MINUTES.
MOST TABGW ARE t>tM--!ifa
$UJLU-MOTION J«.norl SYSTEM IS USEFllL 8i'J[g_'f111/.E ,f/vQ_ /YfS7°/<{~ N/'F0£.l>

TELESCOPE WITll LON(, E.f.L. IS lJsE. Fll'IE.·GRAl iJ 1'11-M TO

AMPLl l'YINC, S'tSTEM MAIN NEE.D. f Jll. PER.MIT Ef\ILARGE.MENT.
TO GET f..f.L.OF 100" TO .f'f 100. PoS ITIVE PLANETS A~E. BRIGHT GUT
PLAHETS TO 1000'.' TELtSC.OPE Oil NEC.ATll/E PIWJt;t- .i 1GH f / NUMBERCAUS FOR.
ON G.Q.UATORIALNQll(T TION OF ;.,c TO 8..C UlNG £')(POSUR£. OF I TO 10 SU.
\UtTH CLOCK ()RIVE IS USUAL SE.TUP 1Yl.lf. LS. fltlE.lC.flf.T l'#OT<JG/lAPIJ.'(

LENS e"TO 1e• F. L. APER'l'Ul<?E. NOT Lf.SS TIME. EXPOSURE, 10 SEC. TO

COMETS MANUAL ~llJ·MOllON i llAN 2",f/3 TO f/8, IOMrtJ. You MUSTGU1Dt.Or/
ON BOTH AXES USED UJIDE. OPEN COME.T HEAD DURING €XPOSURE
ANY CAMERA. WIDE WITH ?>5MM CAME.RA, K/IOWINu TIM£ AND GE./'l~AL
Mf.TEOU I= IELD \S NEED€.D •• 2" F.L. IS PREFERRf.D ARE.A OF A ME.TWl2. SHOWER,
FOR WIDE.~ FIELD MA~ A S'TARTRAIL -A.#o //tJPE f
f'IOT LfSS TMAN 4-0°

50

Photography with
your Telescope
MOST of the pictures taken with a tele-
scope are of an astronomical nature, being pic-
ture s of the sun and moon, stars and planets.
However, you can also use your "long glass" to
advantage for certain types of daytime photo-
graphy, particularly those views which are too
distant to be captu red by tbe short focal length
objectives normally used on small cameras.
\Vhatever the subject, a camera using small -
size film is preferable, with the popular 35=
film size being first choice for most work. Photo-
graphy on 35mm film is inexpensive. There is
a l so the plain fact that the average tel escope set -
up will not cover larger film sizes. Reflex focus-
ing is highly desirable because you can see to
focus and see to position your t arget object the
way you want it. ln brief, the 35mm s in ale lens
reflex is the camera you can use to best advan -
tage. You can purchase a cameraofthlskind for
as little as $60 or as much as $600; secondhand
much less. Mucb of the cost or a single lens re-
section g)
flex i s in the original objective. It is not neces -
sary that the camera have a top -quality fast lens
because you will rarely use the lens anyhow for
the type of photography we a r e considering, the
general situation being that the telescope itself
is the objective, while the camera is mainly a
film transport and viewer. Some useful camera
equipment can be homemade, and with tltls in
view the or1g!nal purchase must permit the use
of interchangeable Objectives, preferably with a
screw-in thread.
Four optical systems are generally recognized
in photography with the telescope, as shown in
d rawing below. Actually the,;e boll down to JUSt
two basic types : (1) the d1rect objective, (2 ) pro-
jection system. With the d irec t objective, light
goes direct from t he lens or mirrorObJectlve to
the film; the picture is taken at the primary or
first focus . l n all other systems, the primary
image is projected to form a second image, and
the picture is taken at tltls second image plane.

4 Systems OeJECTlllE
I _J /
CAMERA
( VSllllU.Y 1"4w
Stt«n,£ '-f!S
17 - - REEL EX
OJ DIRECT OBJECTIVE
Ll<.~T 60ES OlllEC.T
• ------- --- --
,_. ---- I MA6E E08MS
ONFfLM
FR.OM O~JECTIVE. (LENS I
.oA MIRRDR,} TO 1' I LNI
PRIMARY E.'I EPI ECE
IMA<:>E.'\.
AFOCAL CONSISTS 01' A
-- 'll 1 -
,,,,~
"'
TELESCOPE IM FOCUS AS ----- - - - --=- ~
•
FOR EVE USE , COMBINED
WITll AAV CA MERA WITH
LENS SET t>.T INFIMITY
- t:&t2E.&4 l FN£
'l
JS SET AT lliFJtttrt'

~ PROJ£CTION wrr..i A Ill ..... -

POSITIVE LENS -- - - -- - - ----
r ~--
EYE91ECE OF TELESCOPE IS
USC.D AS A P~ECTIO~ LEllS
TO l'OQM AN ENLARGED IMAGE
- - -"-
Cl!MEJ2A LENS
JS /'IOT l1C£D
r
NE6ATIVE
PROJE.CTION WITH A - - Ac~~MAT

~
I
l'Q/~RY
IMAG
·*
~
r''l'lNAL
NE(;ATIVE LENS
- -- - - - - . IMAGE
(fN'IFJlhll
A N£.GA'TlVE LENS ll'TERCE.PTS
T~E LIGMT ~SAX!> EXT~NOS111EM
TO !=ORM AN 5.NLAltGE.C> IMAGE
-.a.;.~:~

--
51

•
 the simplest system...
~/~-- - -The DIRECT OBJECTIVE
CO:<TAL"IL'IG the least possible number or
optical elements, the direct objective 1s the •
simplest and most-used picture-taking system--
99'l'- of all cameras use a direct objective. l\or-
mally it is also the simplest system mechaniral-
ly, although this can't be said or a telescope con-
version where the switch may require more work
than arocal and projection systems. Advantages
CD 3- l l'I C.H REFAACTO~ AS A OIRECT OBJECTIVE of the direct objective arc lllghest light trans-
mission and best definition. ln other words, this
3" OBJECTIVE
is the fastest and sharpest optical system for
shooting pictures--only once in a blue moon will
you run into a compensating optical system where
the performance of the primary is improved by
the addition of other optical elements. The only

.•,
•

•,
••
••
•
•••
••
••
•

@STANDARD 3" REFRACTOR 9AA'i:S 'TUBE /

<i> PMO'fO- VISUAL 3 " REFRACTOR 1Y""'"'o.r>. ._
£Dta.f/No tjO. 111
~­

l'OCllSIN<; 'TUSE
2.0 0. (). ALUM.
10" LONG.

ENO YIEW

52

•
 ADAPTER
TUSG ..../.t.
..tMOEFllOM
114" S l/'HC
TRAP
£XTENSIOll r ADAPTER

~ITIOM Of '- FOCUSINC1(

TUBE
CTJJPJ<M>
ALUM•
... f'RMSFIT
OVFATllS(!)
Mi\IH MUiROR
@ Q)
AM~

~ ,~ '

® / ' . -t"-:-:
l.f(,NT!Nv fS (,()()D TO
£0(,£ OF 50% %0/VE

VIGMETTl!Wr CA\J5'0 6V SM.AU.

t>t.AMETE~ ~ RXUS1H6 1\JBC
TU'T PIC \UIT~ 4 Y+" REFLECTOR
FROM l!IDOORS POIITTIHG THRO
OPEii WlllDOIU 1'0 0 e.J ECT AT
IOO Vl>S . T~·I< t=l t.M, 1fwo S EC .

poor feature of the direct ObJective i s lack of
compactness, wluch becomes an item of con-
siderable importance as the focal length is in-
creased.
THE REFRACTOR AS A CAMERA. You can make
a good telecamera from a re!ractor by simply
mounting a 35mm single lens reflex camera by
means of an adapter tube, as shown in Figs. 1
and 3. You can get nice pictures--land or sky--
with such an outfit, but they will show a black
vignette about as shown in photo above. This
com es from the small diameter of the telescope
focusing tube, which restricts the fully-lighted
image field to less than an inch diameter. To
increase the illuminated field. it is obvious you
mus t enlarge the focusing tube, and thi s means
practically building a new inst rument. A simple
type of construction is shown in Fig. 4; a new
set of glare stops inside the main tube will also
be needed. Such a con•e•·sion will show only a
touch of black at the extreme corne1·s of 35mm
film. A visual adapter as shown 1n Fii. 4 detail
make s the conversion back to telescope for use
with standard eyepieces.
THE REFLECTOR AS A CAJ\tERA. The reflect-
ing tele s cope poses the same problem of small-
diameter focusing tube. Another snag is that the
image plane is not even accei.sible . What you
have to do first of all ls move th" main mirror
forward a s hort distance, as shown 1n Fig. 5.
Thi s will adva nce the image planP lo a positio n
where it can be mad e to coincide wilh Lhc film
plane of the cam era. l!:ven so, space ls at a
premium and the adapt er, Fig. 7, should be made
as shallow as practical. The extended position of
the image plane will not interfere with the use

53
 @ L16HT LEAKS 111 A REl=LECTOR

''I ~I
ID
/\ I
Ali. A/lOtl/(D
.TlaM9J«
bf11U/tl8 ~ n
u_. ------·-r- - v
l,-) FRONT
TAPE /. ElCT£NSIOtl
'4"Prv-L '-. ~·"'"-·
-
J
~,

EHP
CAP ~ ~--· ------ ;;,,,.,;;;U/JlS.lad
UJCoAUtiti""~
...sJ«Jll.LQ U6Y / l.Jtl.E. UH11I

_. 1JfU""
~
t"
@

l16HT-f0661NCT OCCURS WHEN

S'!ANDARO E>·IHC.tl REFLECTOR IS
U!>t.D OUTOOOl<!S WITMOVT PRO •
lt.CllON. Cloudr-briglrf, "° .sv".
Ysoo S«;. a.t f/8 on Trl·X .Cil1t1

tBACIC O" CAhf£&1

llE!ilO Vlir:> MD \
Sl/JJITE.8. QE£11£.Q

@ TESTIN(:, FOR 6LA~E

of the telescope visually, but you will have to
use a short extension tube, easlly m::ide from a
chrome sink trap extension, Fig. 6.
One more obstacle now appears: the standard-
size diagonal is too small. Mainly, this results
because the linear size or 35mm film is quite a
bit larger than what you ordinarily look at with an
eyepiece. Contributing is the fact the Image
plane is at a greater distance from the diagonal.
You can correct by using the next larger standard
size diagonal, but you still have the considerable
vignette caused by the small-diameter focusing
tube. Fig, 8 table shows that some vignetting
will occur regardless of how big you make the
diagonal; the focusing tube is the bottleneck.
However, enough light gets through lo make
useful pictures. A 4-1/4-inch reflecto r will
vignette a little more t han a 6-lnch, the villain
in this case being the main tube itself, which
is too small to admit the full incoming light
cone. A few things about vignetting in general
are worth noting: (1) Practically all camera
lenses vignette 25% or more at corners of
film when used wide open, (2) a 50'1o vignette is
hardly detectable on the ground glas .., and often
does not show at all on prints unless ne~atives
are very thin, (3) if you plan only moon shot"
and similar astro targets, the vignette will have
little or no effec• because the area outside the
moon is black anyhow .
GLARE PROTECTION. The refractor Is well·
protected againsl unwanted glare light, and you
can shoot pies outdoors in the sun JUSt hkc any
camera. The reflector is another story. Bven
though no direct glare light can reach the film,
you will pick up enough one and two-bounce re- •
flections to fog the picture, Fig. 11. The worst
offende r is the one-bounce reflection from the
front end of the main tube. A simple cure is a
sun shade, Fig. 12; a long, ove1·-size extension
fitted with glare stops is even more effective,
Fig. 13.
Check your setup for glare light outdoo1·s, or,
do t he job indoors with a lamp i n the manner
shown in Fig. 13. This little bit of look-a nd see

54

•
 should be a routine test for all telecame ra sys- ANY SUITABl.' 06JECTIVE
UP TO AeQVT 10" ~.l. - ---..
tems. You will be a ble to see immedia tcly any (JOfmm £t«lfRGti8 «H£ <t!t!JIWI)
areas which are unduly bright. By sighting from
the corners of the film opening, you can also
' check t he extent or illumination. The setup is
also a good chec k fo r co lllma tion--all of t he
' various apertures s hould appear concentric
with the film opening of camera.

AUXILIARY LJ::NSES. You can shoot a Jot -if

pictureo with a te lescope, but more than half ®
of all pictures taken with a telescope a re not CAMERA
taken wtth a telescope. The situation In astro-
MOUNTING-
photography 1s that while you need the equa - HOSE Ct.AMP
torial movement and clock drive of a te lescope ,
the aclual picture-taking is often done with an I
ordinar> camera mounted on the telescope tube. TUBE.CRADLE
For short focal length camera objectives up to /21J8Hw0d
about 10 in. f. l. , some kind of a camera bracket,

..... l"NO. 8 F. lld.. "

t - --?>Ye"'---..;
TURt{E.Q
WOOD CEll.
.lll&IO<i. (MAIN T UBE- 3"0.01A •

GlAICE STOP
11¥i6 D1A . /,/HE..Vl-ITH ~ • _/
FLO&I( PApU? ~

--- - ----- FOCUSiNG

- -'-1'-'~r+-+-~===---
--- - -
TU8!;;-l."O.O.~

..--------------------- - 12·--------------+
ALL TRI-)( PAN FILM, 14·1"'M F. L. Dl~ECT OBJECTIVE
NO FILTER, 9Rt6l{T SUH. {.SAM.liJ:.Q/V,STRllt:'l«W 8S El6.4)
DISTANC£ A60UT lDDVd.s.

105- ENLAAGIHG LENS 01R•CT l4•1MU4 ACHAOMAT AS ~N"'80VE. 3JC 9.i\RLDUJ AND1 14•i1e11~. COMBO
oeJECTlVE. Y500 sec., f/11. 1<~0-11Eto Ysoo SIOC. AT ffe. CAMEAA HELD BY IWID IS 42."r.L. 1f~. /UX> SEC:Q!'lTlllPOO
55
 TABLE 1

Angular and II 2·
ANGULAR
l=IEL.0
LINEAR FIELD (SHOln' sroe oF FtLIH oNLY)rn

Linear Field 3'

26.s• .. 39,1•
n.a• " 26.1• 31FT. 63•r. 9'1-FT. f>?lr. 4131'r. B27FT. 55/Yo. Zlf;6'1o.
Covered by 4" 13.4° " 2.0.1• Z4•r. 47Fr. 70Fr. 117 Fr. 3/0n. 620FT. 413Yo. 2066YP.

3Smm Film S" 11.00 x 16.5 • 19n 39>r. 581'r. 97FT. :J.SS•'- 509n. 339y0 , l696YIJ.
e,• "J.<f' )C 13.S0 f6•r. 31 l'T, 47FT. 79"7: 20Bn. 4t5n 8'30FT. f3/33Y11.

PICTURE AREA 1~~~£..J:?_~~,e;;-·i-~75.~1~·

ooP e• :-x;-1~1)..sJ<•;-t1'~
3:-;"':r.'t:2247~n:;.t40li;;"::-T..t-:;6;:s7;;F
;r.t,/;:;7~7~n.;;..t31/54);FT.;.t;7~08~n:;,.t"~80~Y;.1~.
Q00.000 6."1° X 10.1° f21'J'. ;J.41'T. 351'T. 59FT. f561'r. 3/3Ft. 62fJF7. f()q3Yp.

~ ?>&~1 9" 6.0° i< 9° Ion 2.J,:r. 311'r. SJ.•r t38F1'. 27S•r. 55on: 9nyo.
'(•~1i}c o rte"1 10" 5.4° >C 8.1° 9n. f9;r. 281'7. 471'r. f2Sff. '2491'<. 4981'7. 830YJ>.

00
-l-""o..,,,
99. po 14" 231• x !>41' 7n. f3Fr. 20"- 33ff. 88FT- t77•r. 35.iJFr. S89Y•.
16" 202' 1' ~3' 6Fr. (2.FT. /8>r. 29J't: 17FT. f55f:r. ;J09FT. !)/6Yo.
18'' 180' x 2.10' S'Fr. /On 16n 76>r. 69n. /37"1. :27S'Pr. 458'fP.
20" 162' )' 243' 4//zFT. 9Fr. f4Fr. 2.3ff. 62.FT. l:z41'r. J.471'r. 4-12.Yo.
25" 12.9' ~ 194' 45111. 90,,,, If,..,., 19,,.,., Sou IOOn 198Fr. 993n.
THEtl/'IGVl,AR ~" 108' )' 162.' 38tr<. 7SJN, 9>r. f5Fr. 4/Fr. 831'r. f651'r. $47FT-
SIZ£_(;41;( BE
,..,35"
ot!!lWfEl2ffl!)(rl 92.' i 138' 32.tN. 64,,,, 971H. f3Ft: 35Ft. 70Fr. /42>r. 708<r.
Sr&e.MAPSaR :1--'---+- - - - - - - - l - - - - l - - - - l - - - - l - - --l----1----1----1---1
LIS~ OfS!!Y : 40" !'I' x 122.' 28tN. S61N. 8411'. /2J'T. 3/FT. 62Fr. 124,:r. 620Pr.
O/ilEC7S.fft< ·'----L------~---L--...l----1--~1----L---L---1----1
ABOUT!~
!.<>' ! 45• 1~
.... •~ IO'"
1
Q ~ ,..
-=IN. !>0111. 751,,. {OFT ';l8FT- S.S'Fr. llOJ:r. 550Fr.
!1-_.:__-L--------L--...J_---1----1----1----1----1----1--~I
ANGULA~ ~IE..l.D COLUMN IN i 50" 65' ~ 98' :2.3tN. 4S1N. 6811'. 9Fr. 2SFT. 50>r. 99Fr 4961'r.
TAe>U. SAY~ A ?-5••· F.L. l.£NS : 1-..:...._-L--------L--...J__.:__-1-_ _-1-_.:__-1-_ _+----1----1---1
WILL COVER 9'.2.Mitl. HENCE.,'·; 60" 53' t 80' /9 IN. ;38111. 56 tH. 94,,,, 21 Ff. 41 Fr. 83Ft. 414FT-
IT WILL<'.OVE.li? Tl-IE Pl.EJADE.s (~') 1--=---1-------~---L--...1----1--~1----L----1----+----I
.,o• 46' x 69' 161,,. 3z,,,., 4a,,,. 811,,. 18n: 35Fr. ?In. 354""
80" 40' X ~· /4u1. 21'>1N. 42.1,;. 71111. /61'r. 3/Fr. 62n 3/0f:T.
90"30' J 54' 12.SJ!f. 25tN. 38tN. 631"· f4Fr. :uJ/:7. SS FT. 2.76Fr.
Elf<P FOR.ffU."" 1--'---+--------l----l----l----1-- - - 1 - - - - 1 - - --1---+----I
UN<i 7H,!t..EL 100" ·~;2.' X 48' /1 tN. :i.3111. 34111. S611'. 12Fr. 2.SFT. S'Ql'T. 248FT.
R>RU~l----+--------l----l---+--~-1----1----1----1---+----1
MP2fT. FOB 12.S" 26' t 39' 91N. /81N. 27111. 4S1"· /Ol'r. 20FT. 40FT. 199>;;
HEAP·litP·
.51:12V'-PP8S 150• ll' 1 3?>' ?.SIN. IS1N. 23111. 38,,;, 99,,,, 17 FT. 33/:T. 165!'7.
SuPf'OSe vou WAm MALF- , .., s" 1e>' 1 i.1· 6.4,,.,. 13 '"· 19 "'· 32,,,. 8>111. t4FT. 28"" 142,,,.
LE.rlGTl-I ~IT ft:r 300 FT.
/?t.!N YOU/? EJ1i. e!l.!J.!tl lJl!i. 200" 16' Y 24' 5.6 tN. /I 1N. 17111. 28111. 74111. f2Fr. 2Si<T- l:MFr.
30() ET. CO/.llMtl TO LOG9,lA
ti~ FtfiL.() OF4"if!ifJ."). 2.50" 13' x 2.0' 4.StH. 9,,.,, 141H. 231N, 60111. /0/:T. 20FT. 9'1Fr.
IN lE/:T·HAtlO COLVMtl
RE:A070~EOC/IL(.£{'16rli 300" II'" 16' 3.BtN. 81N. ""'· 19,,,, 50111. 99111. 17FT. 83n:
4()0• 8' t 17.' 2.BtN, S.61N. 81,,. f41N• 371N. 74111. 17-FT. 62.FT.

Dll~EC.T CALCULATION Felt 500" 6A' x 9.6' 2.:t. '"· 4.>,,,. 6.e,,1. "'"· 30,,,. 601,i. IOFr. son.
APPROl(. 1/¥\AGt $12.E 01' ANY
~Oaltc.T UJHEN F.L.ANO 600' 5.4'..: 8' f.911'. 3.8111. S.6t"· 901. 2.S'tN. 501N. 99"'· 41Fr
i*IGULAlt $12£. ARI:: l<NO UJN
~--- Ie: Mt'.?> C:lJJ$Teli? IN 100" 4.E.1 X 1' /.6111. J.2.,,,, 4.8•"· 8u1. 2/JN. 43,,.,, 8S1N. 351'r
........,.p
"r"""l.l;S 1 10..... DIA·
,__... I o ·•'-' 600'' 4.o' '• 6' I • 4 IN. 2 , 8 IN. 4 •2 /It. 7 Ill. 19 /If, 37 /I(, ~
74 111. 31 r•
F.L. - 3001M .................. o~"' 900" "'.6' , 5.4'
;> • f.1.S1,,, 2.51N. 3.81({, 6 111. /7 fl(. 33 '"· 661H. 28rr.
f.JJRJrE DOW({ Mfi</!.AP. j L:....::....::...-1._ __:__ _ _ _-L_ _...J__ _-1----l----1----1----1----1---1
SIZE.ftl.SE.CorlD.S ........ &oo 1000'' 3.2.' x 4.8' /.13111. 2,3,,.,, 3_4,,,, S.6111. 15111. 30u1. 601,,. 25FT.
Oi VIP/E By 2. . ... ........ 30<J
MULTIPLY BY F.l. . ........ 300 [i) l}/E Llt{EAR F/fi Q OE LOLt'lC $IQ€. at
3$mm FILM CAN 8E CAfCVUJTt!D BY MVJ.I:L·
f'OIHT Off= S PLACE5 ....1'90000
P4Yll'(<i Fl,E/J? OF SJIQPTSIPfi ~ 1'?6'61. ll>: l,S
(MAG£ Sl'LE :: .9111.
•
56
-
Fig. 14, is the common mounting m e thod. It can TABLe 2
be see n tha t •he camera Is bolted in place, and
the camera in t ur n supports the obje ctive lens . IMAGE SIZE
With focal lengths over 10 inches, i t i s m ore
p r actical to mount the lens tube, and the tu be F.L.or AN6Ul..Alt SIZE (SliCol«KDll Muwtrl"SOl'"MC)
t he n su pport s the came r a . F i g. 15 i s a typical E.F.L. 2.0" 40• I' 5' 10' 30' 31' 40' 60'
mo unl of t his kind; t he adjustable - positio n fea- 10" .001 .OOl .003 .015 .Ol.9 .081 .090 .11 .18
tu r e is not fo r alignment since the ca mera can
point in any di r ection, but si mply to give you
20" .002. .004 .006 .029 .OSd .n .18 ,"U 35
some choice of gu•de stars. All of this is ex- 30• .003 006 tu/ ,044 .()81 .26 .l., 3S' ,52
plained in t he cha pter, "Shooting the Stars. " 40" UJ4 ,008 .01'2. .058 .12 ,'!>5 .36 ,41 :io
ln the way of auxiliary lenses, the usua l choice
is standa rd anastigmals up to about 6 or 7 inches so· .005 .010 .OIS .013 .15 M AS .)8 .87
focal length. Over 8 inches f .l ., ac hroma l s b egin &O" .006 .012. .011 .088 .18 .57- 54 .10 1.05
lo function ve ry well because of t he co1npara - 10· .00'7 .014 .020 .10 :i.o ,61 .63 1.2'2.
.81
tive ly nar ro w field angle i nvol ved . A 14 in . f. l .
ObJectlve o n a 35 m m camera looks at a 7- dcg r e c 80" .008 .016 .023 .12 .23 :10 :12. 93 IAO
field, a nd fo r this nar r ow angle an achr o mat is 90" .009 .018 .Ol.6 .13 .26 .19 .81 I.OS' 1.51
nearly as good as the m ost expen sive anashgmat.
Of cou r se you don't gel speed, the usual rating
100• .OtO .OlO .Ol.9 . 15 .l.9 81 .90 t .16 1.15
being about f/ 8. However, with the fast films 120· .012 .olA .~ .11 .35 1.05 1.08 IAO 2.10
now available, f/8 is more than enoughaperture 14o" .Ol4 .Ol8 .041 Al
.20 1.l.l 1.26 1.63 'l.M
for most objects. F ig . 16 deta ils the cons t r uction
of a 14- inch f. l . t elecam era. This is a very prac- 160" .016 DY4 /:)4, ,"l.3 :41 1.39 IA4 1.86 l..19
t ico.l size fo r many land and s ky obje cts; it can ISO" .019 .036 ,052. .26 .52. 1.51 1.62. 2.10 3.14
be hand -held for l and object s if you a re s hooting
at I / 500 s e cond or faste1·. Its 7- degre e field is
200· .019 .039 .058 .19 .58 1.14 i.ao 2.33 3A9
just about the right size for many popular star 'l.15" .on .o44 .Of>6 .33 ,66 1.94 2 .03 2.6l. 3.9 3
groups. F itted with adapter and 1 -inch eyepiece, lSO" .02.4 .()48 .<11:!> .31 .n 2.18 2.l6 'l~I 4 .16
its 14x power is aboul all you can hold for rich
field star-gazing. Coupled with a Barlow working 1,5• .011 .~3 .080 AO .8'.l 2AO '248 ) .'lO •tao
al 3x, it zoom s up lo 42 inches equiva l ent focal ~- m..9 .0>8 .081 A4 H1 2.62. 2.11 3A9 .5_24
length .
400" .039 .019 .12. .SS 1.16 3.49 3.61 "l.66 6.98
.FIE LD ANDSCA LE, Withland o bje ct s, the photo- 500" 049 .091 ,IS :73 IAS 4.'6 'I.SI 5.82 8:13
grapher ca n get wide field or narrow field, big 600" .058 .ll. .18 .88 1.15' 5.24 SA.I 6.'l6 10.48
sca le or small scale--all by t he simple process
of changing his position in relation to the target 100· .06a .14 .20 I.OJ. 2.04 6.11 6.31 8.IS 12.'21
obJeCt. Not so 10 the sky. Ever y object in outer 800" ms .16 .l3 IJ6 2.33 6.98 1:U 9~1 13.91
space has a fixed angula r field, and your only
control i s by changing objectives. If you want to
900" .OS7 .18 .16 1.31 2.62. 1.es 8.11 10.48 15.11

shoot wide - angle star fields, you need o bj ectives 1000" .091 .19 .19 1.'16 2.91 ai.; 9.00. 11.64 11.46
.
of short focal l e ngth; if you want big images of l.L DIMUISIONS IN llVCNES Ll.SE.JJJ.IS
small obj ects, you need a lo ng f.l. glass or its !;.f.L. - YJv('flU-lltl,t l'CCAL ~Erl6.tl!. C.Q,, ~OB
.sutLOR.MXJN
e quivalent in a com pound o ptical sy s tem. You
can get the angula r size of any popula r s ky ob- AN6U~ Sl'ZE OI= SOME
ject from almost any list or catal og of stars. AST'20 09JUTS
The re s t is a matter of selecting the proper
SUN 32.' f MS - LA600N 60'
focal length. Sometimes you will be able lo shoot
M OON 31 ' . M13 •H£RC , CIJJS'T'R 10'
direct with the telescope lens or m irror; other
objects may require an o.uxiliary lens of shorter
MOON
OBJECT'S
I
PJl:ll. Odli& E.
$CC
M21 - 00/ll&&Lt.. e·
focal lengt h, All of the needed dat a can be ob- JUPITER 4011. M31 - MOR. tli;e. 160'
t:uncd from 1'ables 1 and 2. !ma ge s i ze is p 1·0- SATURN .....
~IN6
16'
4'2... ... M42 - ORION NE:B. 60'
po rliona l t o fo cal le ngth ; If you want data fo r , say, VENUS 20' 1 t N\44 - ~£1-lilf£ 90'
14 inch f.l. , s i mply read the value s for 14 0 inch
MARS 8 '' • /MS - PLEIADES 120'
f.1. and point off one dec i mal pl ace to the left.
ff\ 1-CRA& N£9. &' MSI - RtNG NEB. I Y2'

57
(
 ...for any camera
The AFOCAL SYSTEM
---
THE AFOCAL system consists or a telescope
in front of a camera. ll gets its name from
the fact that the telescope eyepiece is localed
exactly its own focal length from the first lmaee.
while the camera lens is exactly its own focal
length irom the second image. Technically, the
system is one of projection, the only distinction
being that it is an afocal projection system as
differing from other projection systems where
object and image distancesdonolmalchthe focal
lengths of the lenses used. A telescope In focus
for eye use is in afocal adjustment. This fact
makes it possible to shoot pictures with a small
telescope or binoculars in combination with a
"blind" camera by simply focusing the telescope
by eye and then putting it in front of lhe blind
camera which is set at lllfinity. However, the
prec ise focusing needed for long focal length
telescopes is much too critical to permit this
kind of guesswork .
Figs. l and 3 show a typical system. The tele-
scope eyepiece and the camera lens musl be in
fair alignment, but they are not coupled. The
small intervening space need not even be en-
closed unless you are shooting outdoors in sun-
light. The camera must be supported externally
and gadgets for this purpose can be purchased
or made as desired . The equivalent focal length
of the whole system ls the power of the telescope
multiplied by the focal length of the camera lens.
While the example shown in Fig. 3 is quite mod-
est, it will be apparent that terrific magnification

E'l£PIEC.E - 28,_ (1.1") F.L.

<I> I I
@ CAME.RA LE.NS - '2." F.L.
I • I, Al=OCAL SETUP iELE.SCOl>E POWER- ~3~
Tf ' Fs«>PE •.• PUJ.s ••• C>M-f.RA
II
I : I ' UJITl-I 6"f/8 ..........' .........
6:!, CN#llRA SET AT INl' IN ITY II I I REFLECTOR E.F.L• 43">< 2'"' 86"
WILL AUTOM,TriCALlV FOCUS' I I I ~/ . .....1 'J( 2 i: f/ 14
lllE PAAAW:l. 1.1r.~ &\JMOUS
EME~61N6 F~OM Tl-IE
I I
I I
I~'' OIA60NAL
.. ......
~· ·~,.,.. ~
\1
\:""""' .....-
.~ ~f. I.•

EXEPIEGE. ~ A 1E.LESCOPe
b ""~"
01 so•
APl'AAEHT
FIEl.P
"' ......( ...-::..;:.

- --------- IT
PUPIL
2e,,.., R KE i;ypc,
(EPMUfo!Q N•· 301787)

58

•
 fl' ,,
Si"REll:llOIJT OF PaOJ.M.= l.f>ic 1'4 F. L. f'fl'I::.
6 ~f /8 REA.EC.TOR £.f.l.. = ,,..
llllTtl I~" E\'EPIEt:.E of.I = f /r~
NCO Z"CA/N;AA LENS f'IRST - I 1•
llM6£. -:._·
----+-- --
@
2.SMM F~t..
EYEP16C.E
(Eo"u"° No.ao
can be obtained by using an eyepiece of short --
--
focal lenglh in combination with a long f . l. lens
on the camei-a.

AFOCAL CALCULATIONS. Afocal systems are

easy to calculate by using the formulas given in
Table 3. Usually the power of the telescope with
a certain eyepiece will be known, and in such case
the calculations are based on thi.s specification.
However, it is often easier to calculate the TABLE 3 .... ~­
SECOl'll>• _,.~:::~;::::;~
IMAGE -
system from the amount of Projection Magnifi- (O!!Fl"") I 2" F.L
cation, and equations for doing this are given AFOCAL 'tf:SAA
in the lower half of the table. In an afocal system,
magnification is obtained by having the rear lens
(the camera lens) of longe r focal length than the
Gakuea-tUmJ FIR$T
llM6E.
' --Ye~!~:.~-
EYEPrfC.E
front lens (the eyepiece). lf your camera lens is 1//JO•A.
2 in . focal length and you use a 1 in. eyepiece,
the Projection M. is 2x. When the eyepiece is the
same focal length as the camera lens, the magni-
fication is unity or I x, t hat is, same size, no
., - --- ---------- -
magnification.

FIELD ANGLE. In all afocal systems, the ap- E..F.L .= ~~l~E X '11~RA 48 "2 = 96"
parent field angle of the eyepiece should e qual
or exceed the field angle of t he camera. Ii you EQUl\/AJ..&NT f. L.
are using a standard 35mm camera with 2-inch f/ f /16
focal length objective, the field angle will be a CAMEQA F.L.
maximum of 47 degrees, Fig. 4. Now, since E'r(tT PllPI L
what goes into the camera must come out of the
eyepiece, you can see that light rays emerging f/ TEUSCOPE. X F.L.OF , ~& . "'
from the eyepiece must embrace an angle of at ll/:TEJrl<RTE
lll.ln·PER·i~CM CAMEllA 8 "2. ~ I6
least 47 degrees. If t he eyepiece has a smaller
apparent field than 47 degrees, it will not cover
the 47 degree angle required by the film. This
PROJECTIO~ _ CAMERA F.L.
situation occurs frequently since most Huygens fMGrllFICAllOl't- EYEPIECE F.l.
and Ramsden eyepieces, many Symmetricals and
some Kellners will have no more than 40 degr ees
. • .= T£1.ESCOPE
EFL F.L. OF X P°"J M
~v • •
apparent field . The result will be slight vignet-
ting at the corners of t he film. E ven when the
eyepiece has the required wide field, vignet-
_
fl f/vAUJE
-
OF X
TELESCOPE. PROJ. M. 8 '12. :f{t6
ting will occur at l.6x or less projection mag-
nification because the small - diamete r focusing
DIA. Of l=IL.M DIAGONAL.
FIASY IMA6E - PROJECTION M.
tube will not field the big primary image which

59
 a r

FILM Pl.Ari
..
{/Alrrlf_ NEJ.li •• MOlliE
·"·· ., -
--~'o
CAN!M/lr.}!:!!l
.1.()01< 8
Gliirlll{Q (jl/J$$) \
'
t
/ ~ 8C9 -.- -
"' · 'I,,~,~..._

E'fEPIECE- ~ Ju.sr P1r.11r!

@
& _._ Ul: /,Rd.
Lil'.~sr
L.OCA'TIOI' Of /W8TU"i
E'ICIT PUPIL .

JI'
,. '' "
- ~
+- - -ABOUT .2 ff.
-
-~(I

- _.

'
goes with low power. l<'!g. 4 is an example. On
the other hand, high-power mc:ins that the first
image will be small :ind the focusing tube is no
longer a bottleneck.
lf your camera permits changing lenses, it
is sometimes advantageous to use a slightly
longer· foc:il length, l"lg. 5. As can be seen. this
reduces the field angle of th<' camera, which
in turn means that the eyepiece has an easy job.
Such a system works with no vignetting what-
ever, and also is non-criLical as regards the
location Of the eXlt pupil or the telescope,
LOCATION OF EXIT PUPIL. The space be-
tween eyepiece and camera Is optically free
space, meaning that a litt le more or less space
will have no effect on the power or the system
or the location or the final image. But the ca1nera
lens 1nust pass all of the required cone of light,
and the best insurance to meet this rcquil'e1nont
is to locate the exit pupil of the telescope al or
near the iris of the camera lens. The proper
posit ion is obtained automalically with a simple
visual test, Fig. 6. 1f you push the camera back
and forth. you will nole that the corners of the
ground glass (or· tracing paper screen) will show
black when the camera is too close.' or too Car
from the eyepiece. Determine b) this Lest some
position where the lighting is uniform over the
whole film area; make a note or the spacing
Cor future use in mounting the camcn1..
Most shooters will use the afocal system with

BIG PLATE SCALE ... IS GRAPl-l 1CALLY

l'ORTAAYEO VJl-lE.N RGGc.JLAR "l.· INCM F. L.
OF :!>SMM CAME.li!.A LENS' IS COMPARED wnH
SANIE VIQU S££1'1 WIT!\ A 6·1rlCI\ REFLECTOR
TIOLESC.OPE Of 40" F. L. AU. PIC.S TAKE.tJ
~RDMlriOOORS ll\RlJ OPE.N \.IJltlDov.l. iHE. saNe, 6'' ~£fLECTQ8 AT EOCVS. A4Nil· z:i" BAR• aw (Goopww> ~
~c., Y=o SE.CONO P.T +111 ON PLUS-)( FILM TPtt1/C-J(1 _Jjoo SEC, AT £/a $f::LEC'TQR, 0o <6G, AT f'b,:..,

60

•
 AN llN6L£ PlATE UTS
!Y~'SLOT YOCI CHANGE £8QN1,
32 YIEWIA'G I ENS 7!2 ''rllm{& •
t ENS U//7H MOVEMENT
IN Q((E PLANE

TwtN LENS ~EFUlC CAMERA 2~11. ·'16

AFOCAL Ull'TH 4~' 2EFLECTOR i-----1~ 5""--- t

the iris wide open, just as insurance that all

the light gets through, However, if you have the
exit pupil exactly at the iris, you can stop down
as desired. If you can stop clown below the ra ted
f I value of the telecamera, the new f/ value can be
read directly from the r/ scale. As noted, how -
ever, you must have the exit pupil exactlyat the
iris and concentric with it to make use of this
feature. Probably lhe best standard practice is
za,.... Ey
(EOMUlfO
No.301
""
781.)
to stop down to about fl 8. The idea, of course,
is simply that the stopped-down iris makes a @ I·&" COUPW> AfOCAL AlTACHMENT
good glare stop.
I~ $INK
MOUNTING THE CAMERA. If you are using a TRAP
E)(TEl'IS!ON
refractor, a simple camera mount is a board \
clamped lo the main tube, Fig. 7. A twin lens
job is more of a problem, since with ordinary
mounting bracket, Fig. 8, it is clumsy and time-
consuming to set the camera for the viewing
and taking positions. One partial solution is to
use an angle pl:tte, Fig. 9, which confines the
needed movement to a single plane. The single
lens reflex is easy to mount and almost any
kind of wood or metal bracket can be used;
Fig. 10 design is pivoted at the center in order
to get around the finder which is usually in the I " 0. 0. ALUM.
2Vi
way of a straight support made of wood. TUBE
If you like the afocal system, coupled mount-
ing is worth consideration. The idea here is that
the combined eyepiece and camera is free-
standing, supported on ly by the focusing tube in
much the same manner ae a long and bulky
eyepiece. A nice fcntu1·e of this setup i s tha t
you can rotate the camero. o.s needed to square
the picture w1th the side of the film; with a
fixed bracket, the only way you can do this is
by rotating the telescope. (@ CouPL£O AFOCAL. w1TM .3"F.L.CAME.RA ~s
61
 are the same a s for visual use - -in the neighbor-
positive and negative hood of 1 inch--and eyepieces can be used inter-
changeably for looking and shooting. The com-

PROJECTION
fortable magnifying range runs from 2x to 6x
projection magnification. This builds up the
equival ent focal length rather quickly since the
t e lescope itself is a long focus lens. \Vith a

Systems 6-inch f/8 reflector or 48 m . focal length. a 3x

projection system makes tbe e.f.l. 144 inches.

PROJECTION WITH A POSITIVE LENS

In all pro3ectionsystems, magruhcation Is
ALMOST any telescope can be used as a pro-
obtained by making the Image distance greater
jection system by merely extending the eyepiece
than the object distance. In the ~elescope setup,
a little from the normal afocal position. Even the
the "object" to be projected is the real imaiie
Galilean telescope may be used tn this manner,
formed by the telescope objective, while the
although the negative Jens prOJectlon is more
"image" ls the real second image formed on the
genera lly recognized as a Barlow or telephoto
film. Fig. 1 shows a basic type of lens spacing
system. The usual po sill vc project!nfl eyepiece is
which results in an image the same size as the
simply a telescope eyep!ece--H gets tagged as a
object. When the lens or eyepiece is one focal
"projection" eyepiece only from the manner in
length from the object, no real image is formed,
which it is used. Regular slide projector lenses
F ig. 2. Thi s is the arocal position, the way an
arc sometimes used as well as short focal length
camera lenses. The moat practical focal lengths eyepiece is adjusted for visual use. Between

~~OF
41' PROJEC.1101'1
O&JECT"" l-
--=-::::,~~,;;;:::::.:
PROJ ECTION
1..E.t< s
l '' F. L.

____ ---- ----

:____.,.. _ _.,_
--
CD UN In' ( I ir) tM6f'llFICATION
®
Aa.-
6
M L
--- ---- ,.
-- --
A..-~, ...-------~----------~--~
'l.· ..,
IMllGE

S - I 1,•
:. - - f4. .
.·· O/sTAN<'# B ~
I NCRFAUS OtlE 5 1..
• •• B • ~M+ ll V: F.L.
4 fOR £ACtl IX MAt;«t,flCAT/fJ{( * 4 +I "It I - s ..

( D

IMA6E-- I )\
l'Pl PP 2

Lln LE . I __ ,
OVE.ft -.,

L,. ->1
OfllE. F. L.
@ GeEAn~T MAGHIFIGAT101'4 &- -- . G)
HtcH4 M. PRINCIPAL. Pl.Al(ES LOCATING TME
PRINCIPAL PLANliS:
/ "'>'LOW M .
: \
~OR 1"&(.M.NICAL &:AACTNE..SS,
~Pft.CI N6 S t10UL O ei.E S.ET O~F
Fl'tOM THE PRIHCI PAL. PLANES
OF THE LEH!. OR LE.NS S'l'STEM PP2. 1111 .I
'1/fllll ~I
fl',., ~~ ,P'l Pt'~
~---...:::\-
'
•' ,, I '
: J
----~
.
:I'
'
I I
I I
;
•;
: I

t"+-.,.wo F.L.
IMAGEJ
P•IHelPAL P\Al'<ES O~ StMl'Ll LlNStS 1
@) UJMOl..E RANGE

62

•
 @
.STOP RIN<;
~)EC.TING- EY'EPIECES (IF rt£<.RSC>)\. TWO '!O"" 6 5 - A.GMRoMATS
E. F.L. • I. °.!>'1" ll:to,.,,J
I/SE WITH ANY OIJJECrt<a
OR IU/ni I/NY TELGSCP/!£ ,,-.;u...5'2.'SPAGl!JI. FILM-.
USING 1/4H
O/A, £YEP!~

-------111------
E.F.l.: PROJE'CTIO/'I M . >f 08)£CTIV£ F.L.
PRINCI ~
@ N9. :Z. l£tr1t!Vord
f I .. PROJECTION M. "f/o&Jec.nvE 3;;
PIANE
1+-----sYa·_ ___:::::::::::::;;j
{PRa!EertQIY
N/MMl'ICATIQN)

)4.'° .SYMMETRICAL
($0!11H"D ,.,. 3f>-31f}

Pl<'IMARY' •
IMAGE-.$8 l
li.f.- - - - - -4:Y.4- + - - - ---i 18•'3e-
·"'li'
·>'! .. ...
.•,.,,•• •.;..\ ....i,.:.......
~: .,..
....... :•'\•
~·· • • • 1',, ... •'
.....

pp 1 1 PP2
i---- 1 'Yl(,·--1 ~~------s· - - - - - - ---i

28MM KELLNER TVPE '

___
--=-=-
PPt PPlJ PP2

lo---- 1\li r-1Yi~ ~1 _ _ _ _ 4 Y,; - - - -->!

n-(7/&) nu.~11:T~t •
(6/!:P 11/'!<0(<J!M &'ftet«i)

I
l~

~·ERFLE.

r )1.THD.
'
'

Ill
21'
63

•
 (;)
MODEL I
PltA:>JECTll4G E.YEPIEGE
(S£L t>flfi{IOUS /t9G£}
tJ4' ERFLE
EYEPI E<:E'lo
E.xPL.Ooro view
::.
•?8t.
'/-
1J&i.'' WP NUT
the lx position and the afocal position il is pos-
sible to obtain a complete range o l' magnifica-
tions, from no mngnification to infinite magnifi-
cation--all wilh a lcn::; adjustment or less than one
focal length, Fig. 4,
The required spa c1ng Cor any degree or pro-
jection magnification can be calculated from
the simple formulas g1vcn in Fig. 5. Dimension
B is the controlling dimension -- it 1s the same
as the " throw"dislance or a slide prOJCCtor. Being
a comparatively long dimension, It is not unduly
affected b) slight errors. In the usual practice.
spacing distance,; are i;et o!r Crom the center of
the lens or lens system, but if you want to be
tecbnicall,i. co1Tect, t he o;pactng should be meas-
ured from :he pr1nc1pal planes, F .g. 6 . If you
know the focal leng1h ol any lens or eyepiece,
you can locate the p1·10c1pal planes with the
simple setup shown 1n Fig. 7, The general Idea is
to Juggle the eyepiece and screen back and forth
until the image formed on the screen Is exactly
in focus and exactly l/2 inch long, the same as
the object. Then, if you nicasure two focal lengths
from the object, you will locale PPl, the plane
of admission. Since the setup ls 1x, the plo.ne of
emission, PP2, ls also two focal lengths dis-
tance f rom the imago. 0 11 ce known, the principal
planes of any eye- piece can be used as measuring
points for any application of the cycplece. lJ you
make light 1·ay diaerams, dro.w the rays to PPl ,
then parallel with the axis to f'P2, and then to
the image. Such rays do not show the actual path
64
ASSEMBLY
,....,
C<IT
through the glass, but arc accurate as r egnrds
entering and exit surfaces, which Is all you need
to know.
PROJECTING EYEJ'lECJ::S. Typical proJecting
eyepieces are shown in Fig, 8. These a re
standard telescope eyepieces, the o.daptation
being mainly a matter of an exten11ion tube
which sets the eyepiece a f1xcd distance from
the film plane. You can change the magnification
of any design by simply changing the spacing.
Low p0wer is the most difrlcult to obtain since
this demands a big field lens. Of the designs
shown, only l\lodel I can work at less than 2x.
Fig. II shows the con,.truchon and mounting
of A1odel I projecting eyepiece. Like mo~t pro-
jecting systems, this ii. a compact unit r·cqu1r-
ing no additional support other 1han he normal
mounting in the focusing tub<' of the telei.eo1>c.
Fig. 10 shows an alternate construction ror
Model H projecting eyepiece which you may pre-
fer to drilling a hole in the eyepiece.
PROJECTION CALCULATIONS. Much of the
arithmetic connected with projection systems
can be eliminated by using Table 4 which gives
spacing distances for most of the lenses you are
likely to use. If you use some roca i length not
listed, find, from table, the spacing fo1· a 1-inch
f.l. lens at t he deSir'ed magni!icallon. Then,
multi ply t hese values by the f.l . of the lens you
pian to use . Alternately, use Table 5, which
TABLE 4
OBJECT-IMAGE SPACING for Projection Systems
/AfAVE~. PROJe<:TION - ~El:T
T. IS jl'LENS IMA6£~
ll C7'.J:-·1 :-
••
'< - -
-
k-TELES<:OPE •
"'
-;...
IMA6E_.
. r - -
~er
.: 08)ECTIVE (0N£14M) &
/:OR 00t181::£.. '€.NSS~Q.AANY
- ~ Ud.Ji.li/. IZE. 8 ~ Jq('.tO OF £Y£P./fiCi!1 M£ASVA£
1 l!.8.0.J.i.C.:u.ad. I.~ '28: ~" /MA~l CIS1"Al'w"C£
EB.OM r:.&.1vr.&.RUC.LrUTJ
""""""
F. L. 1l/4ic I Yz." 2Y
.&-.
.... .61" .62" .56"
~"
.SO"
4"
Al"
5"
.45"
6>'
,44''
..,"
A3"
8>'
.42"
9>'
A2"
IOl'
.41''
12>C
40"
15" 20..C
,40" .39"
¥e"
9.<....... .84 .9 3 1.1'2. 1.50 1.81 2.2> 2.62. 3.00 3.31 3.15 4.12. 4.81 6 .00 1.8'7
A-+ .83 ;75 .6'1 .62. .60 .>a .57 .56 .53
12.,_Vi'
.90 .SS .SS .54 .Sl.
e-. 1.12 1.25 1.50 2.00 2.so 3.00 3.SO 4.00 4 .SO 5.00 s.so 6.SO 8.00 10.so

,,, SJi"
A-+ 1. 12 1.04 .93 .83 :18 .15 ."13 .'"/I :JO .69 .68 .6'7 .66 .6s
8 e+ 1,40 1.56 1.8• 2.50 3.12 3-15 4.?>1 5 .00 S.62 6.2.S 6.87 8.12. 10.00 l?..12.

%~ A-+
e+
..
~
1.68
I.'2.5
1.87
1.12
2.:is
1.00
?,.00
.94
3."15
.90
4.50
.88
5.25
.86
6.00
.84
6.75"
.83
1 .50
.82.
8 .'.l.5
.81
9.15"
.80
12.00
:19
15'.1S
19.f -

A-+ 1-58 1.46 1.)1 1. 16 1.09 I.OS" I .O"l. 1.00 .98 .91 .96 .95 .93 .9l.
7;;"
~,_e B+ l.91 2 .19 2.63 3.50 4.~ 5.25 6.13 1.00 1.87 8.15 9 .62 11.31 14.00 18.31
A-+ 1.80 1.66 1.50 J.33 1.15 l.'2() 1.11 1. 14 1.13 1.11 1.10 1.08 1.01 1.05
I" S-+ 2.25 1 .SO 3.00 4.00 s.oo 6 .00 1.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 13.00 16.00 '.U.00
""'·"- A-+ l.02 1.81 1.68 I.SO 1.28 1.2"'1 1.14 I ."2.'2. 1:20 1.18
~s.~-
I Ye' 8-+ 2 .53 2.81 3-?>1 4.50
1.40
5-61
1.:35
6.15
1.31
1.8-. 9.00 10.13
1.2!>
".1.5 11..31 14.61 18.00 'l.3.61
2.).5 l.6'l 1.46 1.43 1.41
I~· A-+
e-+ l.81
2.08
3.1 '.l.
1.81
3.15 s.oo
1.56
6."2.5
I .SO
1.50 8.15 10.00
1.39
11.25 12.50
1.31
13.15
1.35
16.'2.5
1.33 1.31
20.00 U..2!5"
3'.A-
A-. 2.41 2.19 Z.06 1.8?> 1.12 1.65 1.60 1.5'7 I.SS I. 51 1.49 1.41
1¥8'
.34.,_ 8+ 3.o9 3.43 4.13 s.so &.81 8.1S 9.&'2. 11.00 12.ll
1.53
13.15" 15.11 11.81 l"2..00
1.44
2.8.81
1.6o 1.58
I~" A-+ 2 .69
B+ 3.3'7
l.50
3."14
2.2.4
4.50
2.00
6.00
1.88
7.50
1.80
9.00
1.•6
10.50
1.1 I
12.00
1.68
13.SO
1.66
15.00
1. 64
16.SO
1.62.
19.SO 24.QO 31.SO
>ft' 2.
- /4ttJ.(i'~G.fl. ~~~e_ Ti l£Co.m . PQSITIVE 0-"

• . --
JS Oe.J.E,CI FOR.l'/lQ.lp:TloY

-· --·- - 1
L F IL.M
OIAGof'IAL-
WHOL.£ e er4 • Ne;envc sY-""""
E.F'.L."' F.L.OB.lcCTIVE X PROJECTIOtJ "'-

=.r--
-~~_,, IMAG-E_., (!'4" E9.f•. -ff "' f/OSJECTIVE X ~OJECTION M .
3S,.....~1Vtt)
• llEGAlNE OIAMETEltOF _ FltM QrAGONAL
LENS-" A - - --
B Fl~ST IMAGE - j5 O]ECTION M .

F.L. 1!/4" 11/2" 21C 2Y2" 3"' 3Yz" 4,( 4!4.ic 5°" 6Y 7"' 8'1f 9" 10"
_, .. A-. .2.0" .33" .50 .60" -6'7" JI" :is" ':Tl! .00" .8Y .86' Err' 89" 9(J'

1$(4,M M
e.+ :lS" .so 1.00 I.SO 2.00 2.50 3.00 3-50 4.00 S.00 6.00 '"J.00 8.00 9.00
A_. .40 .61 1.00 l."2.0 1.3) 1.43 I.SO I.SS 1.60 (.6l 1.1 I 1.15 1:18 1.80
-2''
so.e.-i e.- .50 1.00 2.00 3.00 4 .0 0 s.oo 6.00 1 .00 a.oo 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00
A... .60 1.00 1.50 i.eo 2.00 2.14 2.lS 2 .?>) 2AO 2.SO l.51 l.61 1.61 2.10
.,.,,_-3'' B+ .15 1.so 3.00 4.50 6.oo 1.50 9.00 10.so 12.00 15.00 18.CO 11.00 i,q.oo 21.00
A+ 2.40 2.6• 2.86 3.00 3.11 3.Ul 3.})3.43 3.50 3.55 3.60
-4" 8-.
.80
1.00
1.:33
2 .00
2.00
4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 11.00 14.00 16.00 'U).00 2.4.00 28.00 :;2.00 36.00
102 -

A+ 1.00 1.66 2.SO 3.00 3.>?> 3.51 3.15 3.88 .::i .oo .::I. ll 4-~ 4.31 "'I .44 "'l.SO
/2"7-
-5" 8-+ l."l.S 1.so s.oo I.SO 10.00 12.50 15.00 11.50 l0.00 15.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 4S.OO
A- l.'2.0 2.00 3.00 3.6o 4.00 4 .2.9 4 .50 4.61 "l.80 5.00 5.14 515 ;.-,3 5.40
-6"
ts->-

178-
_,. 8•
A-+
e-.
1.so
1.40
1.15
3.00
l .33
:3.SO
6.00
3,50
1.00
9.00
4.20
10.so
12.00 15.00
"'1.6•
14.00
5.00
11.so
1e.oo 1.1.00 24.00
5.2.')
2.1.00
5.44
1.4.SO ~.00
30.00 36.00 41.00 46.00 54.00
S.60 5.8?> 6.00 6.12 6.2'l. 6.:3o
35.00 42.00 49.00 56.00 63-00
A-+ l.6o l.66 4.00 4.80 5,33 5'.11 6.00 6.2.1 6AO 6.61 6.85" 1.00 1.11 1.10
'0"
-8" e+ 2.00 4.00 8.00 l'.2..00 16.00 10.00 24.00 28.00 31.00 40.00 48.00 5'6.00 ()4.00 ;2.00

A-+- 1.80 3.00 4.SQ SAO 6.00 6.43 6.15 1.00 1:2.0 I.SO 1.11 1.87 e.oo 8.IO
:uo-
-9" 8+ 2 .15 4,50 9.00 13.50 18.00 '.l.l.SO 2."!.00 ":31.50 36.00 45.00 !;4.00 63.00 12.00 e1.oo
A-+ :2..00 3 ,33 s.oo 6.00
6.61 1.14 1.50 1.18 e.oo 8-338:15 8.51 8.88 9.00
15'4-
-10" (!.+ 2.so s.oo 10.00 15".00 2.0.00 "2.5.00 30.00 :>s.oo 40.00 50.00 60.00 'I0.00 eo.oo 90.00

65
TABLE. 5

The Arithmetic of PROJECTION SYSTEMS

POSITIVE LENS PROJECTION NE6ATIVE LENS PROJECTION
LE NS i~ecr IS /JtlllU Bl!tt!f£D
; f - 6" •
~r •. ll/F
Oq.d(Cr

.. '
---~I--
--
""""'-·.::::·.:.:: 1MA6E-+
~;;- -t- ---­
~~"".'.:~~:!_- B ~
1:2._"_-_-_-_-_

I B .,. (M+I) IC I' 8= (2+1) lC4 =3><4,. f2" I

& = 41 • 6 ... 14 = 12· 6 • 6 4 : 1:1:. = 12"

2 6-41 2. 2. 6
)I.
-4 2.

3 B• A)(M 8 c & )( 2. = 12" 3 6=AxM &• 4 J( 3,. 12·

4 A •-
B
M
A = ..!!:.
2.
= 6" 4
8
A = -M A = l'2.
3
=4•
5 4
A= 2+ 4"' l+4: 6" 5 A•6-~ .. 6-2=4"
3
Ft B F B A• 6 >< 12. "'12
6 A • B- F 4 " 1'2. - 48 - ,_..
A • l'l. - 4 - 8 - ., 6 A= F+
>C
S
2 4•
6 + 12. 18
.., 12.
M=6 "',_,.. M=A
8

F F 6 6
e M = A-F M = F-A M= 6 - 4 =-r =~IC
B-F M= 12. - 4 ~ ~: 2" M - B+ F M • 1'2.+6,.. 18 : 3 1C
9 M" F 4 4 9 - F 6 6

IO F = M+ I
At M
10
Ax M
M- I
F m 4 >< 3 : ~
3 - 1 2.
=ft"
II F ,.
M+ I
B
F = 2: I! I :. 1; = 4 " II M-1
B 12. - 1'2. - 6 "
3-1·2-

12 F= A " B
A +B F
6 " 12. .. 12. = 4 ..
= 6+12. 18 I '2. F = AB-ABic - 4" 12. _ 48 - 6"
F - 1:2.-4 - 8 -

P~OJ£CTION ~------­
LENS Olt WMOL.f: TELE-Co.mero.. SVST£NI
EVE.PIE.CE. .SYMBOl.S:

- M - MAeNJEl(ATIQN Fdf.111ik. IN DEX A~T68 f/f{Otlfti egcuECT/ON M , L!!Ji..

l~_
__.., 11/HQLE Sl'JZLM CAN ME CA[,CVLAT£D:
QSTAJNED i!Y I F 'l'OU Vou CAN
pRO..ILCrJ"""' l(NOW FINO E.F.l. : F.L.o• OBJECTIVE JC PROJECTlON M
,• • 8 - ....... F- ~OCA L L£NG 7'lL
F 4ND A
M .... ... 8 .ff = 08JECTIVE f/llAlUE )C PROJECTlOl'I HI
IJF THE.. e.JNUECTIQd & ..... 2
FOil OOV8t.E. t.E.NSES LENX,OR£Y£~t
A
ff :
LTERl'A1~
E.F. l, + CLEAR DIA. OF O&JECT1'1E
OR AAV TYPE or EVE - N\ ..... 9
PIECE, MEASURE S:RONI
A- 01$TAN(£ QOM I' AND&
A .•... 6 Fl~·~ '" S:lLM DIAGONAL+ PRO) ECTlOllM
esoaq!QCI U.flf
CENTER . 70 QBJECT1 .IJll.
FANOM
/4 ..... s oaJIC'TIYf
TM IS IS "4C1' E 'tACT 8UT ''OBJECT .. MIN' THI
CAUSE.$ NO C.R6AT ERl!Oi, PRIME IM8f4 ftMWD
8 ...... I IO.. F.L.. FIRST"
IMA6~'-
ESPEClAU.Y AS Af'Pl.IEP
TO DIMENSION •e,•
6'I T(<l.st't.ft" O(j./f ilfjf
MANDA
F ..... '°
& ••••• !ii
2"
;f/S'-+f-,~-~-
=- :..-=-- '

c:i.
& - OLSTAf.JCt £ROM W
f?ROJ£C'Tl()('J l.:(J:iS tp F ..... II o"- - - --.. ·I&; ..
tM4V( THE Y.tis&.E " N\AND&
~)Co.Mple:
.... j
Tt/€ PJlQPE!t MIAfuBtNG
potNTJ FQJt SPfK[ft/(,
1
B£/Nli TlfE Fl/Ydl. A···· 4 ' " PRO,lf < rlOHM

ARE TH£. .f!llft{CfPA{.

et.dNq CF THE LfNS
/MA&&,~
(/I/TH FJLN! PIANL AAND 8
M .•.. 7
F .... 1'2.
£.F. L. = 10 'It l • Jod J/.,:,,?>O + 2 •
f/IS
Qq E'(Eet£CI ~/: ffs 'It l • f/ts FIRST -E•f-!¥ =;.58'
FOi :JS- Fti.Nt

66
 PROJECTION WITH A NEGATIVE. LENS
---~
A <llE-- OBJECTIVE - - - - - - .;-:::::_ ---= - - ----- kflillr 8lf¢ ~1IJ:.fg'1'IT
- -:-.1~~~
PRIMARY
MIRROR

--..-- --~-
- ·- ----. :----4- .
--------- ==---=-~-~-::...--iE:;;:-:~~~1·--
I MAGE.

·--PR;;:;aPiii.. o.q c;;;£;C,q;;y7AoM 'E'OG7~-~.~~ - ---....- -

-- _,_,,
w
- .. _ . -
L
- -:;:.=-'" ... THE PRIMl/RY

.-. ------::=:::•
- - - -• -
---- - --- ··JMAG.E.A2&tf£D
BY TH/i o.a/ECTJVE
-
-- - --+=~ -- -
-::::::-:::;:~-:::--:::-::::: - - - -
;:; - - - - -
4tG!!r &IYS ,:goM
A eovtL AT.£DtiE
0€FJE LD
MIRROR ...
•. ,_8£~
INCOMING L/G" .·OBJECT TO BE.Pl<O·
FOCAL LENGZi-1 OF M11?RQR / .J.CCT~ 6Y fHE_
NE:GATIVE •:~~ : NEGATI VE LE/'lS'
- - -- LENS:~ Fld44 IMl/6£.._.
covers all of the various equations and tran?posi- ... I ,I Oii Ell-M
tions needed to calculate any system. - - ,.._ - - -: ~- ... ···~·::-·.·. IS E.~N~l.A~R~~;;E;:O:.._+
- ~- --- -- -~~
_ _:-tt-<~~~ ~..__ _
NEGATIVE LENS PROJECTION - - ------ ~)
A ---
- - - -...--
~ -=~,.,._,.-.J
\Vhether you prefer a negative lens or a
!+----~- 8 ---~--..
positive lens for a photographic system is (IM8G£ DISTANCE)
largely dependent on the quality of the optics.
Assuming good optics, the negative lens is pre-
~A~ rlS 1..-'klJnple·
c . I
ASSUM'
\i.JAl'(T 4 ~YOU
ferable , most practical. The outstanding fea - Pl<OJECTION M .
AssuME l'. L.O< NEG. LENS IS :>!'
ture of projection by using a negative lens is
compactness, the lens being located ins ide S•(M-l)"JC F B =-(4-1}"" 2. =6"
the primary focus in stead of outside as is the
case for projection with a positive lens. Pract ic - A = -M
e. A= .2.. = I. 5"
ally all of the big satellite tracking cameras and 4
super telephoto lenses use some form of this
O~JECTNE
optical system. As can be seen in Fig. l 3, the NEGATIVE
-~
primary image formed by the telescope objective ...,__ -:::::---.JJ.._ _ PRIMARY
LENS
becomes the object to be projected , It is, there -
fore, a virtual object, that is, it does not exist --- - - - -..-- --
--
-
- ....
IMAGE
- -- ~---. I
..-·_,,
PARALLEL
1.16,!iT l/:,AY'.S
=..=-::~~-=tt~~;;~~_-r.~::_"·!.r~r:
--:--·.-~
- - -~
at all in reality but it is quite valid for diagrams
and calculations. The whole range of lens move- =-.::!-0:-~JJ.--=---
~ .. --- ONE - ~~~
-
.c.--i - _...
ment f rom lx magnification to infinite magnifi -
AFOC.AL - ~N/£MENT RAY.I' txJ NO!CQA1E T<2A,CQC(.IS'-
cation is contained in one focal length, Fig. 14. ~r;c. l.S. E0/?!11£/2. rl(/S Slll/CJ/(C 1S A 6.4lJiEAY ZU4:l:1Af
Good negative achromats --e specially big
ones --are hard to find because they have lim ited -- NE6Al'IVE

--
~-...-::::--_ LENS"' PRIMARY
uses in optical instruments, and also because ..__ ::-----_ IMA6E AN D
they can be fully corrected only for one specific
application. Available lenses are usually de-
signed for visua l use in a telescope, working in an
---
=-
-~~-111---"'- - -
--- ----~---
~-------
----
------ -:>J+-

2:.ERO
FINAL.. IMA6E

f / 8 light cone at 2x magnification. All of which is

TA~L!; 4 -A
O&JECT-IMAC'>E SPACING WHOLE lllGH
for EDMUND SA.RU:ltu L£NSE.S ---- _ - LIGMTCONE t.
------
POWER {
-j,
LOW
POWER
~.L.
~·.J~rTION
l'.11'11 21' °2"'"
NlflCATION
3" 3~" 4• 6•
- --f4..
1 :
-...,.,
"
I 11k- PRIMARY
A?>' .6(,' .19" .88" -9~ .9$' 1.os· I .09" "" - - ~!i r11- IMAGE
,..,1.31" ~ .66
I 1~" A•
1.:11 1.96 2.6"2. 3.Ul 3.9) 5.l..4 6.S5
.58. .86 1.04 1.1 S' t.U 1. :IC l.?.8 1.44 --- - - - - - - ----- -11 --·~
--i~MOREZ'l{M
ZERO ...
In. &• .81 1.13 2.()() ),46 4 .~2 S. l"l 6.92. e.6s WHOLE RANGE - .It!.E. _J ~
1.e~· ~: .92
.61 .92. 1. 10 1:i~ 1.30 1.~,
t.-% I. 52. NE6ATJVElENSMVSrfM ~ ·1 TllA1'10(YEF,l,
I.~ 2:74 ).66 4.58 5.49 ..,. 32. 9.IS INSIDE THE P/?JMAR'(
~~ t . li" ,frl· :TO' .se· .5o" '44" ,35• .'29"
FOCV~, l;l/IT fll!S Q!STANCE
MUST BE J £« THBN
ON£ /:"OCIJL LE/'167H
F.L..~

!!) Sll<Gl.£ ~N mJ t;OO{)ONN <(>I..,.... ~ £,DMu/'lo ACt-1~ SPACING LIMITS

~70t" ~·~ r I~

67
 @ 3JC foiEGATI~ LtlllS ~.l£CTIOM
.sHoUIN UllTH 6" f/8 ICEFJ.ECn>R. ElCTE ON
E.F. L.• I~" f/ e f /1A ruse
,,
Ii
I•
,•JI,
/

A~PTElt I

a ~) I
I
I
1@
I $AME.4S
'I@
i/lt:TUINllTE
""-NEGATIVE LENS
I I
I I F/6. 1> Ill/TH COlfSTAilr/7()/1
1.e~·· F.C., I I I Ix G./('TEl(S/01' I \ Wtrf'/
(fOMUND f!Q. 30o:f48)
I I I I /l()D~() r M OVNT£D
I t.GNS
I I'
/, I I I I (iQMV{V()
I I [J{,,"()(1160/'IA{. I I 1t10. 40.4z1)
,-l-1-l_I l l .E/E/..12S
-1'Jl/{}1$_f.lCiiJ:
1..-1,-i--.1 I
t:tlf:!.& a..:.rY I I

---- compared to positive. However, like the po>i-

--, - ---
fie L lt:i/r CO/f£ _ _;r
f11QM erxit: ADAPTEI<""
OE ELELD (IJWIEP Mlltll·J
@ 2.~JC WITH G()OOWIM L04S {.hmt lGt/W!Q.HO «>-@)
to say that the linear field Is limited lo about l/ 2
inch diameter; further, the lena will work best al
2x, although il will perform fairly well over
a wide range of higher magni.!lcations. The lenses
are usually sold as "Barlow" lenses, named after
Peter Barlow, Encllsh physicist and mathema-
tician, first to use such a lens to Increase the
power of a telescope. Color-wise, the visual
Barlow is perfectly su\isfacto1·y for photographic
use . In fact, todo.y's films have so nearly the
same color response as the nu man eye, it can be
said in general that any OiJllcal system that works
well visually will perform equally well pho to-
graphically over the same size of field .
Fig. 15 shows a 3x B;irlow system mounted
on a 6 - inch i·eflector· note how compact it is
tive lens system, Ix additional m'lgnificalion
calls for an extension tube of one focal length,
Fig. 16. The Edmund Barlow lens can alEo be
purchased mounted and the whole unit u ed photo-
graphically, Fig. 17, requiring only an adapter.
lJnmounted, this lens i~ mode•tly priced at S6,
and it works JUSt as good as other more expen·
sive Barlow lenses. It is too small for low power,
but if you use 3x or more projection mqgnifica-
tion, the lighting will be uniform to the corners
of 35mm film. A 3x Barlow is often added to a
finderscope for use as a tracking teleecope.
One of the larger of the visual Barlows is the
Goodwin design, and this can be used down 10 2.3x
as shown in Fig. 18. This requires a shallow
adapter, and even so you may have to sntrt the
main mirror forward a l ittle to put the primary
image at lea st 3 / 4 inch beyond Lhe end of the
eyepiece nolder . All optical systems snould have
dead black interiors, and tnls goes double for
the Barlow because of Lhe way the lens pllcncs
t he light rays outward after tt·ansmission.

68

'
STAR TRAILS
A STAR TRA.J L is made by pointing any fi xed
camera at any part of the sky and exposing for
10 minutes or more. The stars. of course, keep
moving right along. making a pattern of light
streaks.
One common difficulty is field coverage. The
average camera has a field of about 50 degrees .
Thls means tha t If you center on Po laris, the
half-field angle will r each down to about 65°N.
declination, not quite reachi ng the Dipper. One
way to capture the Dipper is by putting Polaris
at one corner of the film, as shown in photo.
Thi~ is a 25 min. ei..-posure on 5x7 Tri-x film,
uslng a G- inch :\1etrogon lens at f/5.6. The
bri11ht ~treaks at top left are the Dipper st:.rs ,
Sky fog Is another problem. Every minute you
l~· f.l, f/z PETZ VAL
expose, the sky background becomes lighter. In {EARt.Y S/ft/¥1/SCOl'F 04/l~TIVE/
3 hrs. or so, sky fog may wash out the star trails.
There is no simple solution to this except the
obvious one that if you make a shor t exposure,
•
the sky will stay black. The photo insert shows
the Dipper stars as seen with a twin lens reflex
working at f/ 4. 5 with Tri -x film, the exposure
being 2 .minutes. Big star images were obtained
by putting them slightly out of focus. One way to
tackle sky fog is to make the trails brighter.
This takes big aperture, such as the sniperscopc
objective shown In drawing. 8IG APE!tTURE 08JfCTIVE

OECl.INATION ••• EITHEA HOAT~ OA SOVTH

STAR TRAIL Formulas O" 10• 20• 30• 40• 500 60° 70° 900
..!..] Lt;NGTM OF STA~TRAIL(tH<HH) FOl! F t,_, Ft-. F tlme-r- F tim'< F timt>$' F ti,,_ F ,,,,,,,, F t,~, F tJm#r
I l'llll'IUTE. E.l(POSUeE. TIME. .0044 .0043 .0041 .0038 .00)) .002.8 .0022 .OOIS .0008
.for I SE.CONO 6.lCPOSURE. TIME • .00001 ".ooooi " .00001 •.00006 •.00006 • .0000~ • .00004 '{ .00002. ••00001
~ u:N6TM OF STAR TPAIL (itiCHES) ~ " TIMI F ICT F lC T F JCT F !CT F "T F ll'T F ICT F ll'T
FOR ANY £)(P0SLlRE. (M11'UT/I.~} 2.19 '2~1 244 L.64 300 358 4!>8 6,4 1'3.20
~ E.)(POSURE. TlME. (N!JHIITE~} NEED£D L. "219 L. 'lll. L."lA4 L.1' 764 L...ClOO L")SB l."458 L•614 L 1'13.20
FOil A $P6CIFIED mlRTeAILlEl'l(;nl F ~ F F F F F F F
~ fN;;/.IMUM EJ(POSURE{s£awtnl
WlllCll WIU. tlQT SllOUJ A TRAii..
~~ .. -- T
SS S6
T -F
9) 6)
-F E:.
F -86 -
F
110
F
16"2.
F
3 16
F
!;:•• , £$ £Qj;d'- 'EN/ill.I. OR E.9.<JllJ.1LLNT E.J.. 1£. YJ)fl. l!.J,Af' ~ ENlAPCE,
M.U.l.IleJ.'t. C.lu SY li/t~f.NT 70 6£Z:: WllOl-I! e&t!.Z:: E.F".i,., ~~:AT 40°
'YOU ARE. SllOO'TtNG STARS
N. lXClJllATIOrl WITH 6 "
~e: Vovst 2.1'
CAME.llA LENS IS !" F.l. and. vou All:E F.L. LENS. PRINTS WILL SE EN -
l.AAGED3)(. (£.[.4,=3><6=18")
PROJECTION SVSTEM. YOU /ILSO Pt.Apl
USING
3ll' £111.ARGEMENT• .JiQ1 wt/OIE, P/!.INI
E.F.L. =
3" 2. >< '3,.. 18" ~et£M· FIND MAV.. E:XPOSUR.e Tll/1.T
' WILL RETAIN ROUND STAR IMAGE
':{QJJ. WIJ.NT 1/4"(0/( eB.IHT)_!iTNl.;rM/1.$. FOR STMS"
PRO&UM: ON EQUATOR. WMA'T E.1(PO~URE. IS NE.EOE.D? SouJT1ot1: ~~ = 4
FORMULA I!} SE.CONDS
SOUJTlot<I: E'A'OSUR£: 1.5 1- '2.'2.9 " 343.~
18 -- 19• I lldJ.d. 1*::a:.4.1' ~ M l-«8"1:; Z!tt1£S: ll:J.£. S£ECl~LD
f'OIUllULA il) 18 aJ!!O..lfl.l!.l. WILia ~ 12t:!.''t. S/.WJz. ~IOI'</
F'ORMVl.A 1'10.4 CAN BE US£D FOR MOON Plt:S ... .11' 01'1 Ct«K DR/YE, VS£ FllCT'OR ~ 1200 ANO OIVIOt: 8Y P/!l1Nr & .F. ~-

69
" l-IAT TRICK " E LIMIN~T£S MIRRO R 8 0 UNCE

shooting the MOON

BIGGEST, fastest. brightest object in the night
sky, the moon is also the most photographed.
Point your refractor or reflector ber way on any
clear night, and you are almost certain to get
at least some kind of picture. Experts also give
a look at the calendar because the moon "goes
south" every month and when low in the sky may
be a poor target. Follow the recommendations in
table below. The sample pictures are not blue
ribbon winners but are exactly the kind of pic-
tur·es you will get the very first time out if you
follow a few simple rules . The pies shown are
all from 35mm film with drugstore processing,
stand(lrd 3x enlargment; shown here full-sciile
but prints are cropped.
A few general rules on exposure will cover
most situations. In general the full moon is simp-
ly a distant object. front-lighted by the sun. As
such 1t takes about the same exposure as any
distant land object in sunlight. The various phase
pictures are no less bright at the limb (edge),
but since you usually want shadow detail at the
6-DAY OLO NDON AS SEEN W1TM 6-il\C.k REFLECTOR.
PANAlOMIC-X FILM 1 F~'T "NltTTRICI::" El(POSURE.
PICTURE AT RIGHT IS 3>1 8AA1.0W {i;cot>Wllf) P0::l.J£CTK>H.
PIC. AT LEFT IS PRO.JEC.'TION WrT'H l·l"d. ORTHOSCOPIC
i'l'EPIEC£ 1 A80UT ~'IC. PR!JGSTOltE PROCESSING <Y'
35MM F'll.M 11.11Tt4 3)1 EHl.ARGEMENT. REPAC>PUCTrOll
AeOV'T FULL SllE 8trr ~PPED SLIGHTLY
terminator, the average phase picture is ex-
posed for the shadows, about 4 times the exposure
of a full moon shot.
The full moon is most popular with beginners
although it is a difficult object to photograph due
to the flat lighting. The only really good cure
for this is to use a high contrast film, such as
High Contrast Copy or any of the various pro-
cess films. High Contrast Copy was formerly
known as Micro-file. and you will run across
many full moon pica of bygone years taken with
this film. High Contrast Copy film is a copy film
intended for copying clippings, checks and other
printed materi al; it is not intended for continu-

WHEN to shootm HOW to shoot

PM ASE GOOD F AIR SUITAal.E FILM £)('POSURE REMARKS
Fiil.ST JA~- lh,. Ju~l Jul'f thn. Of.G. PAMTOMlC.- J( VtoSfc..ATf/16 f/.Slf FAST "HAT rl?l&K • £)(1'17.S/lllE
Q,UA~ER MAill'I I< bHf SE.PT. 1'oc•Ht ~ HICOfttAAST W I sc<:. AT fir~ 1£U.SCOP£ Pll£~RAISL't"OllaDCI< OllNE
LAST JU~~ thru OU. JAN.thru JUNE ~ T~l-1' 'faoo ~I<:. AT f/16 afPONHIL 6Y Sl/VTTlfA cf< R7P. f:t...,., IOO"
Q.UART£R OCT. Is bert MA~H l>O•«•t ~ PUJS-)C Y:J.s S<G. Ar f/ 16 WIDE u1r1rVOE //'( £1<Pos11.«£ TIMI!
OC.T. t~ru MAil.. APQ.1~ lhru SEPT. tilflM COH~'T 1/s SEG. AT f/16 'nAT TIUCK" 6J(P0~(/A.B. IJS6Ct.CCK
FULL
MOON DGGEMGEP.
i5 best ,...,.th
JUllE l>CJOtest "Ii:~ T~l-lC )!""'° sr<. Ar f{r6
()RIVE 11:: YOV HAVE
~t:'.:rr 6)1P<l:>VR£ Pl!"AMI~ vs"
11F
.SHllTTIIR.. Y&l.FILTEP. IMPllOVL~t:r>Nfll11$r
l!J Bi!Sil2 QN At..T.1TtJOE {l.E.
••·HIGH MOOfll IS S£sT
M'Xllf. II'll Bl.BJv!ll'Y. 1.;1,~ac-eu.£_ .!lJ:lllEA.
C.Ofi1&1Sr FILMS c:Ad 8E VSU>
111r.tt Im.s'f rda'" ~!::!.~-
~U.F£ FCA OTJil ll Ulft

70
•
 MooN Pie.TU R <"<' F R" F
<::..::. ~'T
A·
I ::.T OC.U
3" ~EFAAClOR f /15 T~l-X 1(-7. FILTER.
OViR• EJl.POSEDAT /1.s S&C. TOO THIN AT Ysoo S£C. .JI/ST R l6>1T Ar
ous tone subject s at all, and hence has no ASA
number applying to such situations, On the basis
of comparative exposu res, it can be rated at
about ASA 5.
Many moon pies are not effective unless you
capture t he full diameter. T hi s s et s a limit to
the focal length. Since the moon image is roughly
l/ 100 the focal l ength of tel escope, and35mm
film is l inch wide, it can be seen that about
100 inche s of focal length is the most you can
squeeze int o the l inch width of 35mmfilm. Actu-
ally since a little l eeway is needed, 80 or 90 inch-
es f,l, is about t ops for a f ull moon picture. For
a starter, the ave r age stock refractoror reflec-
tor of about 50 inches focal length does nicely.
The resulting picture s are interesting (see a ·
bove) but hardly big enough to show detail. How -
ever, if you use a fine-grain film, enlargements
t o 20x are practical if the nega ti ve i t self is sharp
and clear.
For detail pictures, 2x projection is a popular
starter. For such work it is often permissibl e
2 lf PROJUTION WITH 1Y.,1." f;RFLE 2.J( MDJEC:Tl014 WITH 1'14' E.RFL£
EYEPIECE ON 3 " EDMUND Rf.fRACTOR. E.Y£PIE.CE ON 4~" REFLECTOR . PAH·
K·2 FllTER. TRl-J(. Vzs SEC . ~ f /~'l. ATOMIC-JC. CAPPED E~POSUR£ Ys SE.G.
S ALL 3X ENLARGEMENTS FROM J5M>'
t:ILM SHOWN t:r/lL SCI/LE Bur CleOPP£o
!fa Sli<". !/z.ooSGC. A T f/11 f/s~ S EC. AT f/8
to r otate the camera to put the t e rminator the
long way of the film. With 2x projection and 3x
enlargement, the print e .f.l. of a 6-inch reflec-
tor is 288 inches . You are getting up t here where
vibration of any kind - - even the s nap of a focal
plane s hutter - - will result in loss of definiti on
at the image plane. A common cure for t he shut -
ter problem is the familiar "hat t r ick" exposure.
Thi s in turn poses the problem of the moon
d rifting out of t he field during the interval be -
tween cam era exposure and the actual "hat
t r ick. " However, with a little practice, this can
be timed nicely. On clock drive, of course, this
is no problem at all since the moon once centered
will stay put as long as you like.
In general, without clock drive, the best tech-
nique is t o use fast film in order to reduce ex·
posu re time to a minimum; if you use clock drive,
longer "hat trick" exposures are practical, and
you can make good use of the s lower films which
are usually somewhat better in graininess, re so·
lution and contr ast.
~J( ~OJECTION WITll £0MUl'IO ACH·
ROMATIC 81\RLOW Ol'i 3" RE.•RACTOR .
K-2 1 TAI·>(. CAPPED £lCPOSUAE AeO~ Vsstc.
71
 SHOOTI!\G pictures of the stars is probably the most b.scinatlng
phase of astro photograp hy. Objects which you see dimly or not at
all are revealed clearly in time exposures. P icture-taking equip -
ment need not be expensive; you can get nice Image quality with
ordinary achromats as objectives. The one "must" in equipment
is a clock drive, plus a compensating slow-motion on the clock
drive itself. You will hear tales of star shooters getting good pies
using ordinary manual guiding of the telescope, but such feats are
never enjoyable and are rarely repeated.

GUIDING. Star pictures require time exposures from l minute to

•
•' 30 minutes or more. During the exposure period, the telescope
-1 t. tt<W•IW\1 L
• t must be guided. This is a continuous operation, somewhat like
steering a car down a road where you keep on the right track with
dozens of almost imperceptible movements of the steering wheel.
Many beginne rs get the idea that the clock motor drives the tele-
scope automatically. To a degree, it does, but not with the exact
precision needed for taki ng pictures.
In the usual "starter" outfit, you will be shootin g with u camera
of modest focal length, using t he tel escope itself as a guide tele-
A-m>IGAL SETUP fOR. scope, Fig. l. An illuminated, grid-type reticle is an aid since it is
A.STRo-PMOTOCRAPM'f

ILLUMINATED
RETICLE )

~
.'•
..
•
@ ORlf.NTAT IOl'I @ MO'l/E.i'Af.r<r OF i
OF RET ICLE GU I DE ST"lt /
Moye T£1 FrCO/>£ IN ~6MIN"f AU>NG !111
R.,A. N!O ROTltTE £Y£- .&! l..tN& IS A l>Bt VE tfB/J9R
p1£CE 7P M4KA li8/R JNJ:ILCJJ. l:l1(I. CIW CORR.ECC
LIMfiS FOUQVJ 11{£ STAB WITH SP"·MflTKJN CQdT80L

MOW 10 ~INO @)
GUIDIM6 TOlf~eE
~ STHn' \AllTll TllE G~ IOU. TW"T A
STAR tw::f\1£.Mi)tT Of' ,003• (Y3~<\ tl'I ANY
PIR5C.TIOM FllOl'tll CE.IO'e.A OF'"~AR l/M6e.
1.11\U. et 1'12ACTICAWI' 11'Nl$tet.E tH A Pl40TO PRINT
Fm<ow ?H£U Blll.£1 :
~IPl"I' E.f.L.. • F.L. CJW;JlA J( PT. ~ENT .ocn.~ rUJE6

(,Utg\S;COPli. £.F. L,
GUIDE SCDP£ M. • IHT E.F.L.
6\llDIHG TOl£AN4eE: ,003 it G-U t 0£ SCOP' N1. ~ .·'f".

72
 •
2s•,___ __ _,_
• •
easily visible and allows you to position the guide star at any of the mul- •
•
• •
tiple intersections of c r oss lines. Do some practice gu iding before at- •
• .AA-·· ..
•
~· •
tempting actual shooting. Pick up any bright sta1· and locate it near the
center of field. Now, move the telescope back and forth by hand in RA
only and note t he movement of the star. Rotate the eyepiece to make any
.... e ••T~
~
••
roticle g r i d line parallel with this m ovement, as shown in F ig. 2. Fix in [Au/;ur. At 1

you1· m ind that t his is t he RA line. Any movem en t of lhe guide s tar a long
STARS • ••
~It . •• •
the RA line, F ig. 3, m ea ns t he d rive is too fast or too slow, and you can •
•
• •
•
correct this with t he compensating s low - motion . Any movement away
from the RA l ine means an error in setting the te leg<'ope to the pole. The
ideal way to correct such an error is to have a slow-motion on the de-
.._ ·.- -- '-
3."~ '46- 4.T' 40..
clination shaft. Lacking thi s you can so metimes get the needed correction
TME PL£1AO{S . PICS 6tLOW lAKEl'I
by moving the telescope in declination by hand, preferably stopping the WITH 18 " f.L, l.Y4 "0ll\ . l\C l-I ROMAT.
exposure while doing this and resuming exposure after the guide star is 3SM.., TRI-)(. PR1"'1'$ ENLllRvED 3 X
seen to be rid ing right on the wire . The drift away from the RA line is al- l\ND SHOWN ~ E R i; l"V LL-S l"l. E
BUT C ROPPED A&oVT 50°/o
ways a s low, s teady movement, a lways one way, requiring cor r ection at
long inte rvals. The preferable way to sol ve d eclination drift i s by accu-
rate sett ing to the pole position; if the pol ar axis o f your te lescope is no
more t han I / 2 degree off the pole. you can make exposures up to 30
minutes without appreciable elongation of the stur images.
Practice until you can guide smoothly, never once letting the bead off
the wire. Actually, the way the guiding tolerance is applied, you do not
let the out - of-focus gutde star encroach on the reticle line; a cross-
over is a definite guiding e r ror in excess of tho permissible tolerance .
'rhe guiding tole rance is about .003 inc h as a ppl ied to a photo pri nt viewed
at a distance of 10 i nc hes, this being about t he lim it of visua l acuily,
corresponding lo aboul 1 minute of arc . F ig 4 explains how t hi s tole r ance t lO Mi ll. EXPOSURE j, 12 MIN.

TABLE 6 MAGNITUDE of FA1ntest .Sta.r

APEltTUllE VISUAL NOAA\AL PMOTOG~PlltC RA,..GE
(CAMUA FOG- LIM I T
l.UI TH 11.ll'POSVltE T IM£
ruf~P£1 - · 'SCCPE I Ml N. ~Ml"'· 9 ...... -Z.1 MIN .
81 ""'"· f/3 f/s f/7
1/1 " 7.3 4.5 s.s 6.6 7.6 8 .6 10.1 11 ,4 12 ,0
~/~ " 8.2. 5.4 6.4 7.4 8.5' 9.5 11.4 12. :> 1) .0
1• 8.0 E,. O 7 .0 8 .0 9.1 10 . I 12.0 r2 .9 13.5
11/4" C).3 6.S 1.s e.s 9 .6 10.6 12.4 13.S 14.0
I Y-z." 9 ., 6 .9 i .9 8.9 10 . 0 I 11.0 12.8 13. 9 14.4
I ~" 10.0 "7.2 e .'2.. 9.3 10. 3 11. 3 13. 2. 14.2. 14. 6
2." 10.3 7.5 8.5 9.6 10 .6 11 . (:, I). 5 14. 5 15 .l
3" 11. 2 8 .4 ~.4 10.4 11. 5' 12.. 5 14.4 15.4 16.0
4" 11 . 8 9.0 10.1 11. I 12. I l~.2 15. I 16 .0 16.6
t I MIN.
5" 12.3 9.s 10 . s 11. 5 12.6 13.6 IS.1 16.6 11. 1
.
6" 12."7 9 .9 \O. ~ 11.9 13 .0 14.0 16.1 11 .0 11.4
a· I). 3 10. 5 11. 5 12.6 13.6 14.6 16.6 17.4 11.~

10 " 13. e 11.0 12..0 1~. I 14. 1 IS. I 16.8 11.1 18. 1
1"2." 14.'2. 11 . 4 17..4 1'3 .4 14 . s 15 .S 11.0 11. 9 18. ?.
/M.SEQOrl FOB AVERA_GE Fl4M£ I/ N D CL£11A f)(/!()S{/8£ TIME LIMIT IS..
ASU.tt ::f.. Q> A i l'I05'PHE1!.Ji. W ITH. V§::t. ~Sr RQ.ACt:/PD WHEH ..SKY
'VAKfbE'R /Z.1.k.M. '1.ND " § OOD .5E~ING1 - q MA r' BlJC.KvAOUNO 8«0/tl£S
:m S.E.~ (;.I/JI'/ ONE_M i:wo IJdllGt:t.1~12£.r NEIJ.8!.Y ii$. l'JAlGlfr /I S
MA!i, 4.2 EJl. l N 1:fiA ~UIB fb!!'G~

Jl
 TUBE
~8 "la'
@ GOtNOtSION or PlATE SCALE TO E.F.L! '\
SCAL.E G IV El'I 1ormu14-for c..r.L £~o.. m pl.-.s

SECCHOS OF A~ E.F. L.:

e 12"1 ~)(: 1100 SEC. PER MM
~ 81'21 - •
I/
S6C. OF <\RC.
PER MILLINIET£R (ln<hnJ P£R MM E.F.L. I I 'X> - 1 {j.,g,,..) 11
Ll~EAR t;J(: 1° • .I?/' (incJ,t!$) ,,•/f;·
hlGllE.S PEil Of.GREE l:.F. L) : ~'ffo 51. 3/( E..f.L.: .13 >' 57,~ ~·
/illCMs IN IHCMES

, • , 'fo FIND /ltATE $CAU: UIHE/11 E.F.£. IS KNOW/II

4011 WA"1'10 FIP'D FO~MULA ~'*1l!l~le (~ AS<JVE)

SEC.Of
PLAn StAL.£ '" 812., a 121 =noo·r.r('C.C)n<(•J
~
SEC.. OF AIU. PUt MM. ARC = E.f. L.?f. d.J 1.4
PE~ NIM
I
PLATE SCALE 114
IHCMES PEit DE.6Rt£
INCllE~
PER
D£GRi;r.
.... E..F. l.
51.3.
1.4~

51. >
= .13"(/,.a.es) r BATTERY
..,,,...,
HOLDER
RllEOSTAT
PLATE SCALE OF ~ PoPUlAR MAPs ,
MAP OR ATLAS Pl.ATE SCALE CorresP>n6i119 £..F.L."
0 STAR ,. - .r3 /liJ 51. 3 = 1.4 s"
NOR'TOf'l S
~ECVAA.,,~~~
A'TLAS
,. m .3inGI.
I ncll

~ff
.13 .,

.~ /( 51. ~ = 17, 19•

:y.. J( l~ ~ 30"
SEGVAR A,.LA>
EGLIPTICALIS
,. = , 8 lnGh
'':/
~
.e /( s1:;,.4s.ss"
'JE!IRE/ol~ ~~A'l~• 1• .... .6 inc~ .6 ,.. 51-3 = ?.4.~· DOUBLE BAACICET
.. E.F.L CAN 81: IWY Cl)ft'l8JHAr10t< OF CANJEM F.l. times PRl/JT £/JLAAGEMEtir MOUNT for CAMERA
OR GUIOE TEUW>Pf

is applied to the mov.-ment of the guide star it- mg it practical 10 use extreme projection or even
St>lr. Previously, you should measure the lines or inferior optics as needed, the sole aim being to
wires of the eyepiece reticle, using a measur- increase the equiva lent focal length or the guide
ing magnifier. This known dimension can then be tele scope,
used to measure the approximate diameter of an
out-of-focus star image as well a sits movement. FAINTEST STAR. Table 6 shows about what you
Putting the guide star slightly out of focus has the can expect in star pjctures with various aper-
added advantage of making it easier to see--the tures and exposures. The general idea is that
m1n1mal point image of a star can very easily mcreased exposure will bring faint stars into
get lost behind a thick crosswireor grid line. the picture while making bright stars bigger.
P referably the guide scope should be of longer This is illustrated by the top and bottom pies of
focal length than the print e.f.l. In any case. the the Pleiades on previous page. It will be noted
guide scope magni!icntion (see Fig. 4 and ex- from the table lhe. t an exposure increase of about
amples) should not be allowed to drop much below three times is needed to gain o ne additional star
unity, i.e .. you should no1 try to guide with a magnitude . That is, lf with any outfit and any film
guide scope of shorter f.l. than the print focal you are able to capture 8th magnitude stars with
length of the actual photo prints. In the setup an exposure of l minute, you will need 3 minutes
shown in Fig. 1 where the camera is 18 in. f.I ., exposure to capture stars of 9th magnitude, and
the print e .f. l. will be 54 mches when prints.:lre 9 minutes to captw-e 10th magnitude .
cnlu.rged 3x. This is greaterthanthefocal length You can reduce exposure time with faster
of the guide telescope, which in this case is the film or larger aperture. When you are shooting
reflector itself of 48 in. f.l .. a little shy of unity pictures of extended objects, the light pick-up
M but still workab le . Preferably for this setu1>, of a lens depends solely on its f/valuc, i ,e., the
a positive or negative projection system would ratio or lens aperture to focal length. Any lens
be ust>d to increase the guide scope magnifica- rated, say, f / 4, will pick up exactly as much
tion, a 2x Barlow being most common. Image light as any other lens rated f / 4 even if one is
qu1slity in a guide star isot no importance, mak- much larger than the other in aperture . On the

74

ILWMlllA"TEP
EYePIECE
A BARLOW (J&r
F " ¥
UP FOB l ll.)
3" li!EFRACTOR
CONVERTED TO
ASTRO-CAM1'.RA
@
?." li!EFRAC.IOR
Pl66VBACK ON
6" ~EFLECTOR
' .....
- ..
....
' ..., .,,
.,,,.......1 .... ,,
other hand, t he light pick-up from luminous point
objects (stars) depends entirely on the aperture
of the lens. A fairly fast f/ 4 camera lens of 2
inches focal length is a comparatively "slow"
lens for star photography for the s imple reason
it is only 1/2 inch diameter. Most star pies are
taken wi th lenses of 1 inch or more aperture;
2 in . or a little more is a comfortable size for
average astro cameras like the one shown in
Fig. 1, In any case, the lens will pick up just as
much starlight whether it is f/ 32 or f/ 4.
PLATE SCALE. Most star pictures must be
planned. You must know what you are going to
shoot, how to find it, what size it will be on film,
how long to expose, etc. In particular, you must
be sure that the target object will fit the film
area. Tables 1 and 2 will be found useful. The
plate scale of a map or photo often enters into
the problem; this can be determined by apply-
ing the formulas given in Fig. 6, The scale of
most star maps is not large. If you plan 3x en-
largement, the scale of Norton 1 s atlas can be
obtained with a lens of only 2-1/ 2 inches focal
l ength. One of the larger atlases in physical
size is Becvar1 s Atlas Eclipticalis covering 30
degrees north and south from the cele stialequa·
!?£MOVE T!i8€AMQ
FROM.. ....
"t1Jr''tNe--
PART
081,lt{AL LAMP
~ i :\iii
11 11111111
1
C,QVE,S •• •• PB(U
£t r ANO Cli':1€,Nr Y4"EYEPl£C.E
TO NEl-IJ
~~"'" '
BASE \ . . .,.__-+-_,,.
f;l(TE.NSION
TUB6
( 1Y4"0.0.
RCTICLE.
SC.f?~TCH
&RID?/NE!"
/dl!TH />IEEDI.€
@) ILLUMINATED EYEPIECE
tor. Even its comparatively huge scale of a bout
4/ 5 of an inch per degree is exceeded by the
modest outfit shown in Fig. 1 when negatives
are enlarged 3x as is standard procedure for
35mm film.
EQUIPMENT. A good starter isanastrocamera
of 12 to 20 in. focal length and 2 in. or more clear
aperture. This is t he kind of outfit shown in Fig 1.
If eventually you plan to use bigger equipment,
the double bracket support shown in Fig. 7 may
be installed at the start since it will handle both
large and small astro cameras. One common
combo has a 3·inch refractor piggyback on a
6-inch reflector, Fig. 8. In this drawing, the
reflector is the guide telescope while the
"camera" is the converted 3-inchrefractorused
as a direct objective, With the standard 3x
print enlargement, the print e.f.l. becomes 135
inches. This is matched by the 3x Barlow on the
reflector, making the two scopes practically a
1:1 match-· the guiding tolerance reverts to the
basic ,003 inch. It is also practical to use the
refractor with elbow erector as the guide scope,
shooting with the reflector . For this setup, the
reflector main mirror must be set forward to
make the image plane accessible,
A full - size section of a typical illuminated
eyepiece is shown in Fig. 9. This uses a standard
purchased eyepiece which must be machined to
accomodate the plastic reticle and lamp. The
lamp is a grain-of-wheat lamp operating from a
single 1·l/2 volt (s ize D) battery. This lamp is
made for 3 volts andatl-1/2voltswill burn dim
yet bright enough for reticle illumination. The
battery case spec ified has a rheostat which is
needed to fade out the light a little in order to
see the star images. The reticle must be in the
focal plane of the eyepiece; check this with or
75
'•
 @)
TUf>E.l.£~$
GUIOBCOPE
,
ILWMll'IA"tED
EVEPIECc
t
STAR
DIAGONAL
® ing tbe degree ot deta.il which the eo.mcra. lena !ii obllf
DoUBLE. STATloN
OM E>" 2EFLECT02
without your glasses, dupl1callng your regular
method of using the eycp iecP in actual observing.
Recheck this in ::tctual use- ·the star image should
stay put on the retie le Linc when you move your
head from sid~ to side.
A long fo cal leng1h guidcscopc fo r use with a
reflector can be tubeless. as shown in .Fig. 10.
This is conveniently mounted on the double
bracket support shown on a previous page. A·
nother common setup with a reflector is the
double station. Fig. 11, which has separate op-
tical s~ stems for guiding and shoo• 1ng.
SHOOTll\G HJI\ Tl:>. l n 1nos1 cases you will have
no trouble fJ.nd1ng a suuable guide star. It is
not necessarv to use the ob; ect being photo -
graphed as he guide star. Jn iact, you can point
the guide scope a: random to an~ star in the
VJc1n1ty and 1· will guide just as perfectly as
on the object itr;elf. However, it is alwa) s more
convenien~ to guide on the i;ame obJt>Ct )OU shoot
for the s un plc reason that the guide scope then
ser,·es as a finder· ·>ou know that whatever you
see in the eyepiece is dupbcated at the camera.
This is sometimes a must when objects are too
dim to be seen on the camera gr ound glass . Most
35mm came ra s have a built-in 1nagnifier and this
is always used in focusing. Sharp focus is JUSt a
matter of making the s tar 11nag<!' aR Arnall as pos-
s ible . If the object is too dim lo focus easily, turn
the ca mera towa r d a brip;ht stur and focus on that,
ln guiding, always le l lhe dri ve run several
minutes to take out any lost motion. Try to avoid
76
equivalent EXPOSURES
TABLE 7 ts three tables In one . The main body ot the
table gives equival ent exposures tor • wide ranae of
CJ values. The two right hand columns (ive the linear
resolution or a perfect opt 1c:a.l t.ystem. 'rhe t hird table
is a general exposure rulde baeed on ASA apeed index.
EQUIVALENT EXPOSURES are mathematically exac•.
The bug in an, such t~ble 1$ 1 rec1proc1ty failur•," which
i&. a. technical term applied to film emul1fon1. It means
s1mpl;r that for extreme caees the film doea not re1pond
or reciproc;tte in exact m.alhem•tical ratio lo the amount
of light rece1\·ed. You can relJ on oq\Uv~lent expo1ure1
o ...·er a moderate range. !Say, about from f / 4 to f/ 84.
Be:i•ond these limits. add111onal e xpQeu e 1me m&) bo
necessary.
RESOL.CTIO;>; can be related to C/value. and 1he reso-
lution column& l.1l the table give the tan•• per milli ...
meter which a perfect lens of <1 itp@clfied f, value i i
able to resol\oe, llo1ost fi lma also 11 ... vc a reeolutlon
value in lines per m.Jllimeter. Tho gener,J.l Jdea tll •.hal
a film should be selected \¥hicl1 i11 tapnblc of regieter·
to resolve. Obviously there is no point in uslni a fllm
of high re8-ol ving power, eay, 200 line• per mm •• if the
ca mera l ens itself is ~ble to rt!1»CJlve on ly, say. 2'4 l ine•
per- mm. On the other hand, 1! tl1e astro camera ha1 hllh
resolving power, Jt becomes n('ce88ar,Y to u1e film or l11gh
J'esolutton in order to reali~4J tho rull potenti:il of the
astro came ra,
Jt should be noted that the tnbulalod r·oeolution valuea
are for pe1·fect optJcal a)·stemi:; whe1·0 the rc&olut1on iA
'
limited only by the physical natu r e ol llaht, Most fllona··
even the fast ones-- will tesolve 60 lines pCI" mm., and
this kind of resolution is satisfca<:tory for m oat u.Gt ro
cameras and subjects. The human eye ca.n rciolve (bilrcly)
6 lines per miU1meter. Hence. a print of thJ1 rtsolutlon
will appear ~harp be c ause the eye c:o.n't quite re.alve
its grairuness of 6 lines per millimeter • .t\t 3 11ne1 per
11 1
millime1er. )'OU can see the PJ,tt<:rn and the picture look•
so!t or 'wooly. 11 Since picture• arc ueua.ll.)' enlarged from
the negative. the negative muBt ~ho'"' ar~otter reaolutaon.
F or e:x,J.mple, a. negative resolvtna 18 line• per mm. will
be 6 lines per mm, wbcn cru ... r1ectthrcc time•. ;\a alri"ild)'
mentioned this is the borderlir:e case for tr\lf •harpnt-sr.~.
F rom the table )'<>U can aee thl• Uml11 a1tro camera
systems to ~bout !1 80 if )'OU pl.an 3x enlar1emcnt1.
ASA ~U~18 t;RS are keyed into tlo..: l ot.ble at about tht
le\·el currently recommendM b)' film manulact"rera.
This leads 1oa m1nimum expoeure i.alue--more: e>lpo&urr
:lme tn&)' be req1Jired. An eaa)· WB)' to relate ,\S1\ number&
to ex'])osure i 9 that the e•p0sure ut f i 1 S 1& cqu.al 10 the
AS.~ numbe r- expressed as a fract1orr. Thi• 11 !or 11. dw.y
time ObJ.eCt in brtaht sun. Example: AS,\ 4100 meana
1 (-iOO second a.t f/16 !or a distant ob31ct in brt,ht •un.
jockeying back and forth m gu id ing. Wit h sho rt
f.l. cameras, the guiding iolcrance is comfort·
able and you can even let the drive run unatiend·
cd for several 1ninutes. Anything over 100 inches
print e .f.l. needs constant and careful gu iding.
You can get some nice pictu1·es with as Little as
5 minutes exposure and almos i a ll of the open
star clusters can be photographed in a half hour
or le ss. using ordinary A.SA 400 film .
TABLf i
EQUIVALENT EXPOSUf;?ES IH SECONDS FOR VA~IOUS f /VALUES ~.:.!
t/ Cl.SE ANY 'i~l~rJ.'A'-
1/9600 1
te.OLU6tJ.cJ.. ~4tzzldll'~·lo ~S«.llT.fia .._y~ SE<,8.[.£/~6
y,.
~~&.?~~~
~ '11,.00 1/iooo 11eoo 45ll 11600
4
:1:2 \".
~bOOO Yi ~
" 1/6400
/72.00
,,,,. ~200
Y- .....400 ~2000 1/11;00
\lu.oo \.\.......
'11?>00 1/1000 11eoo 1/600 11..00 ~66 9300
4 .5 }'13000 Yi 1/sooo •1 V: l/o.~ '16~ lli;oo
t:
1/z.ooo !f1300 !11000 V400 31.S 8300
1
54 Yeooo Yn.oo ~200 112.400 '11600 \Ir~ 1/eoo 1600 l/soo 1/400 l/300 l/2so 1.61 6650
6.~ Y64oo !f4200 \I~ !12.500 Y1900 l!i300 V.ooo 11600 1/soo 1
/400 'l>oo 1/250 1hoo U'l. 5900
e V4000 !12600 ~ Yl600 l/1200 "300 l/4oo" 1/300
Y600 /250 1/200 l/160 Vt2" 18?. 4650
9 Y?>wo !12100 Vl600 Y\300 !11000 looo Vsoo l/300 1/2so 1V200 1/160 11i25 1/ioo 16?> 41'15
I l.J. Y2.000 YllOO 1/IOOO Yeoo 11600 Y"K>O '/300 :.7.oo '1160 l/i2s '!too l/eo 60 130 3~
1
1'2-5 Yl600 V1000 1/aoo Y600 '/Sao '!300 'l:i.so Vtoo '1125 1fioo leo /60 !so 111 2.950
16 ~IOOO V6so 1/soo 1/400 1/300 Y200 'll60 V.oo Yeo V60 Yso 1 140 '/30 91 Ul.5
1/eo 81 wso
18
7?.6
Vaoo Ysoo V-400 Y32.0 '12AO
/soo '/?>'l.S Y2so Vwo 1/1so
!.160
1/ioo
1
/115
Ylla 1/s-o v"°
1/40
I so V40 'll<>
V2s 1120
1/25
1116 61 1650
~
2.5 Y4oo 11260 11200 1/160 1/r20 Yeo '160 V40 lf?>O l/z.s 'ho V16 Yi:?> 59 ISOO
28 l/;,20 l/200 11160 V12s 1/100 1/60 Vso l/30 l/u Y:l.O !116 '11'2. V10 S2. 132.5
"&'2.. l/2so Y1so 1/125 Yioo 'l-,s I/so Y.<IO 1/2.5 V= 'li6 Ya2 1/io Va "16 1115
36 !1200 1/t2.5 V.oo 1/eo V6o 1/40 V30 Yw• 1116 1/13 Yio l/e V6 41 1025
40 1/100 1/ioo Yeo Yoo Vso ~ fu \li6 'Ii?> Yio Va '16 l1' 31 9'2.5
4S 1/r2.s •/eo 112.s 1/12. \, A 11s
Y4
V60 ';so \J:?>s ho \110 V6 32. 825
so 'lioo 1/6S I/so !f40 \l?>Q \.<:to !116 l/jo l/e ~6 Vs 1/4 V?> 29 -,so
ss; l/eo Vso V-40 Y?>2 Y24 Vi6 Yi~ Vs 1/6 l/5 1/4 113 21s 21 (,-,5
60 •no V4s ~5 ~ ';20 !114. 1/11 In 1/5 V4 1/,3. 1/3 V-i. 24 6).S

..,,
b4 1/60 '.4o V.i.o 1/7.4 Via
I/so 1/30 \125 V20 Y1s
•112.
1/10
Yio
Ve
1/6
l/s
l/s
1/4
V4
V.?>
I/~
Vz..
2/s
Y2.
'/2.
Y.i.
'23
21
515'
500
eo 1/40 1/2.5 1/z.o 1/\6 y,.,_ I/a Ye. V4 113> 'TS \12. 273 ~1s 18 4-,s
90
100
113o l/:>D Vis
Yis V16 lrr2. l/io
\112. v~
1
1e
v"
Vs ~
5 V!>
1/2.
'2/s
1/2.
Y?.
21~
Zh
I
4/s
I
I
tY3
16
14
400
:!>-,5
128 Vis Yio '/1 Y6 \.-5 l/3 v... ~ !V6 I I~ I"t:?. "2. II '.300

®®®@@@-©®®®®®©
650 soo 400 300 200 160 100

THE ASA NC/MBE&r. AllE KE'Y;ED lt:!.r:!l. 't:.HIS r.AIJL#! £.Oft A SRl(;~r $VN, 4_VE/Q4&-E'
eo 64 so 40 3:i.

Sl/B./ECT, F~cwr. '-.lli.tJ.Z:.E/21 AT M£0l(/AtJ. LLJN(i;. e.1.t:c~ti.CE (..Zl2 10 !00 ~~R£2~)

-
~IC&ALWlllTE ASA st&s. Al/llU..ll&ILm' MAlll COlDlt
ei1>.'"J
FILM O\TA19"
.SPUD Ul'l!S )5
PU-
FUl'TUti Of'
HUM8tl FILTtlt UC!OR Acti.on of FILTERS
ISOPAtl tS:F '"°'"
is 130 v I' I Hi
C.aAlol Kl IJ6'4T
YW.QI 1. 5
Aa.'SiOilt&S SOM&. ~TitA,'110&.a'" lvfO kUl•VIOU.T.
HOT E.FFE<.TNE: WITt4 AcMRDl"l\ATS
oo~
ISOPAI' IF 100 100 v
.... K2 l'iUOUJ '2. 9'£TTEA. 1'tt.Ari JCJ IH A&SOaMHG- 9Wl-VK>L£T.
P&l'llTAAn~ HAU.. 6000 ""lH l\CHROMATS

~ tss eo
-
ISOPAN 2.00 v ,.~
LIGHT AMOA.&$ i;V, VIOl..~T AMO SOMt &LUE.
AUOI 1.5
~ ISOPAN llllRA 400 10 v ~$i F'£HeTAA~ SLIGHT MA'UI
l.11<6 Al Bur SrltONG&ll. GOOI> MAl.•
ISoAAN~D ll.50 60 v 's'P'E.l'.;-I Alll02 'fW.ouJ '2. P~H•TAATION. GOOP WITM l\CIHlOMATS

VERSAPAN 12.S 100

" ... v ~u
11 •Go_t!
... IC~
~EP
'QI.OW '2. R•MOl/ES MORE. SW£ TMAN i<l.. CUTS
TMAO\K>+< HA2.E. C.000 l'OR ~AR 08.JEc:.'TS

' Sl.IPER llVP"" 500 80 "' "' v SP&&O OUP :; ALMOST COM~ 'LIM~ATIOH Of: 6'.<.IE.
....Lro uo ... 0000 ro• G YQ10JI E'ICC.El.Ut<r llAz.E. PEHETIU<flON

-
Ill (.OfltMn' CDP'( " FUl.L.-
~IU>S VIOUT SOME euJf; AHO SOME
P~11rrOM1C-1' l'l.. 120 ... ~~IH lCl l.16HT
3
.... ..GoRAlol
llEO· GOOP FOa AATVAAL COLOR TOf<ES
~ PLUS-iC 1'25 100 v v
,,.. s StMll.Alt TO ..1 &uT A&SORM MOQE RED,

~
>C1 6111111 H&l<CE MAICES l<EO OPUECTS °"-IUCER
VERIGHllOME l'l.5 100 v 51t.a;a., & GREE!< e AMOR.&$ VIOl..O" MOST BiL.JJe. Ati&O MOST e(O
Ltc;KT. iAAl"SMr11: GAEl.rl A,..0 VELLOU.I
INFltARE.O 50" "°
DATA
eo
v
....... ~
=~" A ~o 6
"TftANSM I~ R.£0 AND A&SOA.et,$ 6l..\J'
TA.l~'lC ~ v v ll~&~tP ANC> 'REEH. PEt4ETAAT6S HA'Zl

~AL.->C l:lSO 6o l/fst1 ~T cs SUJE s AP.>SOllBS REO, '\'EU.OW AHO C:lt£EN.

T AA,..i:M •TS &l.IJE •• .!HeREASlS HAl.l.
~ FQllM6/U.Y ''MleRo·FtU': tlJNm: F9I! '#HIAALWOAl(AHR ir£il8: RW ~""1.. d/f.Q. IJJf/NJ_JUIZ: Nluu(.tJ.'.f.. NOeMA'L J::rJ!DriJl£.6t.J:At'!7nl'l
_:s5 tJ.Q "f4 NO. ~DD. SUUI llJ IA//THOVT ~l<J'ER

n
 Ci;NTtst ~
GUlil'VA,.Ulte

f\RS1" I
;.
•-<-FOCAL~
·---~--
1u'F_ _ ____.,
,.,..,.-
R.o41"' ol Co>"'

fAC1"S
(, 'f: F,L,
POINT

about iJJ.4
~
Mt&fQPS
{ . =
F.L. z 1/ 1 Ra.ciius
Rod.II.IS 2 11 F.L.
Te\escope FOCAL LENGTH RADIUS OF CURVATURE
Mirrors DISTANCE F'~M .SURl'ACE. OF A
MIRROR lO THE POINT WHERE IT
THE RAOIUS OF A ~P~ERICAL
Mll~ROR 1 OR, RADIUS. OF CENTER
FORM!. AN IMAG£, Ot Ol~ANT OBJECT ?ON(, OF A l"AIO!ASOLIC MIRROR

.f 16 T 6"'61TTA R>R1'\UlA:
- -7 ..
~If:---:-
F I

~
6"
SAG a : ~ ~(l)IAcT=~BH!~-~-..::~"~"o~~
e·
MI RR<>~
1 R~
I ••
'!- C£H'1"E.R O~
~i<.rCENTCR "ZONE
~f/t;J IT FOCAL
F rPoorr
.~,."4-- 6"
ff,.~
DIA. L:-- 30
1
P ARABOLA
f/VA LUE SA6 1TTA
TH&: F'OCAL LENGTH OF A LENS THE DEPTH OF A CURVE. THE A CURl/E UllllCll REFLECTS PARALLEL
OR MIRROR 011/10£.D ev ITS S.AGITTA S::ORMULA IS USED 10 LIGHT TO A POINT. T#E PARABOt.A
DIAMETER. ~/8 ISMOSTCOMMON C.A LCULA1 E ALL TELESCO Pl MIRRORS REVOJ.VlO ~ORMS ll PllRllBOiOtD

l IG llT WAVE.'}
It (p MIUHWfllt•
ONE WAVE (A): ,00o02.'l: tlE-A/t. 1ti.Cd./
1

~ wAvE. (~.l.l ~ .oooooss·~,""""""'

y,, wAvt (''-.l.\
g 'ti • •oooooz1s· rz~
l"lltJtdN/il')

SPHERICAL MIRROR WA"ELEHGTH ~ LIGMT

A MIRROR WITH A SPHERICAL A Ml~OR WITll A SURFA(£ WMICll IS •.. IS USEFUL. AS A UN l'T OF
.SURJ:ACE. 'T~IS Sl{APE /Mk'tS A GOOD A REVOLUTION OF A PARAP>OlA. IT IS MEASURE TO SPECl~Y THE SURfllCE
'TllES«>l'E t~ f/VAlUt IS t/~ OR HIGHER TME l'Elll'ECT ~URFAC£ ~R 'TELESCOPES AC.CUQACY OF A L£NS OR MIRROR

,..l.
r~r
, ~rr-~-~~~=-~-~J~).
UIY()£(L·
&/Jll&'t'T{Q

~-WAVtMl~R SPME21CAL ABERRATION THE SHADOW TfST

A MIRROR WILL PeRFORM C~E TH6 l/ARIATIOH IN FOCUS 8E.TUIEE.11 SHADOW OQ KNIFE-E06E TEST
TO PE~ECTION n: ITS C.U RVE IS Et>GE. AAVS Al'll> CENTER RA~. IT IS OR161NA'f£ I> ev FRt:MCH PllYSICIST,JEAH
SMOOTH AHO NOT QI/ER. ~-WAI/£ TM E OHLY A8ERllATIOtl YOU AAVE. TO FOUCAIJL'T 1 LEYS VOU SEE ANO MEA •
I=~ TM£ IOE.AL PARAeOLIC SMAPE DEAL WITH IN GRINOING l/OUROUIN ~R URE SHAPE OF' MIRROR 'TO Y.1 wAI/£

78

Mirror Grinding and Testing
~ ELESCOPE BUILDING is a hobby any
11\J person can enjoy regardless of manual
skill or workshop equipment. The easy way, of
course, is to buy your optics and parts ready-
made, thereby reducing the job to a simple matter
of assembl y. The most satisfaction i s obtained
when you make some o rallof theparts yourself,
and the biggest thrill of all is to grind and polish
your own m i rror. With your own hands you can
fashion a glass surface accurate to a millionth
of an inch. On the practical side, you can also
save m oney: a finished 6-inch mirror of 1 / 4-
wave quality cost:: about SlOO a:: compar ed to
about $20 fo r the glai;s and everything needed
t o make y our own including the cost of getting
the m i r ror aluminized.
In precision work m i rror grind1ng 1s unique
in that the high degree of accuracy required can
be obtained with the c r udest kind of makeshift
equipment. All you need is some kind of solid
support to hold the work at a bout waist level.
Then if you rub two disks of glass together, one
on top oftheotherwithabrasive grains and water
between, the top disk will automatically become
hollow (concave) while the bottom disk will be-
come convex. Since you want a concave mirror,
the top disk becomes the mirror, while the lower
convex disk is the "tool'.' If you walk around the
work post while rubbing the two disks together,
the glass will wear uniformly all around, pro-
ducing a nearly-perfect segment of a ephe re for
Mirror Blanks
STOCIC' Sl'Z.ES
NAME- AclWlL
~
£ 1'2.£ l>IA. lltlCI(
OIA .
~H
2' • )S'Oall:' 6.18 ~:
~· 4\• ¥+
I ,,
r~.ie
6" Si" '2.1 .11
e· i'lJ°' ,~ .. 48.11
io~ 91." l J-4• 16.59
8
section~
the simple reason this is the one and only curve
which can remain in contact when rubbed
together.
Most beginners know the rest of the story. By
using finer and finer abrasive, you make the sur-
face smoother and smoother until finally with red
rouge it a c quires a shining face of gemlike
smoothness. In terms of ordinary accuracy, it
will be a perfect spherical section, but for the
super-precision required in optical work, the 25
millionths it may be inerrorbecomesanitem of
considerable importance.
Up to this point, any 12-year old can do the
work because the job is a routine procedure re-
quiring only neatness and thoroughness. Young-
sters being what they are, it is not strange that
the most common defect is plain, ordinary lack
of polish. Providing the mirror has a good polish,
any shape near a sphere willformagood image.
Most of the actual work inmakingatir&t mir-
ror of top quality com es in testing and correcting.
This is more than just making a stab at parabo-
llz.ing; it means that you stick with correcting
technique until you acquire the know-how and
skill to correct a glass surface with reasonably
predictable results. Thie is a skill you don't ac-
quire by mere reading. Like punching a type-
writer. plastering a wall or hitting a golf ball,
It takes practice. You can expect up to a hundred
hours of study and practice before you become an
expert gla1111 pusher.
PYR£1C IS THE Pl!EFEAAEO GI.ASS: , CHIEFLY FROM ITS LOW
£lCPANSION WHICH IS. OllL.V I/; AS MUCH AS P!,qE GWS:.
TH' &ACK OF TMt DISK' IS ( llfUN.l't) CLEAR, AUOWIN6 YOU TO
$E.' THE •AC'TION• \llllLN Glt1NOIN6 ,AH O POLISHIN6
IE you HA Vt THl Ho LUCK eu AJ(e o SJNG A & •• u;1
suRFAa., c;o 8/0N T AHEAD. Ml1t,Z£ Q BLACK
Qt(
Ams Nl/MtltlZIN{;~ a WIU NU HAQ11 TJl4 Mf8t!0!
~• . . P'·"'J .--., . .,. . -
HOT 01fta
• \'\&, l>f"-
THM
t
: •..
.•
•
•
• •
CK
6U&6LE.S IN P'l'ltElC
AU A FAUl.T OHL\' WHElll
TH'"( SllOlll OH SUR>ACE
79
MllU~.Oll ALUMINUM 0 )(1 0£ AMA.SlVES
~K 1s IN SHAKER TOP CON'TAINERS
'
MO L DED
PYREX,
'II 'TM\CK .. ~ r.i

....
- ~ -:: ~

°"" ...
~E
.... 110

-
Ho.uo
' .. -'·
....
""· llD
...
llo.@ t1o.600
ifao•.
I
PI TCH

6 "f/8 CUl!lllTEMPLATE:
""'
~AOI VS • %
4

SIGM'TIHG IUN<;
Ti.IE TOOL - -+ :
IS Pl.ATE GLASS DIAGONAL.
~e· TlltCK

MI RROR
GRINDING your own MIRROR
EVERYTHING needed to grind a mirror is common ly
purchased in a mirror grinding kit, Fig. I. KJts can
be obtained in 4-1/4, 6, 8, J O and 12-1/2-inch sizes,
the name-size being the diameter of tl\c mi r·ro1" The
popular 6-inch size, wtuch ls a universal fl rs! choice
with beginners, costs ahoul $40. A few extra dollars
spent for a pitch lap mat (see page 86) are worthwhile.

GRINDING ST AND. For comfort, this should be fairly

high.. about waist level. An old oil drum with water
ballast does nicely. A sturdy box or crate loaded with
a sand bag. concrete block or other weight is satis-
factory. If you mu st make sometlung, a happy solution
is the pedestal base, Fig. 2, which you will later use

-
to mount the telescope. Of course, you have to keep
hopping over the sprawling lees, but this is altogether
a minor matter. In any case you should be able to walk
completely around the stand si.nce the walk-:1round 1s
GRINDING .STANO
THIS S7YtG 1$ ."1/SC llS£l>...IJS. one of the secrets of successful mirror grinding.
/?£IMSTA4 8;U'£JPll TGLE$00P#
GRil\'1>1NG STROKE. The back and forth stroke used
11~·-------+i in mirror grinding has its amplitude measured 1.n
mirror diameter. A full stroke indicates a total travel
equal to the mirror diameter; a one-third stroke
means the glass travels 2 inches, Fig. 8. The one-
third stroke is used for about 75o/fofnll grinding nnd
polishing operations. The full stroke is used right at
the beginning when you for m the curve and again al ..
35-?>8" the end of the polishing job when you go from sphere
(3"m <S"Lpss to parabola. In all cases, one stroke lnd1cutca the
THAN rove combined forward a n d b:1ck movement. The speed
ELllQWLGYEL }
•
should be about 60 strokes a minute,

@ GREATEST \VEAR. Fig. 9 diagran1 shows the basic

80

•
 @ tlllllSl>APER
CLEATS WILL PREVENT
SKlODING WllEtl DOING TME • .• A CHARGE OF ... A SPRINKLE · •• A fEUJ MINlfTES OF
MEAVY, ROUGH GRINDING ORY ABRAS IVE OF WATER BACK AND FOltt+I RU881NG

principle or mirror grinding and polishing. The

top glass wears most at the center; the bottom
glass wears most at the edge. The action will
be rapid with a long stroke; slower but more
uniform with a short stroke. Stnce the mirror
is to have a concave surface, it becomes ob -
vious it must be on top to form the curve. Less @
obvious is the case shown at right in Fig. 9 STrol<E LENc;TH 1s
where with tool on top, the mirror curve will BASED ON Mllo?ROR DIAME1ER r
flatten. By using mirror or tool on top as needed,
you can control the shape of t he surface.
~I~
01'1£ -THIRD P1IJ(N(E

THREE MOVEMENTS. The three movements used

in mirror grinding cu·c shown separately in Fig.
10, and the combined movements which form the
grinding cycle arc shown in Fig. 11. There o.re no MtAAoA
strict rules regarding the magnitude of the ro-
80"T"TONI GLASS WEARS
tation and walk-around, but if you want some
average figures, it can be eaid you will make
® MOST AT EOG£

about 15 11teps a round the post and the mirror GREATEST WEAR
will turn around twice in your hands during
this period. Once you start actual work your --,GRIHl>IHG
STANO
own personal style o! grinding motions will
develop naturally. The mirror's edge normally
gets the least gr1ndin11 action. You can speed up
the ope ration by g nnd1n11 lul Jr o! the time with the
mirror in top position thenalternnting it with the
0
tool 1n the top position. ®
ID STROKE ~ RoTAT 10t1 mLUALK-AJ10ol'lo
FOR~UNG THE CURVE. The commonest way of tU\\ THREE MOVEMEN'l!> Of GRIMDING
doing tlus is to ust! a full stroke, that is, 3-inch ~ THE BAGI' ARD FO!lTH srROKE. DOES
THE ACTUAL G.RINDINC'r ... ROTATI O#AJVD
l.UALK-ARO<//'ID DISTRIBV7£ THE WEAR
_ ® The, Grindinq Cycle~

TOOL.._. l
\,',--~~~/ // j
MIRROR.tr too& t<J..
®..-20.Smott '<:>'
'5TART WITH 1WO DISKS END FIRST GROUP OF l'URtl TOP DISK A ... AND SID€ STEP MAKE. SEVERAL 5.TROKES
C.ENTEli1ED. MAkE SEVERAL STl<OKES WIT!\ DiSIS LITTLE. TAKE voue : TO A NE:W IN NEW POSITION.
ST!i.'OK'ES IN SAME POSITiON APllt<'OXitAA'TELY CIN1'tRID HANDS OFF Tf!E. GLASS: POSITION .8£P£ATTtffe CYC4E

81
 •

@
FORMIN<":r Tl-IE CURV£
IS A SIMPLE OPERAllON wnli
FULL $1'~0l(f.1 CW"TER-OVE.R-Cf.tlif.R

TABLE 1 ~RINOIN6 SCHEDULE it

TOOL~
NVM8UI AMOt/NrOF TIME TOTAL

- -
ABRASIVE OFUI~ A8RIU7VEPER PEllU/Er TIME
FO/tMIN6 W·!O 1·4 Mi•. 2 Hrs.
. ... ···;.•c
N!!80 .$'' •
l~t-lrs.
~

-
15-20
.{!;;~ ....... 2.-4 Mi•.
SMolJTlllN •
FVA•Sll.6:.. "
~ ~ 120 12.-15 0,r~ 5 Mi•. I Hr.
~ ll
"l N2 22.0 8-12. ,... .....
'J._ . --~~, 5 Min. 3,4Hr. ,,· ...···.··.., :.,
f-'';"'··- . .. ' :·',_1
...... '

: ..
~
)• ··.~
,, ,,. •• • • H• •• .• ...,...-•~ MIRl<:OR
N2 ';2.0 6-10 ~T~ 5 Min. %.Hr.
~
5·10 Mi•· ~Hr.
'A _,,.~,~-41.;...,...
~
~Hi
N2400 6-8 s ~ .-~·-"''- ···--~-""
"
'q;
N2600 6-8 I
161iusP· Sli.'~'1to 5-IOMin. ~Hr.

Nq305 6-8 1;,~.~~ 5-IOMi• o/4Hr.

~ t 6"M1RROR
8Hr.s.
overhang at each end of the stroke, Fig. 12, You
can tell the abrasive is working by the harsh,
grating growl it makes when it bites into the
glass. However, you lose this quickly as most of
the abrasive is pushed off over the edge of the
tool. It need not be a total loss because it can
be scooped up later and used again. The first
few wets with No. 80 will last hardly a minute,
but by the time you have gone twice around the
post you will be getting more mileage out of each
charge. Do a couple more turns and then dunk
both mirror and tool in the water bucket to re·
move the sludge. Sure enough, a little hollow is
beginning to appear at the center of the mirror I
As soon as you can get about three minutes of
grinding time per wet, the water bottle, Fig. 6
can be discarded. Instead, you wash both mirror
and tool for each new charge of abrasive, using
both disks wet from the water bucket. Grinding
the curve takes about two hours. The work must
82
be done with a fair amount of pressure of from
15 to 40 lbs. The more pressure, the faster the
glass will be removed, providing the stroke is
not so rapid as to cause skidding. The stroke
speed should be 40 to 60 pushes per minute- -
don't rush it. It is instructive to put the mirror
on the bathroom scales and then apply your hands
to register 20 lbs. This is a comfortable working
pressure for rough grinding, being just a little
more than the combined weight of the mirror and
your hands. Work periods can be 15 or 20 m.i n·
utes at a stretch, and several rounds of this at
the specified pressure of 2 0 lbs. will get the job
done in about 2 hours time. It will take an extra
hour or a little more to smooth the roughly-
formed curve to an accurate sphere.
CHAMFER. The edge of a Pyrex disk is gently
rounded as purchased and needs no attention if
you can obtain the desired surface curve with-
 out re moving too much of the edge. However, if
the edge s tarts to wear to a sharp edge liable to r- C.l.CAR FACE OIAMETER-ooj
SA61TTA I
\ chip, it should be cut back with a 45-degree
chamfer about 1/ 16 in . wide, using a fine oil-
stone, with water lubr icant, F i g. l 3. Lacking
WIW~
the oilstone you can use No. 220-grit abrasive TEST W IRES MIRRO~~-ib
made up with water to form a paste applied CiAGE Ncf. DIA.
with a piece o f metal or glass. The glass tool N0.16 .05 I"
as purchased is already chamfered. N0.11 .045
N0.16 .040
NO. 19 .036
TESTING THE CURVE. All the time you are Mo:z.o .03'2.
grinding the curve you have to watch its shape
and depth. Start using a template early, Fig.
14. The cardboard template you get with th e
LENGTH o~ 6 MIRROR
..
kit is satisfactory for rough testing but you may TABLE 2 FOCAL
WHEN SAGIT"TA IS KNOWN
prefer to make something more accurate from
sheet metal. Anoth e r useful mechanical check CLEAR FACE DIAMETER
is to measure the sagitta, Fig. 17. lf you are SllGITTA f-5--:!:-¥4.::.=,;:::5c..:. :;;'};.. :.16....:. .o:r=5....:.,~:t8..:...,.~:..:5.,:;15;,:.Y,:....6_
' ~6-"- I
working a 6 - inch, f/ 8 mirror, the ultimate goal
.0!8" S4. ~8" SS.SI" 56.11" 57.98" 59.21"
is 48 in. focal length or 96 in. radius, but a
focal length a couple inches more or less does .0?>9 52.98 54.14 55.31 56.49 51.69
no harm, A goodly amoun t of radiu s adJUStment .040 51.66 5Z,19 53.93 55.08 56.'2.S
can be made during fine grinding. 1f the mirror
is worke d on top (the usual case ), t he radius
.041 50.40 SI.SO 52.61 53.74 54.88
will shorten; if the tool is on top, the radius .042 49:2.0 50,2.1 52.46 53.57
will lengthen. Using a one-third stroke through- 48.05 49.10 50.11 51.24 52. l2.
out, you can expec t a maximum change of abou t
.044 46.96 47.99 49.03 50.08 51.13
6 in. radius if you use one position exclusively
during fine grinding, .04S 4S.92. 47.94 48.96 50.00
.046 44.92. 45$0 46.&9 41.90 48.91
ALTERNATE FORMlNG STROKES. 111ost mir-
48.00
ror grinders like to see a hollow form in the
center of the mirror without delay . This im - .041 43.96 44.93 45.90 46.88 41.81
patience to get on with the job has popularized .048 43.05 43.99 44.94 45.90 46.87
various overhanging strokes, all of which are 42.lf 43.09 44.02. 44,91 45.92
aimed at wearing the center of the mirror dir·
ectly over the edge of the tool. You can use either .050 41.33 43.14 44.07 45.00
a radial stroke, Fig. 15, ora tangen t stroke, Fig. .OSI 40.5'2. 41.40 42.. '30 44.12.
16. The radial stroke is very much like one end .OS2. 39.14 40.61 41.48 42.31 43.2.1
of the long stroke already described. The tangent
stroke is a one - third stroke with side overhang >S.99 39.84 40.iO 41. 57 42.45
and is worked on 10 or 15 chords spaced around .054 38.'2.l ~9.95 40.00 41.66
the edge of the mirror. Use the standard grinding 31.51 39.22. ..:io.06 40.91
cycle, F ig, 11. The fi rst walk-around wit h either
of these strokes is done with the center of the
.056 36.90 37.11 38.52. 40.18
mirror almost directly over t he edge of the .osi 36.25 31.04 :!>1.84 38.65 39.41
tool. Following round s are made with less and .058 35.63 36.41 31.19 30.19
less overhang until the stroke assumes the 38.1:!>
.059 35.02. 35.19 36.56
normal center-over- cent er position .
.060 35.19 36.lZ. 31.50
SMOOTHING THE CURVE. As soon as you think Jn...ihl.e SHOWING use OF iASLE:
the sag is about right, switch to a one -third or 11""''f'
1
't'OllR Mll?l?OR IS 6 "Cl/Mil
5g/;.E ANO SAGITTA l.f .QSQ"
shorter stroke and continue with No. 80-grit
£,com]itt>jp: F.L.= 45"
until good contact is obtained. The commonest
test for contact is merely a matter of watching
the bubbles that form between the disks during
grinding. By manipulating the top disk, you can
move an air bubble from center to edge, and its
changing size will show hollows and ridges if

83
 present, Another simple test is done with a
wrinkled and re - smoothed strip of cellophane
pressed between the glass disks--it should press
equally fiat all over. Also popular is the trick of
drawin g a line across the face of the mirror with
waterproof ink and then noting if this wears
evenly when grinding is resumed. Perfect contact
means you have a perfect s phe r ical shape.
FINE GRI NDING. Follow the schedule in Table 1.
Naturally, you have to clean up thoroughly after
each grade , changing paper and water, etc., to
prevent stray coarse grains from getting into
the act. The one- third stroke is used through -
out. A charge of abrasive should last for
about five minutes or t\VO or three turns
a round the barrel. When the water starts to dry,
the disks will start to stick together. At t his
point you are probably two times or more
around the barrel and can call that wet finished.
Alternately. it is practical to add more water
from the squeeze bottle. This prolonged grind-
ing is especially useful for the last wet in
each grade. Your main water supply comes
right from t he water bucket where you dunk
and c lean both disks before charging with
fresh a brasi ve. A certain amount of tool-on-top
grinding is recommended to assure equal wear
Abrasives ~/
tiiBA(N~ ARE
IJ,l'{IFORM
S"llAR~- w eJU.YJ!EDRAL
Sl:IAflE
SILICON CA1i!81DE ALUMINUM OXIDE
IS VEl2Y AARD, SHAAPAND VERY 'TOUGHl.~UT NOT AS
SRITTLE. EXCELLENT F~ J.1ARD AS $1LICVN CARBIDE .
l=AST REMOVAL OF GLASS SMOOTH AND UN IFORM
BUT TOO DAAS"rlC l'OR l'INE curn
NG AC'T ION NAKeS IT
OPTICAL VJORK IDEAL !'OR NllR!i:OR GRtHOll'IG
'IAAOENAMES : CARSILON, TRAOENAMB! ALOXITE,
CAR60RUNOUM 1CR'IS10l/Jfl AL.UNOUM 1 LIONITE
BOTH ALUMINUM O><IOE. ANO SILICON CA~BIDE All.E
AlttlFICIAL A1?>RASNES J Pl<ODUClS OF'THE El..ECTRIC io~ACE
84
at the edge of the mirror- -use this for at least
two wets per grade. If you like a handle or
p ush block. the snap-on type s hown in Fig. 21
can be fitted or removed instantly. If you get
tire d, a 15 lb. weight on top of the glass will
substitute fo r ha n d pressure.
IMPORTANT HINT. If mirror and tool "freeze
together" during grinding u se wooden block a-
gainst edge of m i rror and drive apart with mallet.
FINDING EXACT F.L. A simple reflection test
can be used, Fig. 18. The mirror must be wet
with water to make it reflective; a few drops of
gl ycerin added will keep the surface wet much
longer. The room must be da rk. The screen
should be ample size to simplify picking up the
image, which is faint and e lusive in the early
stages of grinding.
lf sunlight is available. the test shown in
F ig. 19 can be used. Stand alongside a garage
or porch so that the mirror is in sunlight but
your face is shaded . This test measures the
focal length directly. which can be marked on
a stick held in your hand as shown. The image
of the sun will be a little under 1/2 in. diameter.
More glycerin and less water will keep t he
n1irror r eflective for several minutes .
ii
, RQUND£0,
Poi.VH£DllAL
l':[§
-~~;,;;;.:...'1
G~I T Sl'Z.E E M ERY
TO A ROUGH APPROXllMTIOl'I, £ME RY IS A NAl\ll?AL. ABAA·
'™E GRAIN Sl'Z.E OR GRIT SIVE MINED Fl10M THE GROONO.
tNOICATES THE NUM8ER OF IT IS .SIM ILAR "TO ALUM . OXIDE
GRAINS PER INCH. GRITS TO BUT SOFTEIL NO. ;05 ~UR­
NO. '2'20 ARE GRACED 8'1' PASS- NISHE.D UJf11..1 M IRROR KITS
ING TMROOGH WIRE SCRE~NS 15 A CATAl.DG NUMBER- NOT
WHILE i:'IN~R (FLOUR\ srz.e.s /\ GRIT Sl"l£. OJMPAAATlVELY,
ARE GRADED BY WAT~R rulTATtON NO. 305 £M£.R'( IS' ABOUT IOOOGRIT
 REFLECTJUI\: fEST. On grits Xo. 120andftner,
a reClection test is excellent for checking both the
shape of the mirro r and Jts surface smoothness .
!'his is do11c with a dry mirror, Fig. 20. \\/hen
the surface 1s coarse, you can sec thl' lamp
reflec· ion onl) a: a low angle, as shown. The
shape of the curve is chcckea by •urning the
mirror slightly to cause the reflection to move
across the mi r r o r . Any s uoo en br1ghlcn1ng in -
dicates a ridge: any decrease in brightness
means a low spot. If the reflection remains tbe
same brightness from center ~o eage, the surface
is spherical. The most common fau!• ts:. de-
crease in br.ghtness o.i the eoge . Thi1> 1salways
lhe last to grind and polish out; hence you see
the dimmer reflection from the coo.rser surface
of the previous grade. Te1>t after each grade and
cor.tinue v. 1th each graue until the 1eflecth•ity
appears uniform fr om center to edge of mirror.
You will pick up a secondary reflection from
the back of the mirror. If a n noying, \111" can be Q '~
eliminatea by spreaoing a thin coat of vaselinc ¥! • Pl.YWOOD @
on the back 01 the rnirro1·. The test l:\mp can be 4 Y:i,"DIA.
any wattage, fila.ment or frosted A hlamen· "Z.IG·?AG OR
lamp can be used at close range, as shown, but
Ul • S Tf<lOk E
a frostca lamp must b" v1ewea from 5 or· 6 ft. to
kill oiffusc reflections. i dea to cluninat e air bubbl es on this and tbe
previous grade, and llus is easily done by silo-
THE \V-STROKE. Towara the end of fUtc gnnd- ing Lhe mirror near!) off the tool and ·h~n slowly
1ng, start !c.. rrung the zig-uigor W-strokc sho"" shding i• back to centtr; do this a:"ter )OU ha'e
n Fig. 22. The p3tter n co.n be any number of made about a half- turn around the barrel.
strokes from about 4 to I O· -a 5 or G·stroke
pallern is average. This is ablendingstrokeand A RE YOU l t t;AD Y TO POLISH? Do not o.banaon
IJ 1·oouces u better surface than a straight ccnter - grinding until .J·ou a1·e sure .)'OU hn vc a s1noo1l1
O\er-cen~cr stroke. The side o•:erhan& should surface :1no a gooo sphere . The ,urface ts
be about 1/2 in. each way. smooth lf )'OU can 1eao a newspap~r through
it with the mirrot" sc, .. ral inches from the
FfNAL CHi.NOING. The final grind with No. 305 po.per. The surface is bolh timoothand Sf)hcrical
emery can be p rolonged to advantage, adding if it passes the r e flecuon test already tlcscribea
water only, Hand pressure tapers off gradually at a 45 degree angle. And, of course, thl: surface
with the u~e of finer gr!t:1, and when you get to should look smooth and unlform- - ar:y kino of
the fine~! grade it i• hardly more than the bloom or ,;hading is a sur• indication oi insui-
weight of your hands on the g lass, It iti a good flcient grinding.

ijov. fllUO
Pitch P.tos~
of the optical p1tch is obt:iined .rom
certain ptne and spruce trees. that rrom the
4MOVl'fl
lO M.Akl A LAP
DIA. TJ.llC.k' C.U.tN.
:\orw:..\ Gp • uce b~ing rated especiAll) 11ood. The 1 ciunous sap
js bo1lt•d a11d refinec! t~> r>roduce n scm 1·solid p r oduct, \vt11ch 4 "
.s furthc:r tcmr)ercd b\ tl1(; add1t1on o! pine rosin. turpent111e 6"
arid f>(;t;:>.~'a>.. Pitch \\'ll! burn bu1 it 1.s nOl exr)lOa;,L\(' JO the
mar.r.cr o' g~&olme :'lr.d' onl:"' ordlr.3r·) prt·caut1ons urt 11e('ded
in ml·l• '''' 1l. 1: can OC n1clted in .1 l1n can dirt'fll.' o .. er an
electric t1ot plate; if \ou t1se nn open rlo.me, put tltt t1i1 can 1n !f1 L&. ( 8 02.)
a 1>a11 c11 \\Ut<.·1· . l icat &.lt>v.J.), let cool 11 l1ulf... 1ninutc bc.·fo1 c pour- 01= PITCH~
1na, · nd 1•t>111· s}O\\'ly on tJ1t \'l.:arm tool. rt\c <.l1ff1cult) oJ 1na:king COlflAll'ilS 11,u.io.
1 l• .1 J,jl> tl~t-rea.EC& '.\lth tts t1.ic-knl·6.i.--be~1nnei·b t<AK1· not1ce! CoSTS 80~
MEL1'S AT ns•F.

85
 ' I. .~ .
--6LASS
SUPPOltT
ANC> I
CARRIE.R ....._.

J1& • ~e AWM.
\

•
•
I
ELE.C.TRIC.
MOT PLATE.
@
WE.161lT (IRON)
EDMUND ~IJ.T 1$Ulf,
RUBBER MAT
ME.Tl-IOD

Making a PITCH LAP

THE FASTEST and easiest way to make a pitch
lap is by pressing the channels with :l rubber
grid while the pitch is warm. The work equip-
ment- -Figs. l to 4-·will be used throughout the

MS:LT THE PITCH IN
TIN CAN ••• IT WILL MELT
IN LESS TAAN IOMlllUTE.S
PAINT TllE PITCH w11H
ROUGE ANO WATER. S'TRIP
'!JIE <DUAlt AFT£!<' IW/'1TING
® "
\'RESS WITH WEIGHT
P ITCll GETS TOO MAltO FOR
EASY FORMIN6. 84H£AT
~ /llllOU /AP IF N~
BS SllOll/((/IT TOP UPAff
<:ARb804QO
. "
-·
polishing operation. The rouge-and-water mixture
used to prevent the hot pitch from sticking to the
C.OLLAR mat and mirror is made from one level tablespoon
@ .....,,, of rouge to four water. If you want to conserve
A POUR TME PITCH OVER 1'11E rouge. you can substitute some or all soap flakes
DRY, WARM TOOL. COu.AR for the rouge, In either case, the addition of about
IS ROUGEO lO AV010 S'TICl:'IN6
JO~ glycerin helps by retarding the drying speed.
Previous to making the lap you should centermark
the tool and then note how the mat must be placed
to offset the facets. Fig. 6. A centered system of
facets should be avoided since ll tends to polish
RUBBER rings on the surface of the mirror. A 1 / 2 lb. carton
MAT"' of pitch will be enough for a 6-inch lap. Hit the
carton several times with a hammer and then peel
off the wax paper cover, working over a sheet or
clean newspaper. Funnel the broken lumps into
the melting pot or can.
Hot pitch adheres poorly to cold glass. so you
start the job by warming the glass tooL This is
PlttSS TME. MAT INTO T"f done by heating a pan of water with the tool in lt.
UJAr:l!M PITCH BY PtACING TIIE The mirror can be warmed at the same time, the
PAINT£0 Ml~R OVER IT
idea of this beating being that a cold mirror might
chill the pitch too quickly in the pressing operation,
Fig. 10, After beating the water a little hotter
than your hand can stand, remove the water pan and
start melting the pitch. When the pitch is nearly
melted. remove the tool and mirror from the hot
water and dry both. Paint the surfa co of the mirror
with the rouge solution. It is also a good idea to
paint the rubber mat. Put the tool on a level sur-
face. Paint the inside of the cardboll.rd collar and
slip it over the tool. You are all set to pour the lap.
IF After the pitch is fully melted, remove it from
the hotplate, wait about 15 seconds and then pour

86

•
onto lhc tool to U1c leve l of lhe cnrdbourd
collar, J<'ig. 8. \Vail another 15 seconds and
then paint the surface of the p itch, l"ig. 9.
Str'lp off the ca rdboa I'd c-0113 r. Put the rubber
mat in plncc nnd 111-cs~ it do11tn Y. ith th£: mirro1·.
Fig. 10. The rnat ahould sink into the pllch
easil) with light hnnd pressure. Take a peek
to see hov. it lb doing. Ir full impression has
no: been made, you c,1n u c .1 ... eight, Fig. l 1,
for a ftcw minutes or long1:1. t\Ctcr the channels
are formed, remove tl'.e mat. Press down hgh:-
1~ ,,,th tl'.e mit ro• alone. Thii; may cause the
channels to clool! tillghll> ::ind 1f so. put the mat
back in place and re1" ~""· ltepeat pre""'"il with
@) USING A C..HANNELING TOOL
mat- and - mln·or and m111·01 alonp unlll you get
a perfect 1tnpre:.hiJOn .:ir1d good cont.act.
If you sec th" pi1<·t1 u; too C"old, put the tool
wlth lts pitch coating into the pan of hot water
and put the pan on the hotplate. Hcnt for· 3 to
8 minute& as may be needed. You can test the
pitch 'v1th 11 scrcwd1·ivcr or fltick ano so deter ..
mine thL degree of softnci;~ which you think is
needed to complete the prc>1s1ng. If you heat
ihe lap too much, thr c hannels alrcaoy more or
less formed will st.~rt to 1·un togethe r. This
heating needs wotC'r hotter thnn your hand can GUIDE
LINES Ii?\
stand, nnd that's where the g lass support and
carrier comes in handy in removing t11e lap and ~
CUTTlNG-
t ransportlng it to the benc h. Then you go through
SQOARES
the various operations ag;lln. Use plenty of
rouge - o.nd-wuter tO prevent sticking. Trim the
lap with a sharp wood chisel or razor blade.
The big 1-5/ I 6 inch facets of the rubber
mat are satisfactor') for n 6-1nch or larger
mirror. lf desir~d you can double-press the
mat to form a ~econd set of <"hannels with
facets about l / 2 inch square. This can be done
at any ume and is be~t dcla~ eel to the final stages
of pohsh1ng where the slightly smoother action
o! the small facets can be u11ed to best advantage.
@
USJJ\G A CHMNELlNG TOOL. Tills is identical
with the rubber mat method except you use a rigid MAk'.'11'46
I NDIVIDUAL THE LAP
channeling tool, Fig. 13. Pressallofthe channels PITCH SQUARES
one way and then the other. Alternate with mirror
alone until good contact is made.
tained by heating the lap lil water, F1g. l, :ind
INDIVIDUAL PITCH SQUARES. This is a long· then pressing with the mirror.
time favorite, especially useful for steeply -
curved mirrors difficult to now-coat to uniform CUTTING l\IETHOD. The direct way to make
thickness. The wood mold is a simple job of saw - a lap is to cut the channels with a knife or
ing and nailing; It should be painte d with rouge- saw after the pitch is cold. Soapy water is
and-water to prevent sticking . The pitch str ips u sed as a lubricant. This Is a messy job
are cut into squares, Fig. l 5, with a hot knife because the pitc h tends to c hip and cr1otck
or the cutting tip or an electric soldering iron. in all the wrong places . If your lap ls not p e rfec t
Each facet square Is heated, l."ig. 16, and then don't despair . Wit h care and patience bubble
p re ssed onto the glass tool. After a ll facets a1•e hol es and incorrectly c ut facets can be repH!rccl
in place, perfect adhesion nnd contact is ob- with bot pitch.

87

•
 MASKING TAPE
(1NQEXB28
&ODY ACTION Ml&8QR mrm-KJNJ
FOil FINAL Pol..ISH
WILL l>QC>ouce A
SNIOOTH SURFACE

WATER be alarmed if o. nar1·ow halo pc1·si»ts after 2 o:

9UCIC£T 3 hours.

THE POLISHJ'.'\G :;·1 HOht::. l'his can be straight

or zig-zag, "ith an arnpllludc no mo1·e than one-
lhird, or l inch ovc1 h:ing o.t e1the1 end of ~he
stroke for a 6 inch ntirror. Long strokes should
be a volded sjncc thr· 1nc·r<·uscd o\·er·hang tends to
•
-~- lurn or flatlcn th~ edge· of t he m i rror. Fig. 2
shows lhe usua l hand 1>o~llion. with the thumhs
applying modest down prpssure at lhe cenler.
The m>rror rotation cnn be the stop-and-go

it takes Ito Ghours method described for gnnd111g, or, you can
impart the turn"1g i11ovc1l1c11t ;.\•1th ):our f1nge•·s
auring the stroke, l"ig. 3. Doth the walk-around

POLISHING and the rotation should be as uniform as possible;

POLJSHJ'.\G 1s \Cry much like grmdini;: except
the abrasive is red rouge and the tool is now
a pitch lap. The mirror is on top throughoue.
The JOb Is ~i1nply to get the m i •·ror pollsh~d
" as e l car f.\8 glu.ss'' . '"fhis ta k es son1c ·1 Lo 0
hours--and kid yourself no~ that the superficial
l)Olish which showsaftcrthe fii-sthouristhe real
thing. The edge will pohsn out last, so don ' t
suck a piece of masking uipe on the mirror and
note how smoothJ) )Ou can make it go around.
r11e rirst two hour~ of pohshmg can be done
w1th a normal arm .1ctlon, GO strokes per minute.
For t.he last hot11· 01 t\VO, )'OU can get a smoother
surface if you use a booy-o.ct1011 stroke, Fig. 1.
On a small- Lop grinding stand such as the one
show n, the body strokt> ~o.n also be done by
tucking your elbows into your sides. The rouge -
and- water ab rasive mix should be thick at the
start when contac1 may be poor or the lap sur-

CERIUM OXIDE
Polishing Materials ROU6E.-Wtr.'E R .'l'.IX'TURES
I ""-RT RO\JGE
IS A PINK
METALLIC OlCIOE. ~-ST~
POLlSHE.S A£IO\ITIUJICE AS
ROUGE IS A FORM 01' THICIC 4 PAR'TS WATER
U$£ !IS .A/t/TI-ST/CK
FA.$T A!. ROUGE. M ll(ES
IRON OX IOI: . IT IS A FINE, FAI RLY WE.LL. W ITM 11.1'\TER
RED POUID£R, Mlll'ING 1!6 AND C.AN & COMStNEO
FREtLV wrn-1 WATER. IT MEOIU/I\ FOil IHfTIAL WITH RE.D ROUGE
IS C.MEAP ANO PRODUCES POllSH1H6-HgrllNJ
A GOOD PoLIS H ... SI.OW - BARNESITE. A TRADENAME
ACTION HELPS TO lo:'EEPTllE
I:8 M<>.TERIAL MAO£ O> St\llRAL
TMIH (;£.HEll.llL
RARE EART!-IS. BROOJrl COi.DR,
BEGINNER OUT 01' 1!(0U91.£. pqtJSHIHG
MAIN !'AULT IS THAT IT NON-~TAINING, EiTREMELY
STAINS TO SOME E>CTENT l/EQY I : 10 FINE. DOES NOT Mlli
. • . IT IS NOT •MESSY" THIN FINAL POUSHJH6 READILY WITH WIUER. IT CllfS
re S'PH£RE TWICE AS FAST AS ROUGE
UNLESS '(Q!! ARt MESSV

88
 -
l'I
='

@
TRIMMING
THE LAP INSPfGTIOft WILL REVEAL
P l "tS ••• SOPUNCIAL POLISH
THE ~ANN£LS M~T IS EAS'( 1'0 oeTAIN ~T A
SE KEPT OPEH -l~E I.OT Of WORK IS N£E0£0
LAP MUST SE l.ESS TO R£MOVE FINAL P ITS
l.AP OIAMETtR ~ MIAAOA

face sparsely charged. Each wet of rouge should
be worked nearly dry since It is In this state
that the rouge begins to wipe the glass with a
vigorous polishing action. The drying mirror
will become ha 1·der to push. and when ii sta r ts
to stick and skip, il Is time for a new charge o f
rouge. Polishing periods should be n o less t han
30 minutes-- best to go an hour or more to get
the frictional heat needed to allow the mirror
to bed down snugly on Its pitch pad.
all around to a void forming a ridge nt the edge
of the lap during hot pressing. lt is also easy
to see that a turned edge results when the
mirror plows into this ridge when polishing
is resumed. Use a thinner rouge solution as
polishing nears completion, and ,;low down the
stroke for maximum smooth ness.

HOT PRESSING. Do this with hot water heat In

the manner described for lo.p making. Start with
cold water. Heat until you see the first wisps
of steam and then give it about 20 seconds more.
Then proceed with the actual pressing, Fig. 5.
An alternate heat treatment employs a heat
lamp, Fig. 4, and th1a la useful for a fast press
when the contact 1s already fairly good. An over-
night cold press v. ithout weight is a perfect sub·
stitute for hot prc1;slllg; cover the work with a
damp towel to retard evaporation. Various mesh
materials such as oruon sacking or nylon net can
be hot pressed into the lap, producing numerous
subfacets which facilitate mnk1.ng contact while
giving the lap a good "bite".
TRll\1,.tll'iG THE LAP. After you have been
polishing some 90 rrunutes. you will note the
channels in the lap are beginning to close. Open
them up with a sharp knife or chisel, F ig. 6,
using a firm, bold stroke. Best results are ob-
tained if the lap Is mildly wo.rm, as it will be
immediately after polishing. An alternate here
is to heat the lap and repress the rubber grid.
This takes more time but In the l ong run ii is
probably the fastest method. Certainly, it is the
neatest. Don't forget to trim around t he edge of
the lap, always keeping the lap about l/ 16 inch
less diameter than Lhe mirror. It can be seen
that the mirror must cover the lap completely
IF YOU like, you can call
your polished mirror fin·
ished·-9 times out ot 10
the surface will be accurate
enough to produce a good
image. If you want proorbe ..
fore gettlng the nurror alu.·
minized. }·ou c;an assemble
and test a bare gla10 telescope. A oore 6-lnch ti 8 Wiii
pick up as much Uaht a&a small, l-1/ 4·1nch r•tractor
--plenty of ligb! to look at the moon or any da,>1tme
object.
As a finaltouch before getl11'11the11.&11 alum1nl~ed.
it is worthwhile to grind the face •• •bown be Jo~. 20
or 30 seconds work wJll put a neat flat rJm ~round
your gla as.
ln case )'Ou are not satistted ~·1th the 1magery ot the
bare glass telescope, try maslun.g to 6 in. diameter.
U the only fault of the mirror is a turned •di••
masking will cure it completely.

89
'Pae-Testing OPTICS l>IN>IOLE
IMAGE

~ ~ WITH LOl'l<7 EYE POSITION, YOIJ SEE

{RAOIUS OF CURVATURE CENTER OF ONLY A $MALL PART 01= TH~ MIRROR ILLVMINATEO
I< ---------------..., •../CURVATURE
i.--~L _,, " .I
r. -- •l."'~
f()l'TICAL
A(IS
-c
'-
1+-----RAOIUS: 2. F.L~
. - - -..

CD 6E,.ERAL C ASE - Au. M tRRo fiS: THE ~OCAL

LENG™ OF A Ml RROR a 1/2. THE ~OllJS oi: CIJ~AlURE
I

!iQj A SLIT
IS EASIER TO FIHO, OFFERS A
BIGGER TAl«.£T AND PROl/106S
THE MOST EVEN IU.UMINATIOll

~LL T6STtti(j SHQIJ((J BE {)ONE

/!( SENll·P'/8KN£SS 70 0871111' MST
CONTRASI. f)l)f/OT /1411CKQ(t[. . •
SOME ROOM £/6/ff JS DESIRABLE
--
Diffraction Shadows
[l A STRAIGHT EDGE
C.LOSE TOYOUR evr: --- ~"":.:
YOUR EVE CAN'T FOCUS AT
SUCll SllORT RANGE. YOIJ SEE
THE EDGE AS A OllR.:' SJ.IAOOUJ
8oR[){~O UJITH A GRAY ~R INC.E.

~ TWO STRAIGH1' E06ES

(.LOSE TOUETllER· A SllT
YOU SEE AN E:KPANDED

-!-+-- - - - -
- ---- •
PlllHOLE
~...-;L1<.KTMOUSl
~ ( ipiu.r.£1'.J"
i.,_,::;-·@rpy£8 J "
SLIT OPENING FILLED WITH
FINE VERTICAL LINES.
THE SHADIN<7 IS COARSER
WtTH A LON(, £'1E ilOSITIOl'I,
AND 1$ VER'< COARSE ANO
~

~
II
Lb:::==;.~------
RADIUS {!UAR !leellU,)
-~~- 7'-I MA6E OF
Pl/11\0LE
I RREGULAR IF THE S.TRAIGHT EOGESARE POUGH

~ IOll f'E· ED6E ANO

~ USUAL SETUP FOR TESTIHG. P1HHOLE IMAGE AT REAA SLIT COMBI NED IMAGl ,.-
OF LIGllT IS CONVEl"llENn.Y Pl.AC£0 f.OR o&SEINATIOH. THE SMlllL
OIS/!tllCEMENTS t#llL ttOl /IU(CT !tl!/IU ()(J,f{/TY (lf(JtlEMU~NTS "'tRR!OI< "'"fl'-Jl 'Q~ SUT r~
--L,.-H_E_T_W_O.-Ol-~-~-. .-PC._T_l_O_N_ __ i~ : L IO~\.»·
----· - ----
- -HI-----
- -------
PA'TTERNS ARE SEEN WITH
A LDNu E'<E POSITION. TflEV
SllOULO SE ADJUSTED Eli'.ACTLY
\
_

8 TO
\./<f'llF~ 1qR2'
lf(SJ.PA.l'«~S
PA~LLEL l'OR MA~IMOM SENSITll/ITY
~ T>IE IMAGE OF Al\IV APCRTURE IS AS
~EAL PIH~OU(OQ IMAC.fl
REAL 10PTICALLY1 AS THE APE~URE ITSELF
.•
-----
--t~I --- ---- ::::::--... ---._
I
@ A SMALL PINMOLE

'JI::::::::=-_::•::::;:::::::::=-'====='-
I

U-- - - ---- PAR"'rtCLE

s.KAOOUt
A l>1NllOLE SPOTLluHTS THE TI NY
PARTICLES INSl0£ 'IOUR E.YE: ANO YOU
S£E THE SHADOWS ON Tl-IE MIRROI?.
T~E E:FFECT IS WORST WITi-1 LONG EYE
PARTICLES
INS 10£
YOUR EYE.

III A lONC:. £Y£ POSITIOl'I MAK6S IT EASY TO

POSITION ...V~RY t:A\Ni WHEH EVE ISCLOS!:
see THE PIHllOl.E IMAGE •• J3JII. .. (st.Ct:1ltT,!Jl..)
90
 TILT
~~EW
MllUlOQ QACI(
(/>tlrlRIWNS ,-95 '•)
TESTING EUIPMENT
AFTER you have ground and polished your mir-
ror, its surface will be a sphere or some shape
very close to a sphere. The rest of the job con·
sl sts or testing and correcting to an exact spher-
ical surface, and then changing the sphere to a
paraboloid. In testing the paraboloid, It ls neces-
sary to measure the exact radius or various
zones, and for thla delicate work a micrometer
test rig ls11 convenience. Testing the sphere does
not require zonal measurements and can be done
with very simple equipment.
TESTING EQUIPMENT. Only two items are
needed. One la the mirror rack, Ftg. I, and the
other ls the knile·edge tester !tseU, Fig. 3.
The knlie block is not fastened and can be rnan1p ·
ulated either by hand or with the screw
feed shown. The knife ltseH Is fastened
•
I
-
,,
l<fll tS:E· \
EDGE
TEST Ell
to the knife block with a single screw to permit
a slight tilt adjustment when ne eaed. The lliht ls
10-watt, candelabra base, white or clear. Ir
clear, tracing paper should be taped lnalae the
can behind the slit window. The other window Is
used for setting up the equipment and i& left open
for maxunum hght output. A slit la recom-
mended, and 1s easily made from ra:r.or blade
pieces, spaced about .020•· apart (hve sheets or
this paper). The tm c:.n lighthouse rotates on t he
lighthouse post to put either window in positlon,
You wiU spend a good bit of time tl'Stlng. and
the idea is to be comfortable. This means t he
equipment should be set up at eye level ror a
person seated, Fig. 2. The setup should be In a
91
 ""
~......""';~__:;;::=......,... /RROR
KNIFl<-
ED6E
FccALP<ANe
---7.:!
IMAGEOI' ~ •
PINHOt.E L16MT
( QR SLIT) £VE
KNIFE-EOG£ INSIDE FOCUS,
@ S HADOW APPEARANCE OF A SPH E RICAL MIRROR
location where It can re1nain undjs~urbed until
the mu ror is fin.shed. A setup near the grinding
stand is preferable in 01·d°'r to avoid temper-
ature changes. Vibrations and cold air drafts
must be a voided .
SETTING- UP. Fig. 4 shows the equipment being
a dju ste d for use. The room must be completely
dark . Even so, it may take you a few minutes to
pick up the faint rerlccllon of the light house
wtndow on the cardboard screen. Once you get
the image on the screen, !t !>;brought to a sharp
rocu1> by moving the mirror rack back and forth;
final adjustments locate the image level with the
window ana about 3/ 4" from the lighthouse. Now,
seat yourself behina the tewter. Remove the card -
board sc r een . You will see the lighthouse wi ndow
1·c flected in the 1nirror. Then, rotate the light-
house until the sbt image comes jnto view. You
a re ready to test.
TESTll\G A SPHERE. \!though it is not likely
your mirror is a good sphere at th.is stage, you
cal' probably make it perform somewhat like a
sphc1"icnl mirror, Fig. 5. You will not be able
Lo make Lhe mirror an even gray all over, as at
C, since this occurs only when the surface is a
perrect sphere. T he gen~ral iaea in testing is
that your mirror is an unlimite d nurnberofcon-
centrJc nurrors or zones. You can gray any zo ne,
92
' l'OCAL. PIAN E
O~ OE~:'.i
\
0
G
IClll l~E·EOGE AT FOCUS Lil<€ C BVT/MIRROR
HAS 9!Gf€Cr11r C£JVTPl
and when you gray any specii1c zon,. the knife
is cutting-in at the exact radius or that zone .
Zone,; of longer racuus wtll s how dai·k on lert
side; zones of shorter radius will darken on right
side. Fig. D is an example. By moving the knife
forward, you could g1·ay the center of this mi r r or,
and the outer zone of longer radius would then
show dark on t he left-hand side.
Practice a httle on your own mirror. Cut
the knife-eage 1nto the light beam well tns1de
focus (toward the mirror). to form n shadow
on left side of mirror. Insert the kn1fc-cage
outside focus (away from the mirror) to darken
the right sloe. Somewhere between these two
extreme knife settings, you will find an "ave rage"
knife se tting where the shadows on the mirror
are about evenly a1v1dcd right a n d left. l! you
measure the distance from trus knife position
to the mirror, you will get the radiu!> of
the mirro r - -and, of course. half of lh1s is
the focal length. It v.111 shrink another q ua1-ter-
1nch or so during correcting and par~bohz1ng .
If your mi rror shows moving clouds, jOu
will know that the test rig is located 1n a cur-
rent of cola air. l t is possible to see through
the se c louds, but you will have troub le e no ugh
trying to inte rpret shadows without this ex t ra
complication. The trouble u sually comes f l'om
a basement window and can often b e curea by
sealing the window with cardboard and tape.
 95
0
.ooo• TO .100· SCALE

Micrometer Knife-edge Tester

If you plan to parabolize your mirror, a tester with micrometer scale Is
a convenience, worth making for even a single mirror. This one is all-wood
construction except the monorail bed on which the carriage slides, this part
being a length of polished aluminum or steel tubing. The carriage is moved
by a 1/4-20 screw. giving a feed of fifty thousandths per rev. The scale reads
two revs, allowing you to read the whole correction for the average mirror.
Lathe-turn the feed wheel to an exact diameter to accept the paper scale. Make
the wheel a free fit on the feed screw to permit setting to a zero position.
A pivoting action is used to cut in the knife edge, controlled by the knue feed
screw. A single screw holds the knife and permils tilting to a position parallel
w1tb the sht image. A fine
adjustment for knife par- L l6HTHOVSE
a lleham la obta1.ned by
means of the screw at
right side of the carriage.
The slit can be .015 to
. 030- inch; it is mounted
on a track and can be re-
moved when you need the
big window ro r setting-up.

i'
~
- .. '
1•
.l1l
, - i
""'
(.Alt!).

'"°"'

bumps '' on the mirror. Eye bumps move when you

SLIT or Pinhole?
The fiuld In a normal eye ia ralrl.yclear In much
the aame maM.er ae the average roomcontainaclf:ar
air. Yet a beam of sunlight will show the clear air
contains dust partlcles ... and a cone of light from a
amall pinhole wW show the normal eye conto.ina
many tiny particles, ranging in density from trano-
parent to opaque.
Eyee vary a:reatly in this respect, but f•w pereona
can uae a pinhole without seeing some trace a of 11 eye
move your head, and In this way are distinguished
from a similar "dog biecu1t 11 surface which results
rrom raulty polishing. The doi bhcu!t stands still.
Eye bumps can be pnctlcally eliminated with a
close eye position, 1/2 inch or lees from the pinhole
image . However, thl1 poollion Is dirrtcult to obtain if
you wear glasses. 'fhcre i.e o. aimpl e solution to the
whole problem: Use o s l it I Then the diffraction effect
from eye particles ta converted to a faint vertical
streaking which cauaee no con.fusion at all jn inter·
preting the norrrual mirror eh.adows.

93
 TESTING and CORRECTING
SHADOWS seen in knife-edge testing are easy to
interpret by imagining the mirror to be side·
lighted from the right, Fig. l. Underthiscircum·
stance, a dark area on the right :nde means a
down· slope 0 1· hole, F ig, 3; a light area on right
side means a rising slope or hill, Fig. 4. Putting
this bll of know-howtowork, itiseasy to make a
rough sketch or the apparent section shape. The
apparent shape is thencorrecteaby suitable pol·
ishing stroke~ und technics. This method of
working with entirely imaginary shapes workb
out very well. However. you may gain a better
concept of the work if you keep in mind the
actual glass shupe; a hill, Fig. 4, is actually
a flat zone of long radius; n turned eoge, Fig.
5. is not an actual turning -over of the gla11s
except possibly (>l the extreme eoge; the para-
bola, Fig. 7, is not a fancy reverse curve, but
simply a single smooth curve, less and less
curved toward the edge .
THE BEST SHAPE. At any stage of testing, the
mirror will show a valiety of shadow faces.
changing as the knife is moved back and forth.
The general behavior of the mirror shape 1s
that it mimics the knife, as can be seen in F1g.
B··if you move the kn il'e toward the mirror, lhc
mirror will bulge out toward the knife. Any of
the shapes you see can be used as a basis for
polishing work. Since the shape variation 16
caused by moving the knife, each change in
shape also means a slight change in radius.
The best shape for correction Is ·he one re·
quirl1lg the least work.Consider the oblate sphe·
roid In Fig. 8. lnside ave1·age focus, you sec a
big hill··lots of work. Outside focus It looks like
less glass, but it is very tricky working right
out at the edge . The middle diagram at average
focus shows a moderate hill, which you can plane
down with Jong strokes, and there isenough,rlass
at the rim to permit long strokes without any
danger of turning the edge.
In most cases, the be st apparent shape for cor-
rection is seen when the knife is at the "average"
focnl plane. This posltlon is localed by balancl.1lg
the shadows. looking mainly al the outer· l/ 3
of the mirror. lf the left side seems to be darker
than the right, you know you are inside focus, so
you pull the knife bnck a little. If the right side
is the darker, you push the knife forward until
the two s1dcs look about the same shadow depth.
There is rarely any need to interpret a com-
phcated shadow for the simple reason you never
try to doctor o. complicated shape··it's hack to
the rouge pot !'or at least 30 minutes of 01·dino.ry
polishing. \Vlth anything approaching smooth,
systematic stroking. you should get a fairly
smooth, concenlric figure. Jl.iaybe it will be an
oblale spheroid or show a hil l, hole or turned
edge, but it will be an easily recognizable face
and one you can work on .
TURNE D EDGE TESTS. While you can sec o. hill
or hole easily enough, the turned edge is not al·
ways so ob\·tous. The one best test is the appear·
ance of the cli!fraction ring at the edge of the mir-
ror, F ig. 9A. There is always a bright ring on the
right side. U this i s a narrow hairline of light
on right side and nearly as brieht on the left
side, the edge is good, although it may be turned
slightly. When the diffraction ring is b1·oad and
flaring on the right side and the left side is dark

sPMElllCAL AlllRRATIOI" (S. A.)

Afamily of Curves l=16UllE
OBLAT1'
AT lrlFINITY AT
FOC.US ~ CU
C~HTEll.
ATIIRE

You nul) meet the whole family or SP!< Ea::>I0 UHO£J! UNDEll.
CIQCLE
regulu1· curves wb1le working a SPHERIO U~OElt NOHE
LLIPSE single mirr or. There arc many
l~) variations or the ellipse and hy· 00,Pffi'D UHOER OVE.R
perbola, bu: only one shape for PAllASOUllD NONE O"EI!
the circle and parabola. All of the lff'PERllOlDIO OVER OVER
curves have abouL the same sh<lpe
over the span of a 6-inch mirror
. . . differences arc measured in
millionths of an inch.

94
 AN IMAGINARY S IDE LIGMT ~EVEALS < =
TllE APPARENT SMAPE OJ: THE MIRROR
rHE i.IGUT QOES IWlT CAS7 d SHl/OOIU. a IS t/(}7 "'1
S TOPPEO BY AN llPPAR£Nr 08.SrRll('VOd \V <

SHADOW

C C
___
,._
--
_
--_
-_
-
_-
__ _~_-_- _
-
_-
. .-1. tl1~~
IMAGINAll'f

::-:::..
APPAREMT
SECTI OH
fKM1r:e SET AT
l
- WORK LlllEJ -

/Krll FE SET AT I LONG llAOlllS

/Tf.11~ QAOIUS :

C: ·---{~;::]
1 THI$ AAOtUS
• '
ACTUAL
SMAP£

S PHERE HOLE AT CENTER HILL AT CENTER

TliE k:HIF£·EDGE TEST ATCEHTER Of
C.URVA1Uli!E IS A NULL TEST l'OR
THE. SPHERE-THERE ARE. l'C
SAAOOWS. THE MIRROI?. WOKS
FLAT, GRAYS C:.RADUAU.Y TO
BLACK WITH 'NO MOVING Sf!AOOUJS
WORK LIN£ Si.IOWS. GLASS TO &
REMOVED IF= ORIGINAL RADIUS IS
TO 8€. MAINTAINED. N01™ALLY A
SL161lT Ci-IANGE IN RADIUS IS P€R·
MISSIBL.E," WORK LI NE lS TllEN
AS SHOWN IN RIGl!T AAlf OF DIA<;R,AM
GOING BY TME APPARENT SECTION,
YOU PLANE DOWN A Ml l.L 10 A
~LAT SURl=ACE. 811r.•. KEE.P THE
ACTUAL. SITUATION IN MIN 0: A
HILL IS A ZONE OF LONG RAOIUS ...
YOU CO~RECT SY ()((~ING TllE CEllTU~

:(

StiAOOUI :(

·:(

J(/flfE IS ATBA/J/Ut Ktltf£ /J ATRADH/S HYP£RBOLDID

Of TRIS ZotfJ:. J

t~N~f~
APPMENT £1.UPSolO
SECTIC>ft
$HOIU,

r: ,__l __\~~:;;J
RADltlSt' i /.ONG RADIUS llYPES$01DI

AC1'UAL
$MAP£

'tUSlNED EDGE 0 &1..ATE SPMEPOIO El LIPSOI01 PMASOLOI01 HYPEIZSOLDIO

THIS COMMON DEFECT GETS ITS
NAME FROM THE 1'0RNED·O\/ER
APPEARAACE Of' THE. EDGE 11'1 KNll"E
'TF:ST. TllE ACTUAL GI.A~ SHAPE 1$
SIMPLY A RA1TEl'llN6 OF 11l6: CURVE
FAST, SHORT, STRAIGllT STROt:E
POLISHING ON A HARD l.AP WILL
USUALLY PRODUCE. T~IS KJND 01'
Fl6URE. IT IS CORRECTED WITH A
l.ON6ER sm:JK£ IN A WIOE. 'Z:IG·lAG
•.• AL.L MAllE SAME AWARE.NT SHAPE
AllD OIFl'Eli: ONLY IN APPARENT
DEPTH,™£ tlYl'EROOWID SllQWIN6 1 !IE
OA~ SHADOW. DIAGRAMS Sl-IOW
CORRECTIOl'I 10 Ra\JRtl 'TO A SPHE.RE

95
 •

C.ORRE.C.TION
ELLIPSOIO, A MILO 0EF£CT /VIAY 6ECORRECTED
PAAASOLOtD, UJITM S HORT ~ STROl(E. MAINT... 11'1
MYPEReOlDIO C.000 CONTACT. FOR MORE ACTION
USE N0.6 ON OPPOSITE. PAGE

OBLATE USE A 1/1 OR ?,/4 STROl(E IN A WIDE l lG-

SPMEROIO zAG PATTERN. POI.ISM S Mi• . AN 0
COLO· PRESS S NltN., REPEATING ~Oil
4 TI M ES. SllORTEl'I STROKE IF TtST
SllOWS E ITHER Ul<T~ HOLE ORTURll!D f.l>GE
T URNED \"4 STROKE IN /I NARllOW 1.l& ·ZAG. PRfSS
E06E 5 Mu<. WITH WE.•"" AFTEQ s .....
wOA><
AND REPEAT ~ TIMES. FOA MORE
POSITIVE TREllTM ENT 1 NO.S0>1 Ol'P.PAGt

Mill AT USE A RADIAL OATAN(>E/'IT Ol/UIMAH,IN'

C.f.NTER STROk'.E , N0.4 OM OPP. PAGE. 00 TWO
QOTl\'TIOMS (JV07 WALKS), C:Ol.D Pll.ESS s
M1>1. ANO QEPE.AT

M E.THOO NO. I IS GOOD. MAKE WAX

MOLE AT
C ENTER Pl>.1>£R STAR OR OlSK ASOUT SAM" Sl?.E
AS HOLE. US£ \/4 STRAIGHT STROKE OR
V£11Y NARroW z11;·ZAG. WORK ISMtll.1 TMHIT£ST

S PHERE ) [ _________] [ .-...--

· __J
1Perfect !
••• At/ t!IP!W1li££
@ DIFJWICTION Riru;.
TME. Rl6 HT EOGt AIJ.UAYS
$ MOUIS A OIFFR'ACTtOH
T ME MIRROR
MIMICS TME KNIFE
If THE KN/a
t t
fl.AT WttHOVT
MOVING S/Vlf>Ow5'
Mt'A.NS yrJV.fiAYC
II P£J>f£CTSPHIER{;
+I RIH6. IF 61t0AI> WITH
COAAESPONOu<(, M RK
L£FT SI OE 1 THE E.06E
1$ MOV£P I.$ TURNEO
ZOU/Ali!{) THE
1
1 I
~PUT TESTO
0
M /8ROll, Itifi I 1 Mail.ifllll ROllCMI
Tlol'-. K>llJ:E I .. IM$106 (
M IRRORS/IRFAC( I
BVlGES' FQIY!ll!M> I I FOCUS AriO CUT IN TO
If' THE K('ltf.£ IS I C>ARKfN ~OF MJRROR.
71Xkf!l/?D THE l(dj££ I KN I FE AT MOVED "1WAY A CURVE AT ltOGl $'400IS
I
I AVEP.AGE £/?QM 7}!£ JtU88111l, I T~£ l!.o6E IS TUltN&O TIJRfj[O
PO.SrtlOrl\ lHE M/llgJB$1/RFACE
* MOVA' A/µ4Y FROM
THE KNIFE
!fl ~ OlfllWTIOll "'~;;.';·-.
STAl<D ASTllAIGllT (06f. ATCIMl'tJI.
OF MIRROR. 6AADllAU.'( Gl/T IH

@ KNIFE. IF M111l!Oll E06f IS lllll"IT

~T~ D!FFRA(TIO" """ FAOEI>
FROM STAA'6MT E06E , TME
E04E IS TURN£0
APPAQENT MIRROR SECTIONS AT
TMRE.£ DIFflRENT KMIFl POSITIONS ~TE.S IS FOR TURN ED [ DGE

with no light at all, you have a r e al - for- sure
turne d edge . Fig. 9B shows one of the more
popular tests; It work11 only when the light
sourc e 16 a slit. ln app ly1ng J."1g. 9C test, you
must hold your head steady. eyes straight a -
head, a voidjng any tendency to sneak your gaze
around the e dge of the knife.
A turned edge is not a ll bad. A perfect para-
bola has a turned edge. A spheric al mirror with
a turned edge not exceeding the turne d edge of a
parabola is a better telescope mi1-ror than a per·-
fect sphere . The bo.d kind of lut'ned edge is a
gross fault in herited rrom f ine grindin g . lf you
are critical about th e e dge during grinding, you
will not have this \rouble.
CORRECTING TECHNlCS. The first thing to
try for most defect s la simply more polishing,
varying only the stroke length. For more posi·
tive action, all of the rnethods on opposite page
are usefuL They can also get you into a lot of
trouble; iirst attempts at local retouch1ng in ·
variably make your mirror worse Instead of bet ·
ter. For a hole a t center, the deformed lap, ;\o.
l on opposite page, is usually effective. The O\'er·
hanging stroke, No. 4. will 1·educe n centra l hill,
while accent ed pressure, No. 5, 16 a good way to
correct a turned edge. Work periods are short,
ranging from 3 to 15 minu te s . All work should be
done with a whole number of walks or rotations.
counting the m irror rotations if the mir·r·or Is on
t op, and the walks-around-the - post if the lap lS on
top. You can keep track of rotat ions by sticking a
p iece of mask ing ta pe on back of mi rror; start
with this between your in dex fi ngers and stop
when the tape is under righl Index fl ng~ r.
Keep a log book of yourefforls. You can e xpect
several hour s of holes and hills before i:c1 u ng the
fla t, ''e l vety moon indicating a perfec t sphc1·c.
Some "dog biscuit" is permi ssible 9jnce you can
see defects to nearly I I 100 wave, far finer than
the l/ 4-\Yave accuracy rcriu i rcd.

96
 Correcting Technlcs ~ OVERHAN611\1G MIRROR
/IPFtK.llTJ(}(I(: H I L L AT CENTER LAP

~ME 6ENERAL IDEA IS TO UJEARTllE ~

OJ DEP~ESSIHG C£1C'TER OF LAP HILL OVER TME ED6E 01' iME LAP···· ··········- ······
APPLlf!AT/Oll/: H OLE AT C ENTE R T/IE l&E.fYJIT OF TJIG OV£J?HNJtjttlt; Iii.A Sf OQ/it 7N6 MAY<

0 1.... 0f' HOLE

r
ST~
LtMIT1

:uG-2A<>
LIMITS~
I
l l1NI( Wll>X PAP£R STAR INTO TA116Elt T STROICE RADIAL STRO~E
MEATED L.AP. Rf.MOVE WMEN SyiDK$ {.$;Hfµ QJ.d,.
COOL . RESUME POUSMIN6 WITH
1/:i, STROKE. "!J<>U CAN USE ANY OF TllE TM RU $.illOICES SHOWN
WATCMTl-IE TAPE t AN'{ O\/ERHAN61N6
fl\LTERAA1£: SCAAl'CMING, SAHDIN6 .srROIC£ WITH MIRROR ON-,.OP MUST
SHAVINU OR FILING f{r ' ...........:"\

,- .. ,
CENTER OF lAP. NO NEAT ~?)..~, 9E PACED S'{IM E MIR~ RCTATIOll
t -NOT THE WALIC•AROCJl'jD • .&4t!YJ:ll9
TJJJ t0£A IS. Tl2 DECIUAU 4l?£A \ $t- ,
"° '...... _ A Wt!O« NUMBER OE Ra1ATJtJtfS•• 3JllJJ
~"
OE C0:{7Z!CT - .. 1$ 20 JCIMrllfS
WITH A 8AZQS_JJ,IADE Will €tX ROTATJOC'9Ul/U. L/jV£l A .$MALL HILL
A $'MALL SHALLOW HOLE

rn A CCENTED PRESSURE
BPPl.JtRTION: "tURNE.D E.DGE
l fHIS TECHNIC USES THE LAP
ON TOP. THE IDEA IS TO USE
T HE ED6E OF THE LAP AS A
TOOL . THE RIGHT HAND IS THE
PRE.$SUR t HANO-T HE LE.l'T
HANO 6U I C>ES AND R OTATE.$
THE LAP1 NO PRESSURE
NOTE; Tl{ti lfArt OVU?HMilt(f
ST/SOKE, 81/T (//!TH LAP ON T0p,
[!) O El>f:!ESSI NG EDGE OF LAP TH£ ACT/0/V IS PAC£() 8Y THE WAq-
f)ROVl"O
ApPt/Cl!TIQN; TU RN ED EDGE or
MILL A,. C.E.NTER ROTATE T llE MIRRO R . CA?llW
~OU CAN DO T>llS WITll EITllER >IOT WAL.J5S AllOUNO Tll€
THEN R:QTATE M /8808 A QVllRT£B
POS'T AfiQ
~~)
- "
•--J
Z/f1'·
OR C.OLD PR&SS, D&PENOING ON Dt»i'r ~ IT IJlE.t{. 8EP£AT T/,U(J "M'IG'. - --"""' V6
DES1REO.~CIR1!$1i
ACTION A ()OMU>Ull' MIJ l.L
A,~T Tlf.~fiD G/¥& llt/JGN '12/IAS£ FORA< A l40t.li
RliP</'11"g t! CNfTR,llL NILL

·MILt..

RING Defects... ARE SOMET•MEs CAUSED~.,.. W> FAuLrs.

DIRT OR ABRASIVE Oil A F'ACET WILL WEAR A DEPRESSED
121116 ON THE MIRROR SURFACE

R~!ll~o~:;,."f;..ezt:J
t/..'(.Ul.JtlHEtQ.WA
t.uHQ(.£. I AP Uf.t[l,,fi..
A 0£PRE~S£0
~VLLSIU
m™ m
~
ll$SUl/l """'
liND lJl..M{!tllE.. RING CAUS[DO\'A HI'

(!] RAI SI NG CENTER OF LAP

G,LA21NG .~
Cbl/J'i£R.~ OE. {tj_c&rS
MIJ!jtOA. <=tr
6,'1.C£Pr 111"€.ef.f..'!IJ!(!!l
APP, ICllT/Ot{/ HILL AT C.El'ITER IHEf02;NQ:l{d""1· USE
~OT-PRESS NET AMC> WA~ PAPER ... RfJN)l/E
A '21 ·~At; STR.OKE "TO
8L£/'fD OtJrAIYY (!!/NOif
UJl-IEN COOL. COLO·PRESS ?.M•N ••• RE~UME NVLON NET OUECTS It:!.. TH£- /AP
POLISMI N&. CA!ff/ON: TH(fcurs &IST (.008"1"1C<)

Be Firm!
97
 Ll(,HT
House
¥'

Figuring the PARABOLOID CD

lrAP' A
AS YOU may a l r eaa y know, the pa r a bo lo id is u dcCccti vc sur - PIECE OF
PAPE.I? TO 'TlolE
face when looking at a near object, suffering from a consiae r - Kl'l tl'E. TABLE
ablc amount of spherical aberration. lf the near object is loc -
atea a1 two focal lengths, as lt 1s in the knife -eage test, ihe
spherical aberration 15 easily calculated or can be obtained
<hrectly from Table 3. Tlus particular amount of spherical
aberration is known as the i\'lirror Correc tion. \Vhcn your
mirror shows the exact amount of ''correc tion'' specified
in the table, the s u rface is u paraboloid, and il will have no
S. A. at all when use a for ils intende d pur·posc of looking a t
distant o bjects . Any deporture from t he m ir r or co r rec tion
given ls. of course, real spherical aberrat ion nnd wi ll affect
the performance of your telescope.

Z O:\E TESTL'\G. Testing involves measuring the alfrerence in "'ZONE

rad11 of three different L.Oncs o f the mirr or, or, as alreaay ex - Tl: STING
plained, you mea s ure the amount of spherica l aberration. The
zone to be tested is isolate a wilh a thin cardboard mask. lf you
arc us1ng a s i mp le tester, the procedure is a s shown in F igs. '
~AKEA
l, 2 and 3. After mark ing t he po~itlon of the cante r zone, y ou
PENC IL
move the kn ife back until a position is fou nd whc n ? both e dge MARK
zone openings in t he mask show e q ually gray as lhe knife i s ••
cut into the light beam. Another mark is maae on the paper . .•.
The operation is repeated for the 70f. zone, and the result is THIS IS HOW TllE
Ml!/?}($.J.001(
a set of three marks, Fig. 4. They are close together and you FULL S&}
w1U need a magnifier and fine scale or a Oirect-rca<1lng scale
magnifier to measure exactly , If the marks measure within 1~

t he values g1ven in Table 3, you have a parabo la or a near -

pa r abola . C/DUN£fp.8
MAGrtll'JLB
If you a re using a mic ro m e ter test e r, the ce nter zone i s 8tlp A £/f'IG
tested first, after which 1hc micr o mete r scal e is set at ze ro, SCALA TO
AtUIS.tl.l!E
Fig. 6 . The edge and 70% zones are then direct readings fr om
the scale.
After eacb zonal measurement, you should remove the ma sk I

and get acquainted with the full -nurror sha oow at th:it particular
knife setting, F ig. 7. Or greatest interest 1s the shadow with
E.OGE. zo~E. fl
•

"Frankly, I Don't Get ltf" "':dM.;--... (!.1KE lllE GIQClE,

THE R\l1A80IA HAS
ONLV OllE SHAPE
M D l/All1ES OIKV
The p3 rabola is commonly " <C .+:-- IH SltE f8Ap 1C1S)
shown in relat i on toacircle THI &H>IV~ P'
A M!t'@o(A lf
of the 33me radius, as shown hflAtwflD IV
a t left. What actu a lly hap- TH/! VIR'TLX
pens in making a mirr or Is WHI H ClllCl.E IUID
f'AAA80IA HAVl 1~E
Lhat you form a s maller para -
bola· - il i&about l/ 16 11 shorter
SAME ltA.OIUS, lHE
PARAOOLA IS LESS
\
• c C.UQVED -· I~ IS
radius and is more s ha r ply ' ., $'MAU OUTSIDE ll'l Sl'll~RE.
curved a t the vert ex t han the ''....../rnr"l¥A l/OUIEVE/l1 A SMALL
original sphere. ......, Plll1A80tJ\ Fl~ INStl>f.
A &IGG"1 Ct ~LE

98
 CLE AA )(
~AC~
. ·?-: ' .•~,;. ~ ··., .- '".; : . :_.~-::
r~6&1±f:!~~11 . N\l~~~CO~R@Ctlllf4,;,/
:~..:i·~!i i~~ w-
3" 1/}i' ~~
~~~
2~., >116
2 'le NAM!·
sfI
N~~· EDGE "2.0NE 10 % 20NE ID
~~
'I"!>.
Sl?.Eo ~
DIA. F.L. R. MIN. 10£Al MA'/.. MIPl. ll>EALMA'/•

MASKS f/6 1e " 36" .028' .046" .o64" .oie· .o~· .oat' ~ ~ . ..
f/ l 2 1 42. .014 ,039 .064 .0 10 .02.6 .042. '2(5
f/8 2.4 46 .002. .~ .066 .001 .02.3 .045 l/4
3''
a,. 3"
•.

~o f /C) 2.1 54 -.Oil .030 .011 - .001 .Ol.O .041 1/5

..... x . ....
. ."
. .
t/10 30 60 -:02.4 .02.7 .018 -,016 .018 .052 l/e
A.V. (4. f/11 33 66 -:031 .0.25 .oe1 -.O:l-4 .016 .056 1110
EDGE aid CUITER 10"/o ZONE t=ACE:
M A KG sa ne TtuO
~,tp!f Tllllf /J,/Jl{T.E ~
2.'~6' f/12 36 72. -.052. .Ol.3 .098 -.034 .015 .064 '11'2.
f tr 2.<P/4 >9\1.. .032. .057 .081 .020 ,037 .054 '/,_
f/8 34 68 .016 .oso .084 ,010 .on .054 '!3
t -DIME.NSI ON X
f /9 38~ 16Y-. .OC2. .044 .086 .001 .02') .051 1,~
4~'
dCcoROING ZQ Ct..£8&
F ACE OF MIBR°f f/10 42.'h . 85 -.013 .04 0 .093 - .001 ,02.5 .058 'I>
CLEAR '){
f/10.6 45 90 -:012. .038 .098 -.014 ,0::24 .()62. Y6
!=ACE Av. CL. f /11 46°}'
4 93'/:a. -.028 .031 .102. -.Ola .02.3 .01>4 V1
4Y4• 9/,:i. Fi>CE'
4>1,6 \.'4 /, 43/16' f/12. 5 1 I 02. -:043 .~ .109 -,02.I .01 1 .()6(/ '/9
4 Ya 113>- " f /s 30 60 .106 .120 .134 .063 .072. .081 1'/9
4Yio >/16 f/6 36 12. .oeo .100 .1'20 ,048 .060 .OT2 i\'4
Q.EAR )( f/1 42. 84 ,059 .006 .113 .035 ,OSI .061 4/S'
~AC E

6" S'/16"
f/l.l 44 88 .051 .082 .113 .031 ,Q4q .061 2/3
5 '¥,6 9/!il . f /7:1 46 92.. .044 .018 .112 .02.1 .041 .061 91f6

E()RMUut : Cl. FAC~ RADIUS

5Ya l/4
5'o/i6 7/32-
< 6" fie 48 96 .0"}9 .015 , II I .o:u .045 ,061 V:L

..
i T IMES .101 f/9.1 50 100 .034 ,012 .110 .020 ,04?. .066 'Ii
f/8.7 52. 104 .011 .069 .11 1 .016 .041 .o&> 7116
•
f{9 54 108 ,O'l.l ,061 .113 .011 .040 .a,a '/3
f / 10 60 12.0 .004 .060 .116 .oo> .036 .06'l 1/4
AV.CL.
FACE'
f/11 66 i?.2.. -.014 .055 ,12.4 -.009 .033 .074 'Is
s ,la" f (1'2. n 144 -.o~ .05o .130 -.018 .0 30 .018 '!(,
f/4 31 64 .196 .10~ .2 14 .116 . ll.I .126 s?t4
f/5 40 00 .149 .164 .11~ ,088 .091 .106 2."13
f /6 48 96 .1 11 .131 .151 .069 .081 .093 1%

6" Ct.eA
x
8 '' f /7 56 112. .089 .111 .145 ,052. .O{:R .oei> I
~ACE
f /e 64 12.8 .066 .10 3 .140 .038 .060 .081 ~)
a·• 3/e"
f/9 12. 144 .044 .091 .138 ,(])!, ,054 .092 1/i
1 'o/o6 'V32-
1 7/e 5/16
A~.C<..
< ;11e''
~ACE.:
f / 10 eo 160 .015 .oa:z.
.139 .014 .o48 .o& \1'3
/I 16 ~1,. f/11 88 116 .005 .ens .145 !JO"!; .044 .085 ~

~~OR
(II TME MI R~OR COQQECTION IS TME
Dll=F f.~EHCE. IN FOCUS .&El'W'Elt
CENTER U>r<E ..,.,D ED6E 'I.ON E (o<t
CENTER AND 'IO)O WNE) WH'N 1'£5'TtD IS 6"f/e
\JJITM A ~IXED LIG>n sou~~ USll<U Elf.OM 'IIJBL&, REiJ(l:
TME MASl(S 5HOWr<. THE TO li!ANCE CORRECTION &E.TWEEN £DG.e
IS)£,WAVE UllOE.2 AllO OV(ll-<.QRRtCTf.D ANDCEN 'TER ZONES".
~ THE ACTUAL Cl..£Al1 FACE IS A
IDEAL(PE8i:Ao0!A?<8}: .ens•
MIN. (}A WllVE UM)(ll):.OY'J
LITTLE. LE5S T HA" l'IAME-Sl tE
N\AY:.(l'AWS.Vli. O!IE8) • .II I
~ [)OU~LE THE I/ALU~ AT 10% :u>N•
l( w1L.L c;l\/e. THE. •ULL co~~tcTIOtl C.ORREc.TION eE'TWE.EN 10°/o
''8 AN O TOLERANCE. AT E.lCTRE.ME. JONE. AtlO CE.NTER ~O N E:
2~.. ~l. I 3o/8' EDGE OI' Al/E11.AGE.-SIZE. Ml=R IDEAL.~/:.045"
Mltl . {lft1tvAVE WJ1¥81~ .013
T E!} TH IS COLUMN GlllES UIAVE•l?.«T1NG
OF M l l!.ROR IF G~VHD TO A
MAY.. ~1+2'1116 QVEB!= .Obi
I" SPllE.l!.ICAI.. Sl\APE. M IRRORS At1.'f. 'QRR6 , 'I/.ON lii.if:r::wQ#(t
RATED V4 WAvE OR LESS WILL ttJ.ltf/MflM- Mf1.£iM.Vl!1, VIJ./.tL€.£
el; ~LSfACTOf:o(, l'QQVIDl l'IG TME J.S A GQOO MIRB.QR,,,P/lQWbJf(V
e" SURFACE IS A SMOOTM cue:ve " LW. 'g TNESUl!F.JIC£ I! 11 5/t'W'TH~

99 -
 G) TME TMREE COMMON fACES Of Tl-IE PARABOLOI D

THE 5LIT I MAGE MUST

& EXAC.TLV PA.AALLEL
TOTHEt<NIFE ~
MJSAl&NME/ff Wilk l<'NI FE AT AAOIUS OF IOll FEAT R.Ao1us OF K/llFE.J\T RADIUS OF
~tY.r CENTERWNE EDGE ?ONE. lOio 'ZONE

®
"l..ONE
KZZ:~ ~#t~~
TE.STING WITH
M~Tf2
T?.STE.R
6.eAY'Tlf£
CENTER
~---TJJE/i
llJ9SQI UffNi.
NUT lllYP SE.T
SCAIE 712 llB'?· . .

knife graying the 70% zone; t his is the race or
the mirror you analyze and study for proof of
the po 1·aboloid. It is a lightly-shaded flf:(u re when
first tested, barely visible, b ut becoming strong-
er and more contrasty as you approach full cor-
rection. The first shadow to appear is at the
left edge, followed immediately by ll second
shaaow which origlllates well inside the ri&hl
edge. Both shadows advance to the right as the
knife is pushed more into the light beam, and
it 1s this advancing shadow which you try to
equalize 1n zone testing. Instead or Judglllg
equal grayness when us ing the mask, you will
find il easie r to watch for the Cirst wisp of
shadows in the mask openings --when they ap-
pear nt the same instant, you ha vc th e l<nife
in the proper location.
Taking zone measu re me nts Is a de licate
operation. Beginners arc often 1nystified when
successi,,e measurements at the same zone vary
as much as .030 inch . Did something slip ? Nol
at all--it's just a case where you have to sharpen
your eye and be super cr1ticnl. With practice,
you can reduce your observing error to about
. 015 inch, and if you taketheaverageof three or
four readings, you will be 1n error no more than
about .010 inch. The center Is especially difficult
because the light beam Is very narrow. This zone
has no moving shadowatnll--ilsimplygoes gray
gradually all over and if you c un detect the least
shadow movement from either s1de,you are not in
the proper position.

Sr118T WITH
@ PARASOLl'Z.ING WITH LONG STROKES

LINUSJIDU/

r,,..--W-EA...__Rl_N_6_T_ME--EDG--E~.~-'
WEARING TME CENTER
... _ _ _ _ _ .-##"

USE A SLOW SXEO 01' 40

OR .SO OOU&L£ STR0t<E$ ~
MIN , T&ST AnER "llllO lblVIOllS

100
 LONG STROKE PARABOLIZING. The actual
work of parabolizing from a sphere or near-
sphere is done with a stroke of maximum length
and sidewise zig-zag, Fig. 8. Under good condi-
tions you can parabolize a 6 - inch f/ 8 in as little
OltiGINAL.
as five minutes. However, it is best to stretch SPHEltE
the work over a longer pe riod of about 20 min-
ute s, ustna a slightly s horter stroke and less _,.·!( M/J,.LtO!VrHS-
side overhang. ,,,,- OF -tW·tl!CI:{
If/ IS AllOl.JT
Long s t roke pa rabolizing works beautifully G<4rs m oc . 000011 Vaao AS
when the lap is of the proper temper, which is /lEMOVEO 'lH,ICKASA
~4"At/U
medium soft. The actual situation is that your
much-used lap is now very thin and hard as a @ "'EEP THE REAL GLAS~ SHAPE IN MIND
rock, Unless the lap deforms under the long
stroke, the paraboloid will not develop -- you
will only make a hole at the center. The best
way out la to make a new lap, adding about a
half-teaspoonful of turpentine to the heated pitch
and s tirring gently for at l east three minutes.
Alternately. you c an hot press and then sta rt
work while there is a trace of heat in the lap. ~See ... !pl Plot ... lJ<>u Cor~t
This requires fine judgem e nt but lt i s worth TME APPA~ENT SHAPE
trying.

JOB PROCEDURE. Hot pre ss for cont act. Dunk-
ing the lap 5 min. in warm water (about 110 deg. )
is satisfactory. Press with weight, about 10 lbs.
for 5 min. and then let the mirror remain on the
lap for another 15 min, without weight. lo othe r
words: be sure you mt.ke good contact; be sure
the lap has lost its heat, Us e a fairly heavy
rouge mix, a bout 1: 5. Do two rotations (not
walks ), using a piece of m asking t ape on back of
mirror as an index marke r . Another piece of
tape at center of mirror will be found u seful;
put your right t humb over t his and then think in
t e rms of pushing your thumb over the lap to t he
limits s hown in Fig. B.
P l ace mirror on test rack and l et stand a t
least 15 min. b efor e testing in order to norm-
alize, However. it is instruc tive to zone t est
immediately for comparison with a measurement
at the same zone taken when the mirror ha s
normalized. Tbe idea here is that any kind of
polis hing gene rates more or less heat in the mir-
ror. Then, when you put the mirror on the test
r ack, It i s in the process o! cooling-down to
room temperature; a zone measurement of a
warm mirror is not reliable, The change can
also be noted in t he a ppe arance of the shadow.
The zone m easurements toge ther with the
shadow appearance will dictate the work proced-
ure. What you strive for is "norm al wear" In
parabolizin&, as shown al ongside Fig. 12. The
initial period of parabollzing with the lone stroke
(two rotatiou) s hould about half parabollze your
mirror. In other word • , you s hould iet zone
MUSUR£. P0<1 rl
llOM TOP l..l!t/6
IS • U/Hol.L
t----F-=-'---f O/STMf:A IS
' 9 Vfl1TS
0EStlt£C>
$HAPE
@ ~mple:
Tl-4 tS' SAMPLE SHOWS C.000
SllAPE - At.o\IT llALf PAAA&Ol-ru.o.
($££ "NG!eMAL U!6A8" Qt! H« /CT PAyfJ
measurements of about 0-20 - 35 thousandths-
of-an- inch for c enter. 70% and edge :ione s re-
spectively, using the micrometer teeter. or
course, the chances of this happen!ni on a first
attempt are practically zero- -something always
ha ppens I If you are not too far from Normal
Wear, you can continue parabolizing; It you are
off a mile, you s imply return to the sphere and
try again. You can expect to do this many times
on a first mirror, but e very time should make you
a little m ore skilful. When you do get the parab-
ola, It Is liable to be rather sudden-- after all. the
sphere ltaelf is only a half- wave from the per-
fect shape.
SHAPE DIAGRAMS . A s ketch diagr a m of the mir -
ror shape c an be be conatruct ed from the zone
measurements. Graph• of this kind are set off
from a straight baseline. ll you zero t he diagram
at eithe r cente r or edge zone knife reading, 1t will
reveal a plain curve s howing the physical shape,
101
 like Fig. 9, By making a diagram zeroed at the
crests, you can obtain the more familiardough-
nut, which is the shape you see and analyze when
APPA~ENT RE.MARk'S testing. Fig. 1 O shows this construction. The
S HAPE CO"~ltOH
i-----------+----~ N~L zone measurements are set off, downward s from
°"0,,_-)o
1 ~
-t-----: ...--~.,.o ALL HO LE.
-- , ReTU"" TO
WEAR a straight line, A little juggling is needed in ap-
plying the zone measurements to the diagram.
!10 - SPHER E. A"O
TRY A6AI .. I 0
,)>•••~ I You zero the diagram at the crest; the depth at
00 (,
3 '
10 the center of diagram is the 70% zone reading;
~ ALL TV~'D 0 ~ 15 the depth at the edge is the edge zone reading
Et>GE..
o o'1s RE.TURN
TO SPHERE
0 ll. 20
0 IS' U minus the 70'?'• zone reading,
0 ia 3.0 The perfect "doughnut" shadow of a parabola
··· +o 21 35"
has the same depth at edge and center. Fig. 10
shows the perfect shape--edge and center are
level. The way the readings are applied, the
diagram will be 45 unite deep at tbe center and
30 units deep at the edge for a perfect 6-inch
f/8 parabola. Edge and center being the same
depth on the diagram, as already explained, the
scale of the diagram at these points will be dif-
:ID TOO .sflAu.Dw
~ oo:+=~-~ E. Ea ferent.
ATC. ~ ~.
0 to' ~J.- · - too:::-;---\
- 30 r<EE.oS WEAR Fig. 11 shows a sample diagram. You have
p;r CE.NT II.II
made zone measurements with a micrometer
l~~..\i~I knife-edge tester and have obtained readings or
o ~ llS 0, 20 and 35 units (thousandths-of-an-inch) for
0 1l. 11.0
0 15 ll.S center, 70% and edge zones, respectively. These
0 18 l°!Q distances are set off on the diagram in the man-
0 81 llS
ner described, At the center, 20 units is shy of
TUR/>IEO EOc;E..
RE.DUCE AT
0
0
84
8'I
l40
14S half the whole !deal distance of 45 units; at the
•
ic/'fo 'ZOl'IE WITH O 90 ISO
LAP ON "IQP O 'l ISS edge, 15 units is exactly half of tbe desired 30
so 0 96 160
0 "' 16S units. With the crest of the shadow at zero, you
o 102. no can now sketch in the approximate doughnut
o 1os ns
.,,, ,•f/e shape. In this particular example, the job is go-
ing along just fine, the mirror being about half
way to full parabolization.
Othe r shape diagrams are s hown in Fig. 12,
covering most of the actual work situations.
Since you always zero at the crest, you will
get no direct Information about this part of the
mirror from the diagram. However, the dia-
gram shows plainly if glass i s to be removed •

@ Wwt-~ 4~ Ml~~OR
at center, at edge, or both. Meanwhile, the read -
ings alone will give you a pretty fair idea of the •
~ LITTLE OETECTIVE WORI( ON TA&L E 3 WILL mirror shape and depth, while the visible shadow
REVEAL TAATTHE ~UJAl/£10(..U!Al'ICE F'OR A itself when tested at the 70o/o zone will show the
,s 6"i"' MIRSOR AT TllE E.DG£ l.ONE JS .036~ same kind of patte rn a• your shape diagram.
w~'
·.'O)"
.•
:o• '"'
MENGE, ~E WAVE."' 4" .036 = .144"
l\i'o RATE V0\111 M IRROR, Da'ER/Wlll'IE MOW MUCH
IT OER'llnS F'li!OM THE IDEAL .01s·coRRCCT10N.
RATING YOUR MIRROR. \Vhen you get a pretty
SAV '<OOR READING JS D60': ••• VOU AllE .OtS"
!air set of zone measurements and the 70o/o zone
\ll'IOER·CORRECTtD. OMIT THE 0£CIMAL MAl!I< shadow looks smooth without too much dog bis-
AND WRITE THE FIGURE AS A FRACTION: cuit, you can say your mirror is done. You will
1~~r-
~ :::. - I WAl/E
be interested in giving it a wave-rating, and
144 10 '•.. I this is easily done by the method shown i n Fig.
Do THE SAME AT
1<*o ~E WHER6
1-WAl/E •• oee·· 0
..,r
SA'f '11>11 ARE .001° 0FF ,,,,,
88 =
A~.' iT WAVE
I ....
i2. WAVE
13. Common practice is to try for at least 1/8
wave, just to be sure you have an honest 1/4-
wave mirror. You have to be an expert with a lot
EJ™Elt MR OR UNOER of practice before you can read shadow positions

102
 CENTER ZDtlE 10°/o z~ E06E. ZDt4E
fl, :;. .31" f l , : 2..08" /\, .. 2.69"

"For-mu.la.~ Co-- ·~,· ,._ - 2.08' ,,._

96 ......-r.-- 2.69'
96
.• · - 96 ""'1TT. -

_ 4.~2
= ·~15;001· - 9
-
-
1.24
96
iME: ~ULA ABOVE. IS
.---
711JS IS £.WAqY = .045" ::: .Oi5"
FOR AAV TE.ST ltlG \.IJMERE N£&Lb;T£P. • •
Ttl6. UG~ IS STATIONARY CE,!YT£R ZOHi
r.S Sttd'LV ZEA9
'ifaE.N l.!6Hff/''Olf'IFE
_ _¥~ rri_{?_._ _ ~~. '.a. THE$£ CALCJtlATJONS FOR. VABtQUt
TEST .,_,es
•wn - 6HM1°·- __-_111.2~~:L_LM_1te_RO_ss_AR4!
"""""' L __c.o_R_R_ecr_1_0N __wo_RK£
_ _P_ o_<1T
__ __1_ _.L.=:ro~Z1=S=T~A~
"':..=7!.:.:"':_B_LE. £)(TREM6 T ~~
4f)(,f

much closer than ,010 inch, So, anytime you get
within ,020 of the required corrections--over or
under--it is just as well to call the job done,
which indeed it may be.
MIRROR CORRECTION. At times you may work a
mirror not covered by Table 3 specifications, or,
you may wish to test at zones other than those
specified. For such cases, you can calculate the
proper "correction" for any zone (radius) of t he
mir ror wit h the familiar formula: r 2 / R. The low-
er case r is the radius of the mirror or any zone
of the mirror, while the big R is the radius of
curvature, which is two times the focal length.
Fig, 14 gives the equation and also works out
as an example the correction for a 6- inch, f/ 8
mirror. The basic form of the equation calls for
a division by 2R (2 times the radius of curva-
ture), and you use t he equation in this form if
you are using a test rig where pinhole and knife
edge move together as a unit, More commonly,
the pinhole is in a fixed position, so that the knife
must move twice as far as when the "correction"
is split between knife movement and pinhole
movement. In this case, the "correction" is the
more familiar r 2 /R formula. You apply this to
any zone of any mirror; four test zones are often
used for mirrors over 6- inch diamet er. These
zones can be located as desired, the sole idea
being to get a series of zones represent ative of
the whole mirror. The "correction" at center
zone mask opening is very small, being in t he
neighborhood of . 001 inch, and this item is usually
neglected- - the center is plain zero. Note that
while you can calculate the correction for the
extreme edge of the mirror. you can 't t est the
extreme edge because you need a strip of mirror
about l /2 inch wide for testing, and the center of
this strip is your test radius. As shown in Fig.14,
the correction for a 6- i nch f/8 mirror is . 09 4
inches, this being the calculated value for the
extreme edge of a mirror exactly 6 i n. diameter
or 3 in. radius, But the radius of the outer test
zone is only 2-11/16 in., with the result the
actual working correction for the mirror is the
considerably smaller .075 inch.
Many beginners over-correct their mirrors
by using the full .094 inch correction when
testing the edge zone. This is well inside the
quarter-wave limit, as given in Table 3, but it
means t he mirror has gone beyond the parabola
and is now a hyperboloid.
ALUI\•IINIZING SE R VICE. Very few amateurs at-
tem pt mirror silvering. Today, the work i s clone
with a vapor vacuum process, a nd the metal coat-
ing is aluminum instead of the traditional silver,
Aluminum is slight ly l ess reflective than s ilver
but it stays bright indefinitely and soon out shines
the silver which tends to blacken with age. A good
job of alum inizingwilllast lOto 12years or even
longer . The common failure i s minor pinholing,
which develops slowly and does not greatly i m-
pair the performance of the mirror . Aluminizing
and over-coating a 6-inchmirror costs about$10
(1976 ). Contact the firm of your choice and get a
price before sending your mirror. Various firms
doing thi s kind of work are listed in the index.

103
 6 • }2 R. H. /MCH.
se. TO Aei)QH HllT
(4 SUPPLIEO)

CUTOIJT IN TU8E.
·..•.
. ...~

£AtN T !Nt{Q-<
OF TI//J£
.£VIT B"4P'

D£CUNATION
$HAn 1' 12111·
•
6''f/8 REfLECTOA
~ f.C>MUNO MllU~OR CAST~
lltAW-Oun' 50 -111 MOUNT 0
A!lltMIUO
MOUflll wntt
PEDESTAL SASE 50-011 ~ViPttet W~C>·
MOUNT JJ:e:oas~
MOUNT lO.&d&.
fllE1'~ 12
11U'll1N .J.l...
S31M.
+-{>tOESTAL
o" MIRROR MOVl'IT ~··=zl/8/NG

EOMUN I> NO. SO-Ill 40NUQ£0

LE6 f.J., t:.dST.Jl/OtlJ
\i lllCLUC>ts
<soorHI 85-108 MOUNT SE.TTIN6
CIFll:.!£S
~ .. ,,..,.,~h;\\ll!'tl

104

Telescopes You Can Build
standard
reflector
THE POPU LAR 6-inch f /8 reflector
with all purchased parts is shown on
the opposite page. Very few builde rs
buy all of the sepa rate parts for the
simple r eason su ch purchases will
total about 15% more than the price of the same
identi cal telescope in a complete factory assem-
bly. But t he stock model provi de s a useful guide.
For the tele s cope itself. most builders buy
all of the parts except possibly the main tube,
whi ch can often be purchased locally at a l o wer
price. You still have the work of cutting the hole
for the eyepiece and pa inting the tube i nside :1nd
out. The eyepiec e hole is not difficult if you have
the tools, either a hole saw or a saber saw, but
it is something or a chore if you have to do it
the hard way by drilling many small holes around
the o pening and then filing smooth. The inside
of the tube should be painted a flat black. You can
buy locally spray cans of flat black paint (for
ironwork) which goes on smoot hly and d ries
How.
Reflectill9 Tel•COP" Ill TME OIA60/IAL
Works 011/ERTS TIE
Ll<>HT llAYS TO
SIOEOfTUBE
section l;3
dead flat. \Vhlte enamel is the usual thing for
t he outside .
Apart from the t ube. the only other job <>i
assemblying a telescope from purchased part s
is the cementi ng of the small flat mi r ror to the
diagonal plate. This is not a hard job but it is a
bit on the fu ssy s ide . .Before you cement, make
a dry assembly, as shown :n drawing. Note t hat
the diagonal post i s pushed into the eye piec e
mount to locate t he mirror close to t he mount for
comfortable viewing. If you are using an ellip-
tical diagonal, it should appear exactly con -
centric with the eyepiece tube, as shown in the
detail. The actual cementing should be done with
a piece of glazed paper (magazine cover) a t t he
joint. This provides a slight cu s hio n and also
makes it easy lo remove the mirror from the
plate should this become ne ce ssary. For a
cement. you can use practically any kind of glue .
Needless to say, you handle the mirror only at
the edges to avoid fingerprints on the aluminized
surface. However. if the mirror gets dirty. it
can be cleaned by any method used to clean
eyeglasses.
The eq uatorial mou nt shown is a com pletely
finished product and requires only minor assem-
bly. The tilt of the polar axis should be the same
as your latitud e (the drawing ls 40 degrees).
Adjustment is made by loosening the single nut
at cap lug. and then tightening very securely
after the proper setting has been made . Only
approximate accu racy is needed unless you are
making use of setting circles or doing star
photography.
£YEPIE.C.£ M<l(,N l~IES
{iJ TU'
TM£ IMAGE: MUCll 1"ME SAMt
AS A 1#6Hl~'l'I NG GlASS
1'4'1~·/
IDOKlllG A1 A !!EAL
Gil A
CJI ,
01!..lECT
REAL IMAGE
(IJ THE MAIN MIQ~R
FOC.U~S TME
LIGHT RA~ TO
FORM AH
~--l>!'aAMEO
HERE
IMAGE
105
 IF YOU are building a reflector on a tight budget, the best plan Is to use
top quality opti csandsavewhatyoucanon the mount a nd homemade parts.
The re sult will be s omethi ng like the design shown with simple tu rn-on-
thread s allazimuth mount and slide focusing. You will find this scope solid
and satisfying, especially if it is a first instrument.
The mount uses a 2-inch pipe pedestal about 30 In. Jong. A coupling r e -
duces to l • 1 /2 in. pipe for the mount itself. This is a substantial m ount ;
definitely Y• ·U do not need larger and heavier pipe as suggested by some
writers. The wood legs can be pre-drilled and are fitted to the pedestal
one at a time; you put together, take apart as often as needed to mark hole
positions and drill the tap holes in the pedestal. This procedure assumes
the drilling is done on a dri ll press, With normal care in fitting, the final
leg will loc k in place a nd secure the whole assembly.
It ls assumed the purchased mirror will run a little overl ength in foc us,
i.e., it will probably be closer to 4 8-1 / 2 in, focal length than the basic 48
inches. Note in drawing below that the distance between the main mirror
and the diagonal i s the focal l ength minus about 6-1 / 2 inche s, If you are a
myope, it is be st to increase this to 6- 3/ 4 in, or even 7 inches, the reason
being that a near- sighted person will focus a telescope "in" a bit more than
y
I
normal; hence, you have to put the image plane "out" this extra dis tance to
get the "in" focusing movement needed, Figure it out your self I In any case,
the worst th at can happen is that the focal plane will be inaccessible and
........... ..,. you \\'ill have to remount the main mirror .
The mirror mount Is a simple job for the band saw a nd drill press .

j ~ ...... ,.,~ .
The mirror clips are made by partly nattening 1-lncb angle Irons. The
plastic slide focus at the eye end is not as convenient as rack-and-pinion,
but it works and you can always switch to R&P later, The worst job is cut-
I/I ting the hole in the m ain t ube under the eyepie ce holder. Actually this is a
fairly easy job if you have a hole saw of the required size. Or a saber saw.
More often, you wili have to res or t to the tedious process of dri ll;ng many
small holes and then smoothing by filing, A square hole with rounded cor-
ners is entirely pract i cal.
A first eyepiece s hould be 1 in. or a little more in focal length. Edmund
No. 30,787 or 1.1 inch f.I. is a good choice.

-- •

QIAG(JNAL
P O.:SITION

----------------~ 4'2."'------------------_,,,..__ 6:t{--.i

+--- - -- - - -- - - ---48\f{ .. -
(€. £ . Of dy#&4CEM#tR<Wl - -- - - - - ---'-- -- --4ol
OPTICAL lAVOUT ANO MAIN DI MENSIONS

--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-49~·~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
r~ ...
106
 8 · '!12 • ~·RO. MO.
( WITM M£l( NUT" (4)

~'~"'..!..~

IC£DOCING
C.OUPL1N6
-i.· t 0 1Yz." PIOOE STAL
BASE
UTILITY
6"
REFl.E.CTOR
PLAT E
~-e1.rwooo
\,

AOl\PTER OSJECTll/E E XTENSIO ~

S2. • 22.0"""

~~· !!!ii!!
' ·i!!!:d::=
I '2"0 , 0 . ALUM·

AO.APTER
TJISNlQ e'llV,NI.
FliLO~ '16'1 fT. AT 1000 voS .
'~ocus1
SU.EVE
"'" F0c:\IS4MG.
AANCir£ • 10 FT. TO INFIN ITI'

107
 f II
~ REFLECIC>R
MOST scope builders buy some parts and make the rest. When it
comes to a case of buying all readymade parts, you are money
ahead to buy a finished telescope. Despite its £inancial weakness,
the standard scope is useful as a how-to design in that it shows
general con st ruction.
Except for painling the main tube, you can build this standard
de sig n in one evening. The work is simply a matter of drilling the
needed holes in the main tubeandtbenmaking the assembly. The
tube layout shown will handle mirrors from 45 to 45·3/ 4 in ch
focal length , If your f.l. is l onger than this, it is best to set the
mirror back a little more in order to take up the excess in focal
length . The ave r age spherical-ground mirror will show about 45-
1/2 inches f.l. The main idea of spacing, of course, is to keep the
image plane as close as possi ble to the diagonal fo r maxim um
light pick-up. This is not a great item in this c ase because the el-
liptical diagonal i s ami:>le size .
Simple bolt mounting is shown. The suggested orientation
angles the eyepiec e 35 degrees to the left as viewed from the eye-
piece end of the tube. You will find this gi ves comfortable viewing
in almost all positions. It favors an operat ing position e ast of ped-
estal for all sou th sky objects. If you vi ew 'vith your right eye (the
usual c ase), the east-of-pedestal position is the most conveni ent
because you can look through the tele scope and then look at the
sky directly With minimum he ad movement. To better the all-East
viewing position for south sky objects, a double c ollar may be
used attheheadof thedecl inationshaft to gain a little more swing
•
t hrough the meridian,

4~· rich-I ield 1/vN.. F.L. ,,

MIRROR CORRECTION -
1
EDGE ZONE
4!4"1>1A. M IRIWftS to )'4 WAVE.
-ro°lo 'ZOrolli
/~IJJA>f£ PER~. 'N wo.V1 'AlWAVI
v,..oa M lt#llC\A OVER Vl'OER
PIRF.
~·a.
""""E
Yv~Q
ERROCI
~
Sl'MER ICAL
MIAlltOQ
MOST te lescope nuts 110 For high power, but
f /3 12~.. 2s)c." .110· .132" .136'' .oe:>" .()66i•1 .089" l~WA~
once this is out of your eyslem you m ay gel
an even bigger kick from the brilliance and 11 :>4 .091 .o99 . 101 .059 .0611 .069
3 ''"'"''
rich field of a low- power telescope. The one f' "
f/".i 19\I~ 38}3 .on ,098 .099 .050 .051 .064 2wAVU
shown works al fl5 with a magnification or
I 9x showing 300 to 400 stars in a sini:le
victw. Of cou rse you have to grind you r o wn
f/5 21\<J 42~ .066 .oeo .091/ .cm. .OSI .060 I Y:a.w.•(

mirror, bul If you have done this just once \ f/6 25'1 51 .ot1e .06& ,081/ .031 .O&IJ .05> 7/8 WAVL
before you will find no new problems except l _______1- "_l.:..~'i..___ ) I.... - •.1..'! J.!f~'___ J
the work Is more exacting. , •

3.'-.- .- 3 '"'--~

1---~yi......,~-------1'.L.,. 21!1~·-----------+!
108

•
 /Md«E IS 3 "A/JO:'IE
rTUBE /FMIRRQB
-;.~":" /$ 45'' F, L.
'

'\.
3"
'

I ).:;' \ \ 1
DJl\lL 16 \' t>rb ~6:---n
• \
'-.J.'
II
TU&E LAVOUT

8 I

TRIM Qff
I
~Wr11'4R/
4" Ji.°&CIU MITAL
I TUBE
/,!//TH (iLAZ£ Bl/?£8 Pt.ATE
I ORIENTATION (MA<i, CQVU) ATJO/NT
14s• .. FOR &oLT
~6 Yio MOUHTljlj6 OIAGONAL MOVNTIH6
MfAqtR!O {WElJlf/lQM (FULL .Slz.t!/

~- CIO!ADLE

C.OLlA5 •
POLAR.,.
SHAf"l 78 COUNTfRWf.16MT
PEDESTAL:"' r ROO
c.AP

\ IF )'tl<INE£D MORE CL£A@1HCl'

"HER E . .. ADD AN £J<TRd CO~f.AR
AT TOP OF POLAR SNAET

~ "EDMUND PARTS
- PEDESTAL
3 "'.SUEL
TUBING

CAT. ,,,, PART

SO·OSI
EDMUND
MEO.- OVTV
EQUATO~IAl o. "'"'"',,CJht
85·013 MAIN 1\Jet s"o.'+6" t.OHG
MOUNT
t:{f). 85 3 I 0 EYEPI EC£ RA(.K· 6•d·PINION
1 50·011 MOUNT ;:Ve(' Moo/I.Ml.HT
Mll~RO~
~ MOUNT 30,787 (./ " RK IE. TYPE
EYE PIE.CE 3 wli. >O"Ftl.W
"
KNURl.E.P
ADJU$1'.I NG
N UT la)
EDMUND NO. SO· OZSI
fi.1..IPr'ICAt. SHAPG

60-0~S

85, 310

109
 1''
4 REFLECTOR
in Square Plywood Tube
PLY\VOOD T UBES are practical ror telescopes, the
main rault being that the common square s hape is a
bit more bulky than a round tube or cardboard or metal.
A good feature is low heat conduction whic h means
less air disturbance. The Qat s ides or the square t ube
are made-to-order for .focus ing devices working length-
&AAICE
wise, such a s the one s hown. T his permits 6 ln. of
i'U€''IOB travel- - plenty for all eyepieces and most attachment s .
~ Assemble the tube with small nails and let it remain
ALTA"?.IMUTl4
MOUNT in this form until you a re sure everything fits . Then,
make t he permanent assembly with glue, plus s c rews
or nails as needed. The glue i s t he impo r tant part since
this Is the best way to get rigid joints. The turn-on-
threads altazimuth mount is a good s tarter, readily
converted to equatorial by adding a 45-deg. s t reet elbow.
Jf you use an equatorial mount, it is somewhat more
convenient to have the eyepiece al the side or the tube .

1 EOMUNO PARTS
'48
TU~EI ~~t\W111~1
~mJ
~~~;q '1'..1.j ::::PE KIT:

I~[l~~~~,1 MAIN M IRROR

· 1--- - 1 - ·--0 _1A_Go
_ N_" _c.. M
- 1R_"'
- o _R-i
RAGK-Ml>·l'IHIOH
fOCUSING
•
' I
'
'
.
OIAGCNAL IWOon4. Pt.ATE
TIJ6E 1~··1.0- ••orff:!/f/J ~·1Ya •2~ '
118 Mo.Pl~

l 11

PINION SAAFT-h".,, z."

l'ILLER
e.c..ococ ~..-
~".2.l:t.

M 1 ~12012
MOUNT

,--,._-----------2?>~·--------->1 C.6
_,,~

-~
-
---:>
-- ~
--- - - 011\GOHAL
MT,M'- ..~•• ,,..~ + - @
}4°:2Cl~ 1'Y;•"'
MOU
-.
5 .------+-- - , - - - - -...,Mf'"'•'40Lc>eR

---. -
~ -_ _,,"1",,. __7 -· >J -~_,..- .:::::::::..:. ..Oli><OONAL_.

!--2_)4'-.I
~14""~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 4~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--
--
/

110
 46)( W1Tt1
l.l " EVEPIECE and.
smallest practical size - z" BARLOW
£0M(IND
l/O-l/77
/'IO•

2f' REFLECTOR
ALTHOUGH it has a diagonal obstruction
of twice the recomm ended maximum, tltis
mini 2- 1/ 2- ln. reflector has a sharp eye
for bright object s In the night sky. The Ught
loss or 12% ls hardly notic ed, while the
more-than-normal obscuration of the blind
-
spot Is annoying only when you use a low-
power eyepiece for daytime viewing. The
telescope weighs in at less t han 2 lbs., is
easy to cradle in your a rms, but is at its
best on a light-duty mount at 30x or more. S~E O"nlER PA<;ES
Light-duty lock washers are used under f or PEDESTAi.. 4nd ,/FOCUS INC.
l~-'l' TUP>E
the plastic eyepiece holder to provide a MOUNr OITAIL 1*•' /.DtA.
3"./.<>"'G
di agonal adjustment. Do this before you
mount the main mirror. Center your eye on EYEPIE'Cf
the focusing tube minus the eyepiece. The HOl.OER
condition you want to see Is that the inside cuuL
and end of the maln tube appears to be a 'The SLINO SPOT 01A60HAJ.
straight continuation or t he focusing tube. ;.._ a. R~F'UGTOA
MlQROR O/AGONAL Oko~
9L.JND
A3f
ROuf'I O -Ol'F
011\. IO'IMAAEA

8" S0.3 17'2'' 1.11

o' 28.3
3.5°0
IY4 l.'2> 4.~°1o
PU>7 E 'TO
MtRMR SHAPE "
. 0

4~ 1~. 4 IYf6 .80 6.?>C}'o

3 • 1.1 7/a .f:c 8 .5'7o
1/e .60 12.'2.0/o

--E'<E Pl ECE
HOLOEI>

,,,,
~~-
JA:.,''O..D1A .
..Ab.IADo.1""11----"'' ·wA~HEfl.

""
MIRROR
2Y'1" 01A.
2.5" F.L .
EU..unt.
'*'· "'1)- '1J

f'IJLL SfIE

•
 USED in the dark and s hie lded f rom outside light, the ast ro te l escope
does not actually require a tube . Hundreds of scope builders seeking
a way to make a c:heap r e flec:tor have taken advantage of this fact,
mounting the mirr or and eyepie ce holder at opposite ends of a single
beam of wood. The design shown i s typic:al "homemade" construction
w it h equatorial mount made of pipe fittings. The fixed polar axis of
45 degrees is satisfactory for latitudes between 40 and 50 degrees, and
a s a mauer or fact can be u sed with some success a t any latitude.
The move m ent on both axes is obt ained s imply by
' ~· . letting the pipe fittings turn on their own threads.
The 1- 1/ 16 inch Ramsden gives 43X. The whole

.........,...•,
~,.. ~,
outfit loaded for stars packs about 20 lbs., three-
fourths of this being in the mount.
'•... '
1Y,i' Cl.OS£ lllPPLIO
/
1Y..;'TEE

EQOATOlllAL ~/a PIPE FLANGE

MOVl'4'T -...._, ()"OJA,)
$(£0 POLAR AXIS AT
°
45 IS Slltm8/F, mp
.LAltT(/()£,S 4C9 T(J sacr

1)4" PI PE_.-"" L ,....._,

32."'LO N G.

l•

t
y """ L !r4
Ei EPIEd. ~LoEll UG
l)lllt-ol'lllL ~OL0£11
LAYOUT
lf.4" >10CIC
I~

• MAIN
M IRROR -
OIAGOl'IAI..
1" 0 1A60NAL MI QQOA
HOt..OER

OllUJ.~·

E..YEPIECE
I l'i&"R~OE.11
(SU OPP. P><Q4/

112
 lu&£ 01t1EHTATIOfil
(yJ4W FROM C(EPJ«.( iJ'W

MtRROA.
MOUNT

TAP~-2Q

IF YOU want a good telescope on a l ean budget and minimum work,

this i s it. You use the same Edmund telescope kit specified on op-
posite page , plus a cardboard tube which adds a few dollars to the
cost , but worth every penny for better appearance and prot ected
optics. T he mi r ror mount
is a n inexpensive design
costing about a dollar for P L.At!O COl'IVE)( \.EtlS
2l"""'OIA. 14 l •- 5=". L .
materials. T he equatorial T W O IUDV/IUD
mount is the same as op-
posite page with a handy
declination br ake added.
The weight of th i s ou t fit
is about 22 lbs., mount and
all. You will need l cnRes to
make a l-l/16in. Hamadcn
I ' ?'
eyepiece glvtng 43x. 1:1..i 0.1>.
T U&E
(Dlil>S£ )

113
 l

PRISM

l&x SKY SWEEPER

ERECTOR

' •

YOU CAI\" add to the ve rsatility of a ny small reflector by using a

sliding mirror fitted in a separ ate tube. Such an a rrangement al-
lows the telesc ope lo be used as a regul ar as t roscope as well as
a photographic te lescope, a prism scope, etc., the sliding mirror
I
providing for air-path adjustment and coarse focusing . A fine
focus can be o btained at th e eyepiece, e ither by sliding it in the
eyepiece plate, or , by using a foc using eyepi ece, s uch as the eye-
piece from a 7 x 50 binocular or monocular. The 16x power r ating
is o bta ined wit h the 27 .5m1n eyepiece from the 7x monocular, or a
28mm RKE, Edmund No. 30,787.
Mainly, this design is intended for low-power s weeping and can
be hand - held satisfactorily if the power is not over 20x. You may
need an adapter to use the focusing eyepiece fr om a 7x binocular
or monocular, although some designs are 1- 1 I 4 inch diameter at
the thread and so fit the 1- 1/4 inch eyepiece plate . The eyepie ce
plate has a brass tension sleeve which can be adjusted just right
•
to grip standard 1-1/ 4 inch diameter eyepieces firmly but loose
enough to permit s li de focusing .
The 3-inch mirror of 18 in. focal l ength works at f/6 and is
S.L IDI NC. _..r
TU BIO preferably parabolized although a spherical shape works fairly
\Veil at low power. The Edmund mir-
ror specified is parabolized; if you
m ake your own you can suit yourself.
l\~uch of the long focusing travel pro-
vided by the slide tube is needed o nly
for a prism erector. Ityoudonot use
thi s kind of erector, the sliding tube
could be omitted entirely. In suc h
case , the eyepiece plate would be
made an inch or more thick for added
slide focus adj ustment. If used, the
sliding t ube sho uld be a neat slide fit
to maintain proper collimation.

I !/sf" 0/>£Nr/'IG TAKG

l=OCIJSING T~K
l=OCUSING 5/16" 1)4 • 10"
KNOB'!.

-..-=''
MIRROR DIAC,ONAL
~·D1A., l8 F.L.
00

MIRROR (:.£Nt£NT
LLJ..lf!Tlt:Al - SHA/?£
#>Mll/!!P 3Q=2S9 ./ ~·~E1' O~ RO.
.,y 8UJM.
MllUWR MOUNT

I SLIOING TUEIE (Q!M)

3'110"1.o., ;14·0.D.

I·
114
-

16x 'Bazooka' I

SPOTSCOPE
01\i""E OF the more popular methods of making an erect-
image reflecting telescope is to use a roof prism in the
manner shown for this 16x design. The on-shoulder
mounting is com fort able, steady; the field is bright
and covers 2.6 degrees, equal to 136 ft. at 1000 yards.
The construction is mainly a matter of making
the prism support. This is satisfactory If made of
wood. You can saw to s hape on the band saw. and the <::4T. 140.
holes needed can be drilled on the drill press except
possibly the large one needed to accommodate the
MAllC MtllltOR
threads of the monocu lar eyepiece. 50 - 10~
The telescoping main tube provides plenty of ad-
justment for focusing near objects; fine focus i s obtain- 60·081
ed with the focusing a djustment of the eyepiece. The fMl"TU0E
Edmund 3-ln. mirror is now supplied parabolized. Of
coRRECTE.D RDt?f:.
course it costs more, but the Image is much sharper R.OOF PRl~M ;;u,.,,. (. 83•) F ACE
than with a spherical shape as supplied originally for
this design.

QOOI' P R ISN\
I
""
~

~OC.US1NG TU &e ;of

4 - o.o. duet. <11< C/!R?BD. \

Yz. l=ULL. s l'Z.E

....~~~3''--~~~~~'
14-~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 9··~~~~~~~~~~~~_...1

115
 3-inch Reflector I
USING STOCK Edmund parts, this 3-inch
reflector is easy to build, being only a job
EXIT PUPIL
of putting the various parts together. A YOCISI &YI $NOfJLD
scope of this size is excellent for moon and BLJrr .,... .N<ijii!
nfll PQIHT
plan et viewing. \Vith an erecting eyepiece
as shown on opposite page you can see day-
time land objects with amazing brightness
and clarity.
A minimum - s i ze diagonal m irror is used,
and it must be located squarely under the II
\
{)81LL3.·· - EVEPll:CE CAP
"tJSTl8Jlf£ ~BQT7UCAJ!

RAMSDEN
- EVE.PIE.CE
k£t{S£SAI?£ ).J X41MJtl
Pi.ANO•CQ!{VEX QJ
E. F.1.. - I.I"

SPLIT R IN G(:?.)
Gur fBOM 'S'/16.. DIA. F18ER
08 PLASTIC 7U8Jtj6

se>-109

S:ULL·.S1%.£
SECTION

L!<itlr RAYS
FROM MAIN
MIRROR'--

ASSEM&LY

EV,PIECE
Ml ~RO~ HOl..OER
MOUNT MAIN TUllE {CABD/ICdl!D}
I

¥a ..+-1>/4-----------------
• MAtH 01~El4S101ts ~
21!-4'':.
·~-_....:..._ __ ___..:___________i.--~·~

4---------------------- ~~,~·~~f&!:l!(E!WLJ!!:~A~V~~'"4~<£~~~1A-~!!l------~

116
 ENO
VIEW
(/rl!tl! £t'J%', ENQ} SAUJC<Lr

,..,
WEIGMT
ABOIJT ).<&<.
(TWO CN'T t'i!tW
Pvtll'U CM. BL Cl.ti'?)

eyepiece to catch as much light

as possible. The full- size draw-
ing can be used to determine
e xactly where the diagonal mir-
ror should be attached to the
plate. The Ramsden eyepiece is
built right into the focusing tube
supplied with th e plast ic eye-
piece bolder. This eyepiece mag-
nifies 28X and the field is a little
over the width of two moons.
Stronger eyepieces can be pur-
chased or ma.de.
The mount shown isa German-
I I {
EQUATO~IAL
type e quatorial and is a simple
project providing you have a
MOUNT power saw and drill press.

Erecting Eyepiece for your 3•• Reflector

1• 1NSIC>IO DIA . 'TO TAKE. ~~O(N
EVEPIE.C.E. SMOWN ON PAGE
OPPOS.ITE. -'
11£TAll'l11'16 £YEpJ£ct Al.L TJIE 4IA Y td· ··Vlbl
~~.lJR~ 1t11<6 FQ&Jl.S..JNllOle A a'£MBLY JU.Sr
LIKE A I.MG £ 't#RfEt:E.

,,. CAN SE. !Nr:fU/!SiP TO

MAG.- 3-511 .•,£!BY E.'(r£HP<NG TH{. E."l'E RE.LIEF - 7/9"
...t 101SJUN aa:;. A80tJT I
"
117
 ct-image ~,REFLECTOR

•-
FOR moon-gazing or l and-gazing you will likt!
61..ARE this 3-inch reflector with built-in erect ing system.
!>TOP
Two erecting sy stems are shown. The one using
the 30mm diameter lenses is easiest to make
because this size is an exact fit for the tubing used.
The a lternate de sign has a trifl e natter fie ld,
is longer.
The main feature of a built-in erector Is that
it put s the narrowest part of the light cone close to
the diagonal. The small diagonal specified is more
than big enough to field all of the light rays, whereas

I
-- the same fla t in a standard reflector misses about
half of the edge-of-fiel d rays.
I
I
I
I
I FOCUSI Nv
'I I
EYEPIECE
MOU NT
6DMVNO
'I
I / NQ. £0- 071

I
I
I
I C>1AGONAI...
I /POST

'I :2.
I
' I S~~... IS ilt{&1/f
:-X- OE FplaoB
I I ZJL/1~
I"
ALTERllAlt: '''
ERECTOR •I AsSEM6L'I" ER£ CTINC7 .SI DE
SYST£M
M. · SO•
I
I TWO 30 lf'4C'M
5ECTIO..
~ IE.LO- 50' 1 F'IRST
MAIN T\JQ£. fcNuwuipoJ
ACHRQMftr.S
E.lt.- I" -- ; ...-!MAG(
•
\
L/tHIT RAYS E/Wtr!f
A POINTATCErfl&R
DE FtttQ " ' \
l'I RST
I MAGE._.... - .

M1 QR.O~
,,,.-MOUNT
.f,QMl/.t!R
ctQ. 5<2"'109

Fl ELD. SOM1 .... (44El. AT (()QQ '/D.S.)

118
 3-incb
REflEClOft IY4"TO ~­
~OUCIN6
COUPLING" 4s•
EQOATOlllAL
IMITll E'ICTEN0£0
POV.I' AICIS
MOST altazimuth mounts can be tilted to
make an equatorial. Sometimes there are ,......·~~,. 8"
'4 BJl@Dd
minor complications, as with Edmund M£81PIA('I
No. 30, 180 Fork Mount, there is fouling '--..,.......L..-...JN.
:JUIH() );."
at one of the mounting bolts. This can be
corrected by drilling a new bolt hole, as
shown at bottom center.
A minor fault of the short fork as an
equatorial is that part of the north sky
on t he meridian is not accessible. This
can be partl y corrected by extending the
polar axis, as in right-hand drawing
above. The blind area is only on the
meridian; you can see all objects in this
area when they are one hour or more on
I'
either side of the meridian. CELL LAYOUT
The mounting arrangement shown is
easily converted from altazimuth to
equatorial by changing the pipe fittings. ..............
~--: •

EY!PIEU
140L.0Ell

..._ y_..... 20 . , ..
' DR''L~ . - - -- - -- - ---.
EDMUND PARTS
(AT.NO. ITEM

- ClfllN&E'
FIT TENS,-Q('IER _..
ON OPPQs1TE s1oe
FQR EQUIU'OlllAL-
60-081 OIAGoNAL •;~~f4
3/,i" PIPE CAP_. tflC..UOiS STIWIS
'30-180 MOUNT ""'".,...
901..Tl!D

MOUNT
DIAGOMAL
119

•
 •
O BJECTIVE Z" PLASTIC
61>'365MM COUPLIN G (1'11'£ F1rt1,.,.,J
(2.11• /( 11/..n"}
t PI M(•) I
•

••
"'
STOP· lz. a.at. ,.-EXIT
PUPIL
' ~ \.'xMM •

::;j~i
• l

lTE RELl!T • •

13.,c 60 MONOCULAR ' ''

/:'IEJ.O; .3!.0 •
z

--------·- - l ORIGINAL
oaJECTNE~ .. /
Tf 1
E<ffetVAU:f'lr AIR
BLOCKS o; PR1sM1> "7/g'o1A.
•
I
J. IMAGE

1Y&' i ,y,;: 1Y4• '

--::qe-o_t1_T_6_0_o/._. -1.1&>1r ro Eoc;-E-Ol'-:>;--,.-w-- --1-....1....i.. - - - - - T L _ -=o -- _1; _- _ J ~J~)
L.,..._____
-------
, ·~,·:. ·_ ___.Jr
~ _ _ _ _~·~
i.;..... ...::..:__ _ _ _ _ __ . OSJECTIVE F.L.
.STRElCUOUr tff OPTICAL. SY.STEM
-· ,.,)~·--------------~
, tb
~£i~y
/'"""''""'£!>

7X SO Conversion monocular and main tube is a pl asti c pipe coup-

13X60 MONOCULAR
REBUILDING the front end of a 7 x 50 monocular
has l onir been a favo rite proj ectamongte le scope
builders blessed with a metal lathe. The conver-
s ion shown he re uses a 6 1 x 365mm objective,
which its el f is from a prism atic inst rument and
so adm irably suited for the job. Of cour se, the
original 52 x 193mm objective and its cell is
removed- -it m ake s a fine 4x Galile an with 25
x 48mm dou ble c oncave lens as the eyepiece.
The new objective is m ounted in a l ength of
thick- wall al uminum t ube. The link between the
ling in the 2-inch size. Without machining, you
can press this over thethreaded endof the SELSI
monocular, but it is best to reinfo rce the j oint
With cement and pins. A thr eaded connection is
to be provided between the plastic coupling and
the main tube; this can be used for extra "out"
focusing t ravel i f needed for near land objects.
vVith car eful fitting , the 3(8 i n, travel provided
by t he or iginal focusing eyepiece Will put you on
target for any sky object as well a s land objects
at m oderate to long r a nge. The in strument makes
an excellent finder s cope for a lar ge r telescope--
its 3-1 { 2 deg. field more than c overs the pole
star orbit.

- -/
Pc.AS-T IC
E1>1DP1ECE
Focvsin~
E~LE £YE.Pl Ee£
6° Wide-field Retractor
T he pop ular l-1/4 inch E rne eyepiec e is well-known fo r its wide
field, A minor faul t is a slight am ount of lateral color. The focus-
MAIN-'"
TU BE ing travel or nearly 3/ 8 inch is all you need for ast ro viewing;
~:,Z"o.01A . extra movement for near obj ects can be obtained by unscre\vi ng
the eyepiece adapter from the endpiece. The plastic pipe fitting
used for the eyepiece adapte r can be obtained at pl umblng or hard ...
v.'are stores.
OBJECTIVE
6/ ')( .36S'.-M 1\f'i"F'.l., Hx.usin9
(7..'10"" J'/.3 7 ") IMAGE
MAlNTl.lEIE - 2Y.:'o.o. Alvm . • PlANE
ERfLE E'1'PC.
TUR ii
- -n~~==~==~===~ .32· 7hd..
to-tak<>
---- .. l?<{t?/'~

l F.L. of 06JECTIVE =- 1ii34{ J •I ENDPIECE ~

- - - - - - - -TUEIE. l..E t< GTH "- 14 %"------'~
1. IPl.ASTIG)
EYEPIECE ADAPTEI<?
T<IRN 11!.z,-TNIUAP
ro I S I Y:l_"Pt..11Sr/C PIPE FITT>l'IG
.(
Ma.9. - I I.Sic Field - 6° f )[it Pu.pi! - 5,.M E<je Relief - -l8'
TAK~
£Ypc.ADAP1'£R (/ Y:z." MAU ADAPTER) •
120
 TELESCO
A VARIETY of compact, good quality terres-
trial telescopes can be made from available
surpl-- . lenses at low cost. The one shown
here is a typical design, and its construction
is a plain job of l athe turning. If you use a s plit
ring for the objective cell support, it should
be faced-off in the lathe after riveting. The
objective cell i s a push fit inside the main
tube--it can be wrapped with a turn of masking
tape i! too loose. The erecting eyepiece by itself O BJECTIVE 41,049 OBJUTIVE (IN CELL)
may be used with any other objective, or it may CE.LL
(LtldJT pRt«, 2.~"41MM PlANO·CONl/EX
be used with any astro telescope accommodating FIT lf'/SJD4 94,149 3R£Q'D.
MAlfi rua•)
I -inch diameter eyepieces. 15 ><4fMM ACHROMAT
62.ZB 2 REt:<'D.

MAIH TUBE
c;LA!lE STOPtcuP,) 1¥4°'0.P. AUIM. Olt i>IASTIC
I' HOLE .058 ()jl ,065• IW'LL
....- ·--·-·-----
.. .....,--·_
_ r_,,

--- '

....__ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _;..__ _~103/s-------------i~I

lo-------3~·------~

8>' T£~ESl'RIAL TELESGOPE 8MOONS (4•)

Fl£LJ) • 101 FT, AT 1000 YOS. ~' eAll6E: 1s•ro fliFINITY lV£ RELIEF :'<&°

1.ltECTOllt • E.F. L. a 7/e• E'<EPIEGE- 1.2"F.L.

TWO IS r :flMM llCtlROMlf a (tN eotn'l!CTj RM1SMA/ TYM. .IlllJ2
£DMl/NP NO. 6228 ( CPllTLD) ?JlC'4/,wM PfXLL/IUS

---- ------- EVE

POINT

- - - .oJ.- -- -- 2:Y4- ~.,: - -- --

!.----------------------------------- 1· --------------'-----------------~
TEl'ltESTRIAL {UFcr!N6) EVEPIEC.E (.£, f;L. : • 91ttt:J()

1x ERECTOR TUBE " 'SE THIS WITH ANV TELESCOPE

TO GET ERECT IMAGE SAME
SIZE AS EYEPIECE USED ALON E
~ f l.SANY SGOPC UC:.11-J(, 1Y4" DIA
E'Y f P l [CES . FlhE l"OR / ...1/VO f,;1371N6 BUY THE CHROME TUB$ AT
SEARS.
SIHKTllAP DTlllSIOH
11'40.0.lO 1114· 1.Q.
.....----+-
_/CUT OFF HE~l
F FOR USE WITH
~OMUl'IO £YP<: .
No . ao,7e7
/l''(QJ/.l{H,FJMJ4
(/Tfi.Elt £'(fPl«E.
LocArE l7:f £«AL
&ME 8T/MM£
A
&8£CTOI!, Ttl/le

121
 TH1S is a neat prismatic telescope, only fal r ly bright
because of the rather small objective, but clean and
sharp over a v.ide field. The image is erect; you can
use this scope day or night.
l\1achining is r.equired in adapting the mounted roof '
prism. This can be easily disassembled into t wo parts,
one of which is the prism mount proper , while ihe other
is a round turret on which you do a litUe turning and
threading. The best way to chuck it is to turn a stub
mandrel on which to mount the flange. In case you are •
using some less expensive eyepiece than the big Erne,
the machining could be varied to suit, or, the turret
can be discar ded, mounting the prism mount directly
to a piece of wood which is fastened to the rear end of
the wood barrel.
•

· £Y£P1£CE
~Sl-IAFI EoMUNC> PARTS
t"ST£6L ae. TH8£AO
//LUM.. CAT. NO. PART
TflFal'.YPC.
THKUl.D TO
fJ7 Ft./INGE ADAPTt:R o&JEGTl~~~2-01A., <II"
F.L. Air-• tt.. ccafld
v WJ!!lfc. 10-626
PRISM. /,. BP.11$$ MOllNT.
Ne'<ts Wr'11"9, "-' sl.oUN>
tVE.PIECE. 1h/F.L. W/0£
FIELD £RP££ In ' ' -"
TU0E. 2 ··0.0., t'1/s"1.1>.,q/.,,,..
l.(8"£on9 ( 33"11rr<U«)

.''t' ,\:YE PQINr

I \
I \

' '

PR I S/W\
MOU1ITI l'IG

\
Woo0TU8E ... ts BVILl
llRQllNPJ.' 0.01,.. lllvJVI.
TJJ8§. ••• S#l/V .SUPE " ' T

>ft/ $0<..ID WOOD

-- ~

S"TOP N0. 4
I ~" DIA.
No.:> - 1 ~ "
1

o.2.-
NO. I- I ' /1~6~.~~~..L.-
.. l/l-O_V_N_T_€_D~-I-~
.S..OE StcrtON $ PLIT AL~ B " c.ro c. ROO~ PRISM_,.
.Z-,. EV'4 SIZE. ..
~INC3 iSYoElkl -01-FJ&J.ll

-
J,(tiHTiNfi
-
~--
 O~JECTlllE SARLOW LEr<S
32- OIA. 1 3t"F.L. UPMVlfl> No. 30-2 01) 2.4 >I -2.96"""' PCV

OBJECTIVE
CELL ,1
~J
-
-t-lt:It====~==1~~-
BltA$S:
'TV 81 N 4' GLA~E
t~"'O.D.1 1.fj~l.O. STOP
~7!£1..

i---- - - 1·;=-·-~---.j~~~~j=~
~~-r----------2-:t:~ ....
MAI .. TUBE - 41 -~. L. O&JEC.TIVE
. ,........__ ._,....
f ~ '""·' ••,,_,.....

~
,,,11,
.
., '.,
"'"1'""'~1,.1 I ;,,K.
......\··
,.,,,... "" ""~·
:.v. f

1
oeJECT•ve
OGJECTIVE CELL
(8- S/IOIJ!N)
<.) YOU \VlLL enioy making and using either
MAIN TUBE PARlS
\nt2
CVTTtN6
of the two low-co s t ref ractors shown on
this page . Both use the sam e cons t r uction
N!PP£8S
and di ffer only i n objective mounting and
main tube length .
The mechanical design depa rts from the
' .. conventional by us ing a focusing tube which
f it s outside t he main tube. This 1s made
from t hree tin cans as shown an d 1s lined
with black flock pape r for a smooth slide
fit ove r th e 2- inch diame ter main tube.
I T he o ut s ide focusing tube provid es"' rough
adjustment to s uit various acccsso r ie s ,
eyepieces, etc., while a fine focus is
provided in th e usual manner with a slide -
\I O.O.
A LUM.
fit eyepiece tube . i\1uch of the long focus-
ing travel 1s neede d for t he simple lens
TUBE Barlow; this is spaced for 2X amplification
an d needs about 6 inches out-focus t ravel.
A I -inch eyepiece is re comme nded as
basic equipment. T his will give 31X and
41 X for the two designs. The Barlow sys-
tem will double t he power. A s i mple
clamp - on mount is shown whi ch can be
- - --3116 4118'- - - - --.i
attached to a ny post, fence or garage
F:OCVSI N6 TU&E • Firs 9VrS(9£ MAI N Tl/BE door.
123

'
 06JECTIVE CliLL
./ I ~· "'-'JM .Tli&I N'"
$ .oa~"wAL..L

M"'"'
OIMEl'&SIOHS

G LARE

00JECTIV£
42-,..."" DIA.
"II " F.L.

ASSEM&LY ..
'
0 ~ trt6 StOCK-""
FOR A LTdZJ.MVUI
MOt/NT
Ji.PLl'l!!100 I •
EYEPIECE
A OAPTE:R •
Telescope-on-a-Stick I~• 1.0.1'l."LON Y
! Oh!l/('IQ cto.118
•

' FPli.E
THJUAQ
)ha"P tP E
/l80IJT IJ;.1.QMi IF YOU want a cheap but good small refractor,
you will like this t ubeless job. Used with a
28mm eyepiece (Edmund No. 30,787)it magnifies
38X over a 2-1/ 2- m oon field. A tubeless tele-
scope of tlus kind is prac t ical for ai;tro work iI
shielded f r om outside light. Obviously, it is not
muc h of a t r ick to span a light cnrdboard tube
PRISM between objective and focusing tube block ii you
DIAGoNAL
#MVNP 10-on want to make use of the scope fo r day obje cts.
Make the focusing tube irom a piece of
Reynol ds do -il-yourself aluminum, available
at many hardware stores. The Edmund 1- 1/4" I
inside diameter tubing is a press fit over this
to provide the right size for s tandard eyepieces
and acces sories. Alte rnately. you can save
money by using the sma ller . 917" eyepiece size,
and in such ca se an adapter should be ma de to
fit in side the focusing tube.
8 The leg blocks for the tripod head should be
ALlA?.IMlfTH se lect ha rdwood. These take a lot of s t rain and
MOU HT it is a good i dea to augment the mechanical
ON fastening with De vcon Plasti c Ste el a dhesive.
TRIPOO Round and drill t he tripod legs before m aking

124
~
\
\ the splitting saw cut s.
 2n retractor-on-a-stick
~ OCUS ING TUBE •
8Ac.KBOHE
I V1& • 2 112." ' - /'
1~"0.0. , 12"' LO"'G-
.B4'UtlJL Q.( AWtJI.& i
WU.Pinc

UNC>ERSIDE
VIEW
I'
E.'1'£PtECE
Vi6 RIVET...>'
ADllPTEI'! RAclC·NIO-PIMIOft
1)4" 1. o . ~OCUS ING
[{)MllJ!O NQ.118
It>.
"" N0.10 R••
H
WOOO SCQEl.U
OI/~ WO.SH~ (~)

OBJECTIVE:
2" D IA. , 50" 1'.L. 06JECTl'VE
MOUNT

1
•

- -- ..-
_,,
.....-- __.
-- -- --:----

!.'-----------------~44¥4.~·---------------..J
!.-- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - 50" {FOCAL Uf(fiT!f 0£ OB.1£CTIY£) - -- -- -- -- - - -- - - -

THlS rs a bigger version of the tubclc~s design
shown on opposite page, with rack -and-pinion
focus ing added . The 2-in. objective i s air-
spaced, coo. led on all four s ur face s , and is a
good glass, as~embled with three small bits of
• gummed foil equally spaced a round the glass . A
sliding counter-weight in the form of a bar of
1(2-in. square steel ac hieves a fair degree or
balance a r ound the altitude axi s .
A job like this usually s tarts by mounting the
objective. This is housed in a turned plastic cell,
which is then fitted inside a block of wood turn-
ed and !aced on a wood or m etal lathe. Turning
is also required for the two blocks which hold
the focusing tube; these should be nailed to-
gethe r and bored i n one operation. If you plan
to use a cardboard tube, turn a recessed ring
for this, as shown. An al ternate cover would
be light cardboard or heavy pap er c r eased to a
U-section and tacked over the wood members.
It will be obvious that the wood backbone roust
be perfectly straight along its top edge.
The finished scope is mounted by slipping it
over the altitude shaft of the mount. The azimuth
rotation 16 obtained by ,the familiar m ethod of
letting the elbow turn on its own thr eads.

125
 EDJ'\1UKO 42mm air-spaced objective is a good glass. and when
you house it in a metal or plastic tube with r ack-and-pinion
focusing, you have a top-quality telescope, !Vlakingyourown R&P
' l"PiPE endpiece is not too difficull, as can be seen In the detail below,
14'. 4Qrtfir
Plastic for the objective cell is readily obtained in various
plastic pipe fittings. A metal cell is easily made by press-
fi tting together two short lengths of thick-wall aluminum tubing,
Most objective lonses a r e rather brittle; they should fit snugly
but you never try lo squeez.e them in.

M.AIN T U&t
l.'O.O., ~S ' LOl'G (lllt/M}

~
....... 4-40·it8 ,,,_J_

Rl"CIC•NID-•l.. IOff
O&JECTIVE MOUMT EHOPle.c:.E FOCUSING
1'1U?t(£1? Aatr/A MAI.Mt, ntlld£o HKMPIAM!l•J JV>'A•6" RACK-'"
81/P ftASTI( ~J.!D NO.::f9=9ff

C)&JECTIVE
42.M114 OJA,,
STOP s.roP STOP IMAGE
41 II<~ F.L. STP.P
.. ..
1:Ya' ·~
I)'£ ,~ ~

I
----------- --------- - -- - ------ - -- •
I ~4~-~
I~:,__------------------3.5 l---1 /e--....,--6!{i--<JJ~ 7
i...-- -- 9 ~
MAI N

liol- - -- - -- - -- -- - - -- - - 41• (EQCRI. Lfflt;ZHOF04/,E!;ZJJ{£)- - -- -- - - -

OIMfHSIONS
- - -- - . I

A LTA~IMllTM MOUNT

126
 KIDS LIKE TiilS SIMPLE LENS REFRACTOR

f liLO
1.E.HS
8x ''Sky Starter''
\JiiijjiiFPijiiif""""'-FJ.
EDMU ND simple lens tel e s cope kit inclu des
all the glass and parts to make an SX astr o-
nomical refractor telescope. Of course the
EJ« t sa<
simple lens objective will show some false
E.YE PIECE S: IELO color and the image sharpness is not the best.
E.,f, L . - "2.' S'TOP\t .. •

· ·t---~-~~- ·
However, the scope ls good enough to s how
craters on the moon in sharp detail, and it
SP\.IT
Rll'IG ......._
~~
• v .
.~P\.IT
will reveal hund reds of stars not visible to
f.E'BER} ,-·· - t he naked eye.
,~.- R ll'IG
All of the parte can be put together in a
•• F l El.C>
L.E.HS dry a ssembly in less than t en minutes , The
scope so assembled w i ll s tay put for testi ng,
a fter which you can m ~ke the permnnent as-
s embly by touching the various s plit rings
with a dab of glue and applying the cover
FOC.US I N6 paper and end bands .
TUBE. On a bright obj ect like the moon, a smaller
aperture at the objective lens wi ll s ti ll admit
pl enty of light. l t is suggested that you take
advantage of this situation by usmg the card-
board " moon s top" shown. \Vith t his in place
you will see moon crate rs in sharp detail,
while the colo r fringe will vanish. F ull aper -
, tur e s hould be used for sta rs since you need

--~
all the light you can get.
'WJG Aft?t/T Ii'{
Oe.JtC.TNE 0:aii2 PROYIDG F I El.P LENS
RQOM fi!RMMV_SW
-~40 1 PC.)( 1>1> 1<-Z.~:t .... PCX

~SE AHY O&JEC:11VE TO II" C>1A.

Ys-inch ERECTING EYEPIECE I I • · .. • ... ,,- • · · .
(/ff [t>MvlV't>
/lo. 30, 78 7
ERECTOR
IS $ '11 h11CRO~cop~
T..:'" .'11. -~ · ..
E.f.L.E'l'PC." . . ~'t:'!C·~·l'F.l)
()&)ICTtVE, J 11 F.l~ O&JEC.T IVE M. • ~ : 661<" ··... t•i<'v
" l/
,,.. 1

EDMVIJD fJb. 3C-<i¥S >TOP

SEcoNO
IMA(;e I
- --- - - -- 1
S'TOP ~~Wl..- -- - -
r •11~• ~·~~8,'l:f.~ CL"_ _ _ JI
I - -- ~. o/,,
---- -- -- - IY•' SIN" TRAP
E ~ Tf NSION, 8 "(• !0"1•"1
~ . .............
,......,...... ...· ' :..

127
 ~ If .pt 'f} Ir
? "' >I l} tr ~ t;:.

this~ z'' REFRACTOR

Tll t: 2-inch diamete r , 50 inch focal length coa le d ui r - spaced objeclive,
m i kc>• a good h i-power refractor at low cost. The con~truction ~hown
make s use of a purchased focusing eyepiece holder, but you can ~ub­
stilute your own homemade i f desired. Tn~ main tube is cut 46-1 /2
inc he: long to put the im3ge plane fa irly well out at the end of the focus -
ing movement, as can be seen i n lower right detail. You will then ha,·e
enough forward focu!!ing travel available to accommodate a i:t a r diagonal
or prl,,matic erector, such as the one shown in box below. The glare
ctop cage i~ made or plywood ring~ with the ,otringer~ inletted, the whole
an ea:y s lide fit in~ide the main tube. An additional glar e ~top is fitted
at the end of the focusing tube, as shown. You will get 45x with t;dmand
No. 30,787 eyepiece, which is just about the ideal power for most
sky- ~azing. Shorter f.l. eyepieces can be used for higher power; you can
al ~o get high :VI. with a Barlow lens.

'STOP
Mt 4
STOP
1115 •

OPTICAL LAVOUT
GLAR:E
~'TOP

')TOP-
Va·-

~Mouro
EDMIJllD /II. 34~1M
l<T. l'O$T
1~·0. A&..-.

Elbow ERECTOR

/
ROOF P R ISM

128
'
 EDMUND PARIS
C.AT. ITEM
08J£CTJV£ 2·01A.. SO"r.<.
(1/,(1U,/lll·IR>C~

';; 2S"'-l5-
~·286 M IR~~ f I RST Slllt"'G£
( tlfH~ II SJZlS
30-266 M l~~ Cl'f' u vsro)
118 ( YPC., u& ~-,1~'Z·
'8 SQ.• 6'"'t.a"'"
4 0 -054 ~AC K ~

40-164 P I N ION 1'o<lf 1'..,,..C.

/flCJWIS l(H08$
Y'1
2%
~A.
S IDE

2''Folded !6-a.vwooo
-Y; !l-"
2,b
1~.-~
~
I.

Refractor SECTIOH if! sioP NO. '2

...'
..•
A FOLDED refractor makes a com-
pact tele s cope whic h handles very
much like a reflec tor. The image ls
t he usual astro inve r ted.
Start building by ma king the wood
obj ec tiv e mount. This is faced o.nd
bored on t he lathe to accept t he
a l uminum lens cell. You will need
two first - surface mirrors no smaller
than 25 x 35mm. \Vith this minimum
size rear mirror, it is almost a
ne ce ssity to use an adJus tabl e mir -
r or mount in order to catch all of
the light rays. The required col-
limation is easily done by ad-
justing the mirror while looking
into the eypiece tube w lthout
eyepiece.
. ·-.. ,.,..........

10·24 ~ 2."
STE P BOLT {3/

6 LAREo
,, " .. STOP _./1
BOTTOM I / ;t - ')1.
NO.I
li<"PL~WOOO

!+-- - - - - - - - - - - - 9·- - - - - - - - -- -
~--------------------21¥4'----------------+
129
 " Fl/LL C<'Jr<E 6LASE .STOPS CAN BE L4J:4TGD

EDMUND
2.11. ~JBJ
II
ECTl\/E ===~=O=F=L=l<=iff=Z'~\~~=~=====A=W=Y.=U<=W.='58=.E~l/~/~"~"=''=c=;J=r=c=o="='"'======~IM~AGE Pl.ANi
'..1.
lti'
~...-·t.w;ii .-
llptr'lmf
-----,----
- - - - - -- - -- - -- - - -45 .. (EOC8l LeNGr« OF 08/ECDVlil _________ _ _...,
• •

'
OPTl(:.AL LAYOUT MA6. -41 X FIELO - 1° I~ { 1tt1TI{ 2AM., li. YfftEC/i)

MAIN TUSE • h1.dt. fORJUARP ExT(NSIO>I

06)ECTi\/E IN CELL. 3" '/ ' MQVEA1~ TU SE - 1~"
£QMUNq N/2. SO .. /62. ' - -...i..- --+-a,·:.- -.....!
f,:JM,?>S -.. LONG 8 .._- -- - -- S'- S,utK TRAP
. N (I!{,qN~)

- ~" I "

~ -=• 1'R.1..•-:. -,J;4"_ ....,.;:.;,_____ 11Y4·----~I

i'-- - - -- - -- - -- - 3.s 'l i'(LENGUI. OEMA//'{ rVBE/ -
CONSTRUCTION WITM $TAf!OAQO tOMUNO PARTS
- - -- -- --il ,
)'•
· ........ ..
s~··
'
FOCUS ING' <>ANGE
~~~~···
1 ....... .,.~•
4"

C R.OWN
EL.!MENT
~ 3-inch REFRACTOR
~ET,AIMIHG.
easv to build with EDMUND Parts
\
R•t" __.,v...._.

T HE REFRACTOR is an easy scope t o build, especially

when you buy the main parts readymade. Then, the
06JEGTIVE only problem is how long t o make the main t ube in order
ASSEMBLY
to have enough focusing adjustment fo• a camera, star
diagonal, Barlow len s, etc. This plan specl!ies 35-1I2
EOMUNO PARTS
PA RT
inches long for t he main t ube and t his l ength combined
08JECTIVE IN C£LL
wit h an extension focusing tube will gi ve you a 1 0-inch
focusing r ange- -enough for almost any attachment ex-
END P1ECE cept possibly a very long Po rro prism erector.
28.,., £YEPIECE The main tube i s cut t o the specl!ied length and i s
squa red-up by filing or grinding. The objective cell
is fastened with pan head screws and chrome acorn nut s
(supplied), while the endpiece is fastened with machine
screws tapped into the flange of this par t.
Do not neglect the glare stops- -they are pe sky things
to fit but worth the effort. If you buy the 48 -inch length
of Edmund 3-inch aluminum tubing, you will have •
enough l eft ove• to make split r ings for glare stop
r etainers. The glare stops can be cut from sheet metal
or cardboard. A tin can or a turned piece of wood of the
right size t o fit l oosely inside the tube should be used
as a "pusher" to ram the s plit rings into the tube to
the • equired pos ition. Glare stops need only be approxi-
mately s quare with the tube.
Use care and caution when fitting the air-spaced
objective in place. First, cut thre e t iny squares of
....... ... adhesive foil (supplie d) and space equally around the
inside surface (hollow si de) of the flint el ement. Put
the crown element over the flint with register ar•ows
pointing together , as shown in the drawing. Hold the
assembled obj ective with a clean faci al tissue and push
it .!:!£ into t he objecti ve cell. This is a top- qu ality object
gla,ss and you will be pl eased with its performanc e.
 II -" -------.ii • tYEPIECE
~~-=---= ~- :::::- /
.1~£...-:' .

~ ...,__ _ _ _, .. 10,,,.. I ~'OPrc "-focus1r< GTU8£

"~f------------~-----~:7.-S-Y2-..~:::::::::::::::~__,_··:::::::::::~:; IP~~ IY4•0.D. AlUM.
NAIL
MAIN DIMEHSIOHS
~l\.. L~

·- S'. t2£. ELT T UB E

V NOEBlfVr
I"

C£/!J_£ f{C F ll!£R

..J:2 F/Jli. S/2£. TUB E !NS JDE
~OCllS'/Nfi. Tl/SP
LEr<S:

E.DMl/ND LENS
NQ. 117
Qi .s«nilz.r

""""" . . . "'"'G~.
1· 0 .0.
Y»i' TO'-&>
WALL..
\
SPLIT

.,. .
·
f
'

•
.

~ 6·?i2 EV EPI ECE

- -"
& '
O&JE'CTl\/E CELL EMDPIEC.f ~

'
30x BABY Ref ractor
THE BABY of the astronomical T . Ella Scope family is a refraclor
with a 1- 1/ 4 i nch objec tive. A small object glass like this will show
s t ars to 9th magnitude; it is swell fo r the moon and bright planets,
but poor for dim s ky objects. With 1.05 inch focal le ngth ey epiece ,
the power i s an even 30X, enough to show a wealth of m oon detail
and the ring around Satur n. The image sharpness is excellent,
With Ramsden eyepiece shown, the field is a comfort able 70 min-
utes of arc or a little over the widt h of two full moons. With a field
t his size in a small refract or, you can get al ong fine without a
finder.
This is a cardboard-and-wood job a nd is ea sy saili ng providing
you ha ve a wood lathe. The focusing t ube i s a length of Reynolds ,,..
craft aluminum. For a m ount, the s i mple c la mp - on- altazimuth ••,111" ....,....
s hown can be clamped t o any garage door, fence p ost. etc. T he hose /tflv1A~~·~ . ti!'!"
&.,i... ·•1/:f
clamp is a geared type used in the assembly of plastic drain pipe s -t-t(//1111/.1'1
- - you can buy at most hardware s t ore s and plumbing concer ns. J.1//\111.\""'" ft.. /i\ I
~Ir~~'''"

·-·
CAT. HO· ~JECTlllE.:· 1!/,/ 0tA.,
3 /"f,J.. Air-~"-
/,~
S1'0CK
)0-20\
~Plfa 1.fl(~ll)
q&f-1149 Pfpno~J(, '23•"'''"".
TJ,JSE· IV./' Ollbitk.tf;l
111 / }/,&•/, D., 3*'-'/' 6/JiJc

131
 SE.CON()G.~Y Ax'IS

ALTAZIMUTH was First for Many Years

A MOVEM£1Yr
T
I
tH
liLTfTIJDE

• I

UN THE 200 YEARS FOl-LO\.UIN6 T~E DISCOVER'( OF TME

TELESCOPE IN 1608, PRACTICALLY ALL T£L.ESCOPES W£"1E
CONl'I NED TO THE SIMPLE ACTION OF THE. AcfA"Z.lMUTM 1\1101.JNT

~S N'O
ALTmJOE. mllllllOtlS
CDULDeE~O MIRROR PULLEYS PA<>-
IN AN'( OF THE O&J~TIVE Vt DEO TME
'~ SLOTS IN 48" DIA. ~\ON IN
~ CHEEK PIECES ALTITUDE

CIRCA --PIER
MOUSl"6
116510 A-UMUTH
S.HAfT
A TYPICAL.AlT.ln.IMVTH MoUNT
for o.. SMALL REFRACTOR
ALTlrUOE + AZIMI/TH: Al..'TA'11Mllll4 D.'a'~~ ~ADt..EY~ 6" REFl.EC10R 117!$~ HERSCUEt:S 40-FOOT
with PARA00LfZ.EO MIRROR UJAS REFLECTOR 1-\AO A TIL"TED

~~
- ___
~
---...
,,,._ O..... EME.o;!r ~f.1~,B
._. ....
~NTED ON A llEAT ALTA'Z.IMUTI.\
MOUNT, S.l..OW-MOTION WAS 08•
TAINEOevST211'1GS WOUND ON PEGS
MIRROR TO PE.RMtT OSSE.R"ING
FROM F~NT OF T U&E. 'TME MOUlolT
llSELF UJAS M ALTA7.IN\UTI-\
~----t----,,.-+---+ ........
/ '-MOVEMENT , ..

._. ... --- ---- - 11'1 A'ZIMUTH

- O&JEGTIVE
~Y1" 01A. POLAR
/ 110" f .L. SHAFT

I~& t=AULT OF k-=-~~·~:P::"" The ,~..-MAIN TUSE

lHE ALTA7.INIUTH SOU'TH MORIWH OF WOOO,
MOIJl(T IS THAT ~IGIHAL TURNED
TO SHAPE.
nlE MOVtMEHT @a~
It' ll"Z.I MUTM IS
Nor T>IE SAME EQUAlORIAL
AS TllE PAlll A00llT
OfASTAR U8~4.
£11.gl.ish nPe -c ~oss Axis

9Y~' OORPAT REFRAC10R

VJAS. L.OCATEO AT UNIV. OF OORPAT
(ra.rtu., U.S.S.R.). 08JECTIVE AND
MOUNT BY .lOSEP!-1 Vo"' f~NllOFEi,
GE.RMAN OPTICIAN AND Pl.\'/SICIST.
iOOAV, ANY MOUNTING. OF THIS
POPULAR STYL E IS CALLEO A
111~\111\ ¥1llMI "GERMAN r<PE" EQUATORIAL
Pe.otJr
U$2~
itliqli sh1WE - MR. Enqllsh '(OKE
NO COUNTER!..UEIGHT NEEDED. POOR
FEATURE: 1)1€. NORTtl SK'< AROUND
rol.ARIS IS l'IOT Ac.CE.SS 1BLE

132

•

Telescope Mounts
PRACTICALLY all of the early
mounts were altaz1muths. Such a
mount haa a primary axis in a
vertical position, while the branch or
secondary axis is horizontal. A1ove-
ment around the primary axis moves the tele-
scope to the right or left, technically known as a
movement in azimuth; movement around the
horizontal secondary ax1s moves the telescope up
or down in altitude .
English inventor, JohnHadley(t682-1744), was
first to parabollze a telescope mirror, which he
fitted in a. wood tube supported on a neat and
cleve r al tazimuth mount, complet e wi th slow
mot ions worked by cords wrapped around pegs.
T he equato1·ial mount made the scene in 1820
when German optician, Joseph vo n F 1·aunhofer,
s upplied both the objective and mount for t he
Oor pal refractor (Tartu,U,S,S.R.). This 9-1/2-
inch refractor was the ftrst telescope of any im-
portance to be mounted equatortalty with a clock
d r ive . Fraunho!er was a Gcrman--the mounting
has since been called the German type, It ts used
today for most portable telescopes. and is also
used for practically all refractors from the
smallest to Yerkes.
FORK
l'J!MPASE. "'
W ITH £ci6ttrtl \
yoo
UlloiC.HT
!
POL.AR
SHAF T 1S
L..1 l<E ABOUT Iii
Ge:~MAN 11~50
FORK EQ.UATOR.IAL MOUNT
section 0
The Dorpat refractor was a little Ehaky,
causing English astronomer~ to concentrate on a
mounting with the polar shaft ~olidly supported
at both ends. Early u~crs of thi B kind of m. ounl
included John Herschel (~on of \.\ illiam) and
Adm . Wm, A. :>myth, who u~ed 1t to mount hie
5- inch refractor, laying the groundwork for his
popular book, "A Cycle of Cclosti;:il Object•,"
published in 1844.
The basic English equatori::il has a single sohd
beam fo r the polar axis, with the declination shaft
cross - axis with counterweight in the manner of
the German mount. The English Yoke came a
little later. Both kinds of J::nglish equatorials are
very n1uch in use today- -they support big re-
flectors all around the wol·ld .
It is not har d to see the evolution from yoke to
fork mounting. Si nce long fork arms tend to
wobble, the fork is usually compacted, with tube
balance mai ntained by means of extra weight at
the end of main tube. Another fairly obvious
transition occurred at the polar sh(lft itself,
whi ch gradually changed from straight shaft to
taper shaft, and finallytoflatplate, as shown be-
low, of which the shaft portion is only a ounor
appendage.
0£CLll"ATI~
C.I RCI-£
6'/i.' f/6
IUFLE.CTOR
ABOUT].$~ '1•
1
~ORK MOUNT OM PLATE
133
•
 CHOCK-+

@ @
l.IOMT•OUTY AL~A"llMUTH MOtnfTS
ALL SHOW A COMMON FAULT
..• COM. you. _. wl\.o;t a. i.6.?

What Mount is Best?

A MOUNT must be steady. The test of this is
when the telescope ls in motion since, arter all,
a mount would have to be very flimsy to shake
and tremble without even bcini touched. If your
mount trembles and vibrates when you move it
around gently at about 40x magnification. it is
not a good mount. In addition to the" steady as a
rock" feature, you will want the movements of
the mount to be smooth and convenient, covering
the whole sky. I!, also, the mount is to be port-
able, the specified features must be obtained
without excessive weight or bulk. You can learn
something about mounts by reading, but what it
really takes Is build-and-try to get an Intimate
knowledge of the problem.
IMBALAl\CE IN AN ALTAZll\1UTH. The cheap-
est, easiest to build mount Is the altazimuth.
Most of these are quite satisfactory for small
tel escopes, especially when the tele s cope ls In a
ho rizontal position, as it is for moat daytime
viewing of land objects, But the alt azimuth some-
times r uns into trouble when it ls tilted, Fig. 5,
This is the common fault of the four designs
shown at top page.
Altazimuth mounts can be classified according
to t he relation of the telescope to mount. Fiir.
5 shows top mounting, while Fig. 6 shows side
mounting. The meaning of the terms will be clear
from the drawings. The true fork mount might be
described as "center mounting," Fig. 7. It will
be apparent that side and center mountings are
balanced In all positions of the telescope tube,
while any style of mount with the tube In top
position, as in Figs. 1 to 5, will be Imbalanced
when the telescope ls tilted. Top mounting Is
satisfactory only for very lightwe ight telescopes.
A trifling amount of imbalance is easily correct-

U/(IGHT OF !.TU& Sll"FT

(1&/NJllON)
of( "'"'14 UL#H;QPE
QVERHN«iS ATTACHED

_:~LB~
8UTH4$NO TO TEI [SQ)!'£
llOTArtVE l-Z.)
FOB<:&~

I
==----J
PIVOT

® @
TOP MOUfolTING $11)£ MOtltm,.6
TlJt: TE1 fSt'.OP£ LS THE rEl.EScoet: FORK IS
aur QEBA IJINCE JS Bl/UINC£D '\:EHT£R MoU#T1"'6"
• WHEN TJ(If;Q IN Al I B1SIT/OHS [JAU/flCEO llt A# Pasa/91U
134
ALTfrr/D,/! AJ(fS W£161{T Al.L Qd
8ECOMIUTNG
QNISJQE~
TENIJSZO
Df.CUNATION AlCIS TURN ON
PoLAR

•• t ••
USUAL
COHSTRIJCTIOH
'~ J
ts W ITH .••.u1, C 11a.U.·J~
I '

PIPE
~ITT1 "6S TILTED Pillor-ONl-Clcu.u
MOUNT IS OUT•OF·
t!Aw6eE 0,. 80TH Al(E.S
ed with a small amount of tension applied to
the moving part. Excessive clamping pressure (@
makes the telescope movement erratic. WITMOUT
SWIH6·lMIW,
THE GERMAN EQUATORIAL. If a conventional FORK MOUHl
altazimuth is tilted, it becomes an equatorial IS EASV'TO
mount ol the Ce rman type, Fig. 8. A counter- &01LO •••• .
• • , B VT" !IA$ 8ft; /JUND I
weight is needed to correct the imbalance. The
SPoT IN /VO/tT'H SKY - -
pillar-and-c l aw type of altazimuth converts to
equatorial fairly well. Fig. 9, and this mono- StMPU-....,: OECLINA'TION
TIJ8.fi•QN• AiCIS
axis construction Is used successfully with many THIUAD$
small telescopes. Properly. it needs a counter- AcTICWCAN
SEC/SEQ
weight, as can be seen In the drawings, but this £QR R. A .
is not readily fitted since it would interfere with MOYEMEtfr
the movement of the mount. ......
FORK AND YOKE MOUNTS. A main talking point /loL L·Q)/£B
of all fork and yoke mounts is that you can swing 4'llN$ ONLY ti
.HMM!#. S.TllfP
through the meridian, that Is, you can go from OE SKY NEAR
east horizon to west horizon in one continuous HQS!'ZQ('I
sweep. As you may know, you can't do that with
a German type, but Instead have to make the
movement with two different settings. the tele-
scope being east of pedestal for west sky, and
west of pedestal for east sky. Quite often both
the fork and yoke mounts are compacted, as
shown In Figs. 10 and 11. While this simplifies
the construction it causes a loss of a large area
of the north sky around Polaris.

THE BEST MOUNT, Most bullders agree that the

German equatorial is the best mount for a port-
able reflector. Second choice Is the fork mount.
In both cases , the construction Is preferably a ll
metal, although wood l ends itself well to fork and
yoke mounts for Hght duty. A pedestal base
m inimizes the operational fault of the German
equato rial, permitting a fair degree of swing
through the meridian.

135
 THE GER!'vlAN equatorial Is usually drawn as
shown in Fig. I, with the cradle directly over
the polar shaft. Further, the view Is usually from
the east. looking west, as shown, although this
orientation is by no means universal.
From the basic posit ion shown in Fig. 2, you
can swing the telescope to either east side or
west side of pedestal, t he movement being around
the polar shaft. Fig. 3 shows the telescope moved
to west side of pedestal and then swung toward
the south to point the telescope near the zenith.
In this position, you will be aware of the lone
TYPICAi.. COMMERCIAL MOUNT c::A,.i operational fault of the German equatori al: It
l!i£ AOJIJSTEO TO Al"IV L.ATITIJOE
Fr9M IMS IC. Utt TltJf'{, dces not permit movement through the meridian.
yov CA/II Rau. TH£ r£t,~scoee
Study Fig. 3. The telescope is west of pedestal.
EASTOI! #!UT OF eeer.tTllt.
If you try to move into the western sky, the lower
end of telescope tube will strike the pedestal.
However, you have freedom unlimited in the
wur, eastern sky. right down to the horizon. Fig. 4
"llo! EAST, shows the same situation with telescope east of
,.,.-;--,.. l!"S j pedestal. Thus, the general rule for using a
German equatorial is that the telescope should
be east of pedestal for west sky objects, and west
of pedestal for east sky objects. However. when
you move southward from the zenith, you pick up
EA$T QI'
P(DESTA.L-,
a little more freedom, so that in the equatorial
So..i~ OF region of the sky, the tube is able to sneak around
Z.£HJTl-t
the pedestal for a good range or movement
® through the meridian. Fie:. 5.
The movement of the German mount i~ much
SRvplOI' ZDlfTH, ~
more reirtricted when you ut<e a tripod. The ex-
jiNOf. «nM ~edr ample shown in figs. 6 and 7 is typical, the tele-
scope being unable to move at all In the zenith
position. Of course, there is an eaey cure for
this- -you give the telescope more overhang, and
~­ it will then have all the clearance you want. But
f'/0"""'4 this cost is a heavier counterweight, and usually
I'
OEGLlllATIOl'I SHAfT
/lY(AJllWr;
the mount is less stable. Tbe end re ull IF that
AlCIS most experienced builders will take a little loss
of sky rather than increase the overhang.
\Vith a pedestal mount, one leg Is usually
@ pointed due south. With this ijelup, you Aland in
the pocket formed by south leg and east leg for
most of your observations. With a tripod, how-
ever, the "pocket" is used to get the most free-
dom of movement for the telescope itself, which
means one leg must face north for best possible
use of the available clearance,
MANY WAYS TO BUILD. There are a thousand-
and - one ways to build a German equatorial.
Every book on the subject etreases eubetantial
136

•
 many ways to build
~

P11'
2.1<4•
f:t
l,/Pv CAN
S I GH T
A:¥Ml3 ),1(4 ••
® @
@ A LIGtfT·OUTY MOU"T AMol'ME.R S IMPLE 0£SI ,.;H MAH'< KINDS OF METAL
w1K. l.ll000 &EAR1M& BlOel< Wll'W WOOD &EA~INGS SEARl"6S CA14 8E ~o
PIPE FLANC.E
{TlfJMMEOJ). •
construction and close-fitting bearings. But in

~~L=~~1'
the end you build your own mount your own way
and then take it outdoors lo sec if it is really so.
In general, it can be said that anything m"de of .~
BL...oc.ic:: O>

~
wood will wobble , yet "ornc quite 'vo r kable l IRON oJI
-...::,, COLLAR ALUMlllUM
mount~ are m~de of wood, the clasi;ic in thi~ C. MANNEL S.PC.tT
medium being the plain wood block wllh a couple PfLL.OUJ BlOCI<
holes bored lhrouj!h it, aA shown in Fig. 8. ®
CllAPOIEl I~ ond
Fig. 9 construction shows a way to retain the PILLOW &loCICS
useful thread o f the pipe shaft while gaining the
roundness and smoothnes s of tubing for bearing
surfaces. Fig. 10 Is apopularwaytobuild, using 9'11.L MAIUHG
PILLOW BlOCK
either homemade or pur chased pillow blocks;
you go "whole hog" on met al by using base sup-
ports of channel iron, as shown in Fig. 11. Many
builder s like plate bearings instead or the more
conventional shaft. F ig. 12. A nice feature of this
construction is that with a little extra work the
pol ar stud can be made hollow and so serve as a
sighting tube or even house a polar telescope.

T££ ..,;11. PIPE

CIU>SS ARM P IPE'>
1~"01t ,. CAP
, PIPE_ ___
PLAIN WOOD TEE 3
4 - L.E.G
3·LE6 PINIUHEEL. P!MWl!f.EL
All-PIPE TEE
with Pt.AT FORM

137

•

-· PEDESTAL
2 " PIPE
•
@ tqUATORIAL·VtEllJ FROM SOOTH
I jf 1 I
PEDESTAL-+
'· \.I Ii j,
CD 1t,1,
• Pt,.ATE-.
ALTA'I.IMUTH
(~UJD..O/'I oPi>, eAGEI
I.
PIPE MOUNTS
YOU MAY eventunlly make something much
fancier, but for a 11tarter 1hc1·e is no better
telescope mount than the turn-on-threads va-
riety made or pipe fittings. \Vlth this kino of
mount you get the needed mechanical move-
ments by simply leaving the pipe fitting a lit -
tle loose, free to turn. fl,!uch the same construct -
ion is used for both altazlmuth and equatorial
mounts. Both ba•c two axes at rlgh· angles, but
the primary axis of the alt11zimuth stands erect,
Fig. l, while the equator 1al 1s tilled, Fig. 2.
Pipe and pipe fntings for a turn-on - threads
mount suitable for a 6-inch renector should be
the 2-lnch size, although In a pinch you can use
1- 1/2-inch. Fig. 5-A shows thebaelca ltazimuth
made wiln the fewest number of parts. If you can't
locate a street elbow, an ordinary elbow with a
close nipple can be ue.ed, Fig. 5-B. It Is always
a good idea to start with the simpler altazimuth
mount, but if you have your eye on an equatorial,
then construction like 5-C l<"t8 you move right
along to the equatorial. 1''ig. a-D. Al! of these
1nounts have the cen ter of gravity considerably
off-cente r, but Lhli. ls not an item of great im-
portance. Sometimes you will see a turn-on-
threads equa1or1a1 fitted wilh o gooseneck, Fig.
5 - E, to put the weight directly over the pedestal,
but on the whole this ls over-building.
138
GAAOl.E
~~~4fl~..,.
J.WJJ, 6 !Jl«EN!t
--a··-ii~
lo-----21"' ...
@) PEDESTAL e.ASE
The free threads should be lapped·ln for a
smooth turning fit, this operation being done by
applying a mixture of oil and fine abrasive (400-
grit) and then applying your muscle to screwing
and unscrewing the jomt many times until you
gain at least two full threads. The sludge Is then
removed with paint thinner, but you don't have to
be too thorough since a little abrasive left in the
joint is helpful for its mild braking action.
Ten years ago, the favored base fora portable
telescope was the familiar wood tripod, but today
90% of nu small reflectors are supported by a
pedestal base. The homemade version, Fig.4, has
three wood legs fastened to the pipe pedestal with
machine screws. If you work this one leg at a
t ime, spotting holes, drilling and tapping, you will
get a tight assembly which needs no other
fastenings. How high to ma ke the pedestal Jsal-
ways a prob lem. A pedestal 32 in. hlgh for an
a ltazimuth or 28in. foranequatol'ialisabout av-
erage, but since people come in assorted lenaths
it is not possible to suit everybody. In any case,
you favor staying fairly close to the ground ror
 "'-.%.
~EDUCll'IG TEE {j110UJH} ~~
"2." TE:£ 01> •

'
I
@ -n.RM-<>fl-TMEAOS• NS. MOUNTS
best stability. One good solution to t he 11$£ AllAU.""8lE I~ (STUL} F'ITTIMGS tit 1\f,: Oil
heigh; probl e m ls the o.11-purpose base Z' SIZE FOlit 6"ii!ifUC~. 1"' ~ P\1'5 1'4~
~ ~ l.Al'f>{.O ~ SMOOTl4 1\IRrl!HG AalOl'I !ID.__...,-
shown in Fig. 4 deta il- -you can switch EQUA"tOIUAL
pedestal s without tea ring the whol e
assembly apart.
The e quatorial shown in F ig. 2 Is SIOE
the popula r Ge r man-type with pri -
JI' •h." Pcvwooo
mary polar axis providing a si.nglc
outboard support for the secon dary
declination axis, which in turn p r o-
vides a single outboard support for
the tele scope cradle. The oth er pop-
ular type of 1n ountlng is t he fo rk type
@.
whic h p rovides n double support for
the s econdary axis. 'rhc fork princi-
ple c an b e a pplie d to a turn-on-thrends
m ount in the manner showl\ ill Fig.
5- F . In u se, the free thread on one side
of the central tee unscrews while the
opposite end tightens. A en rr1age boll
passing through the tee to a threaded
knob a llows putting a little squeeze
on the threads to pro,•idc o. tension
l
•>--- - - - - 12¥4
i----1<>
Rfe«S 8)ff, dl/l/

adjustment. Although lt r·equires a

coun•erweight, this mount 1~ nicely
balanced and can be used success-
fully on a lightweight P"debtal.

SHAFf EQUATORL'\LS. !\1orc con-

IE!
MOOIFIED
venuonal mounts are mad~ w1th rota- f O R9'· lYPE.
llng shafts turning in sleeve bearings AL'TA1.\MUTH

STANDARD UJEIGHT STEEL PIPE, NAME OUTSIDE INS IDE WALL THREADS
Pea
WEIGHT
PEa
Sl'Z.E OIA. DIA.
PIPE 8lACK OR 6ALVANl'Z.EO
8LAC5 P/f>£ MID FJTTUl(iS ARE
CN~eQ~~JA( ZJ2 t!JJ.lt:!I ••. 6Al..Vdt,t· I" '· 315"
INCl4
t. 049"
~OOT

. 1'33"
1
11 /2 1.681.M.
a£D.t..oo ~
1~· 1.66 1.380 ,140 111/ 2 2 .'2.1
NAME OUTSIDE INSIDE WALL TIIREAOS
PE.It
WE.IGHT
PER -
SIZ.E OIA. DIA. INCi-i S:OOT I Yi' 1.90 1.610 .145 11 1/ 2 2 .1'2.

Ye" .405" :2.69" .068" '2."l .24 L&'i. 2" 2.?>15 2.06"! .154 11Y2. 3.6S'
l/4" .540 .3b4 .088 18 .42. 2 112" 2.e1> 2;469 .2.03 8 5.19
3/9" .615 .493 .091 (8 .Si ;'' 3.50 3.068 .2.16 e i.58
3Y2" e -
•1i' .840 .62.1.. .109 14 .85 4.00 3.548 .2.2.6 9.11
3/4" 1.050 .82.4 .II 3 14 1. 13 4" 4.5'0 4.0;26 .1..'31 a 10.19

139

•
 of metal, plastic or wood. Minimum specifi-
cat1ons are about l in. dla shafts in bearings
spanr.ng at least 4 inches. The simplest con-
s:rucuon makes use or solid wood bearing blocks,
Fig. 6. For ~hafts. you have a choice or steel,
brass or aluminum bar stock, which is truly
round, but you must cut the pipe thread, or, you
can use pipe slwof"ts which are already threaded
bu: you must machine round. Fig. 6 design shows
bo:h. The holes through the bearinR blocks can be
worked on the drill press, p1·eferably followed by
hand ream1ng to exact sl:i.e. You can Improve a
wood bearing block considerably by using bear-
OECLIHATIOH
M IS
ings of De vcon plastic steel or a luminum, Fig. 7.
The most common type of construction makes
use of pipe and pipe fittings. Dozens or va r lat!one
are possible. Tees are used as bearing housings
and reducing bushings make the bearings. These
parts are assembled permanently and bored
straight through from one end to the other. Ream
o r grind if you have the e qwpment; otherwise you
can get a fair fit by lapping with 400 or 600-grft
abrasive grains with oil lubricant. Flg. 8 design
departs from the construction mentioned by using
a pipe cap as the endbearmgforthe polar shaft.
This is fitted permanenUy in place and then
bored. Fig. 9 is a medium-duty design recom-
mended if you want fair stability without too much
weight .

~ (])
~ADLE \IA~l~TIOMS
Of IWlUMT SllOWll
\ IM r1G.6

If) EICTEl'IOEO
COUf'IT~WT.
ROO SHAFT
s18 .,: ~v~· j~·
.RQ" Ff2.JlllTJ1
~lf/G/.E 6 tA,
IJIU.6Hr
11!;:"

~ 9':Al111'1G
SUXK $AW£C>
TO SUIT YOUR
LATITUDE

I" TO\" RlOOCIPIG

&USlllH<:r '>I ' Q8,LLI"

SEAR111G eux.ie
•ii•4 <4\':

~ l . . . \./
BASE- t~ PIPE

®
LIGHT•OUTY ~ 1
0

EQUATORIAL
@
P1Pf.~
MOUNT will\ C91-lAR Ofl .,.. PEOESTAL
WOOD eEA~~ / t•TEE
( TO 3/4"
&USHIHC.
-COLI.Alt
"' '"""-+--1 ' STE.EL. ~AFT
1

i\'i' '
SQY.'CH L£G
l
''
-
19~··:..· _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..,

140

•
 The only difficult part of making a pipe pipe tee, using straight cuts to produce a loose
equatorial is the borinc job, the 4 or 5-inch depth joint. The bushings are bored and fitted separate-
being near maximum for average home workshop ly to the shaft; the final assembly is done with
equipment. An alternate is to rough-bore the adhesive cement, such as DEV CON plastic steel
bearings separately a.bout .015 inch undersize, or aluminum, There will be enough thread left on
after which the assembly is made and the bear- the joining parts to allow a screw-in assembly.
ings hand reamed straight through to exact Cit. which is done with the bushings mounted on the
Here again the required depth of cut is near the shaft. Meanwhile, you keep turning the shaft in
limit for ordinary reamers. the bushings. It may bind, but keep on turning
The use of pipe as bearings, as in Fig. 10, because another half-turn may Cree It again, \Vhat
makes the boring job a little easier because the you want is a moderate amount of bind -- a good
one long extension makes chucking easy and firm fit--because it will loosen-up considerably
solid, Getting away from the deep boring job. after a slight workout. Experiment "Ith a dry
many amateurs use cemented bushings, as shown assembly before you apply the cement. It is wise
in Fig. 11. In this construction, the threads are to grease the shaft with vaseline to prevent stick-
partially removed Crom both the bushings and the ing should you get some cement on It. A plastic

,.____ , .. ffO. IO Ol MO.fl..

WOOD Sc.REW

I
I
I
I
t' I
S tlAl'l-
1 ~ '' Ptt>e I
TO!bl&D
1.62.S" I
I
I l II..TO l Y...•
I 1l."TEE &tiSIHl'l<7
r~..1-./
.. - -- -- - - -l=bt.A~ SMNT~
il7.i" PI PE
TURNED
1.6"2.S""

POlAR SMAFT BEARING - FULL srze

®
l-IEAVY·DUTY
PIPE MOUNT
llllTH CCMEHTEO
• e.£AR1"6S
l - (_.:;""
•• WT. - 311.&S. ~.'Jlb~J,.
I •I
, '
- ~·I
't-, _.I -
'' •I

•
c:
/
•
•
- '-
I
•''I
1--

'/
'Zl ,,
'
141

•
 ~'01A.
HOUll
CI RCLE ~
" l
6-INCH
REFL~I!
~,,. TllAE
DIA.
)4
POLAlt
SHAFT
joint of t his kind is practically as strong as the
metal itself. However, should it ever be neces-
sary to take such a joint apart, heat applied with
a torch will make the cement friable, destroy-
ing its bonding power. The cementing technique
can also be used with regular brass, bronze,
plastic or steel bushings.
Fig, 11 equatorial is a heavy- duty mount
using a 2-inch pipe pedestal. In portable mounts
this is as heavy as you should go; bigger and
heavier pipe may contribute to the stability of
your mount but the job of transporting the equip-
ment from basement t o backyard is an item to be
considered - - anything over 50 lbs. total including
the counterweights may kill your interest in star-
1azing. It is, of course, a different story with a
fixed mount in a permanent location.
Fig, 12 shows the heavy-duty mount assembled
and carrying a 6-inch refiector • .Bolt mounting is
shown, with the eyepiece mount 35 degrees from
a position directly opposite the mounting bolts.
Thia orientation is at its best when observing
the south sky with telescope on east side of
pedestal, the eyepiece poinhng up and at about
eye level. For north sky objects the telescope
should be positioned west of pedestal,
INSTALLING SETTING CIRCLES. On most
mounts you can install setting circles at any time
without undue work. Mo stly it is just the matter
of boring a hole through the circle of such size
142
SHAFT
IN8oARO (l'tSTAUATI0'4
OF MOUR CIRCLE
HOUR
C.IR<:U -
...-.-. -. -r..\~'· Piii
·~~?~~
.-' ..
••~.,u; ~~
; .
••
.~
.,,•
•••
as to fit the shafts of your mount. U eually the
circle will be plastic, which should be mounted
on plywood for added rigidity, the plywood base
also serving to hold the plastic disk for boring
the central hole . Installation can be either at
outb oard or inboard end or the shaft. Fig. 13
shows the inboard installation of the hour circle.
A direct-reading hour circle ls preferable- -
this is one with the hour numbers increasing
counte rclockwiee, a s shown (see also Fig. 15 ).
Mount a dis k of wood in the lathe in 3-jaw chuck
and make a thin faci ng cut to true the outer
surface, at the same time raising a boss at the
center of the diameter of the original hole in the
setting circle. Fasten the plastic disk to the wood
with three small brads, then bore out the center
to t he required size to fit over the polar shaft.
In a setup like Fie. 13, tbe circle is merely
slipped over the shaft; in use, it will st ay put
since the collar above it provides the actual con-
tact on which the telescope turns. However. if
you want to make sure the circle does not move,
mount it with a !!rm slip fit to the collar, which
is then permanently pinned to the polar shaft
housing. as shown in Fig. 13 alternate detail. So
installed, nothing rubs against the circle at all
and it will not move except when you set it by
hand. The detail also shows an alternate index
in the form of a clear plastic disk. In any case,
a double-ended index is required t o provide for
reading the hour circle with the telescope either
 REDUCING SUSMI N<". !"COLLAR
•• TO Y2."

\
ClEGt.INATION
SHAFT
~·PIPE, 3~'L.0r1t;
nlRt{ J..lfLD{d.

@ A SIMPLE EQUAlORIAL
I" CLOSE NIPPLE
,. 4 5° .-
( El.BOW.....--
'CRADL E
( SEE 81GE l26J
ALT#RHATE
1•, 45° STREET EU..
(Bltr Ntepu tt sett m
1N$'fALLJKNI' CIPCl c)

east or west of pedestal. R. A. and declination. Both circles should be

MOUNTING A SMALL REFRACTOR. A small
refractor will perform nicely on a light-duty
mount, such as shown above and on page 126.
The "on top" position of the telescope requires
a counterweight to balance the telescope around
the declination axis, this being provided by a
metal plate on the underside or the cradle and a
heavy declination lock knob. The wood cradle
turns on the. fixed declination shaft; the polar
axis movement Is the familiar turn·on·threads
variety.
Setting circles are easy to fit and thls work
can be done at any time. In the construction
shown below, both circles are stationary in use
while the index pointers move when the tele·
scope is moved. ThJs Is direct Indexing in both
a snug fit but free to turn - ·they are "fixed"
circles when In use, but they must permit set·
ting by hand as re quired . There should be a
little clearance between the hour circl e and the
pipe tee, this being controlled by the thickness
of the mounting block. The clearance of about
1/8 inch is needed for the one-thread unscrew-
ing action of the turn-on - threads polar axis.
ln use, the tele scope is west ot pedestal, as
shown in drawing above, for all south sky objects
to your zenith. You have free movement thrOu(lh
the meridian east or west. The north sky is
similarly covered with the telescope east of
pedestal. U you remember to always go north
around by west, and al ways return the same way,
the turn-on-threads polar movement will always
work perfectly without jamnung or unwinding.

@
</ov Mii APO
S£rTIN6 CIRCUS
AT A/VY TIME

Hol/S CIRCLE
~
I
IS Nl/ILEO W II 0/Sl(
OF PJ.Y/ilOOO. HO'i It
£/VJ.Al?G€0 13Z L¥Ji..EJJB
14ouR NUM8f.RS
POINTER C.OLLAQ FIRM SL!P·TVRNElr
.SMOUl.D INCREASE.
OA. CAP OVEB PIPE Nlffi.6 COU NTtRCLOCl<'UllSE
FOR DIRECT
INDEl(IN6

143

•
 WORM C,£AR

The CLOCK DRIVE

<Jo TE&Tll (EX.) )i •

MOTOI!
Yi s llE'<'
E,._ Ml>I.
(E.1'.) VARIOUS motor-gear combinations can be used
MOTOR to maintain the one-rev-per-day pace of the
~AfT._.
stars. In general. the more teeth In the worm
gear, the more accurate and smoother the drive
will be. At t he same tune, a big gear is out or
place on a small telescope, making the 96-tooth
worm gear of about 3 inches diameter a practical
Xs REV OF WORM 111 1 ""'"· 11/R/'JS \1; 5 TOOTH= ~ 0 choice. This automatically fixes the motor speed,
I REV OF l.uORM IN IS Miii. Tl/RHS I TOOTH = ~lf-4°
4 R(V~ OF' WORM IN I ~OCJR TURii!> 4 TeETl-I = 15° which can be none other than l / 15 r . p.m. to get
-96 REVS Of~ 114 I DAV Tl/MS 96 T£.£TH = 360° the desired 1 rev per day.
{H-fO"'"') /.IS I BEi/ Of 6MB. Synchronous motors run on standard solar
time . As you may know, the stars travel a httlc
VARIOUS MO'TOR-GEAA ~BINATIONS
@ ~ I ~EV PtR OAY ~~ 4 MILil.t.~,
faster, making one revolution in 23 hours, 56
minutes of solar time. In other words, the motor
MOTOR Tl~~ NUNISEll Of Al(iUIAlt NE...REST FAST Ol!IVE runs s low--the telescope lags the stars by about
REVSPEJ Timt T££Tll ~ /Nl NII~ OltllJ' RATE
MINUTE I l<lk.I/ I II 14"1() ..1• • P£ll:lml O~TE M \IAIUATIO"' 4 minutes per day. In actual practice, this is not
'11
\/4
1MIH.

4MIN·
¥ =120
...
· l60 ,.
Yi.• 118
:!>59
EXAC.T
Ii lC AC.'f
an inconvenience. Even with an exact sidereal
clock, the drive can never be truly exact if ror no
other reason than refraction by the ea1·th' s atmo-
'Is 5 Mii~ . ~ -l.88 ~· '281 IM · FAST sphere whi ch changes the apparent position of
0
1/6 t)MI~. ¥ ·140 I Y:z. 2'?>9 :1 Ill· FAST stars, and hence the driving rate. II un exact
2/ts ,y.._,..,. JtlO a 192. 1)19• 191 3'/:z.M . FAST drive rate is requircd--as in pltotography--it Is
'le 0 ...... ¥=•80 2• 119 4 M. FAS'f necessary to add hand guiding to the clock drive,
Obviously, as long as you have to guide, it Is
'/10 10 MIN. -;~ •4~ 'lY:z.• 14',; 6/1'\· FAST
just as easy to guide the little bit extra to correct
1 : 120
/ 11 12. ..,... '3" I 19 8"'· FAST the lag in the conventional drive. II you .ar& cur-
1
/ts IS' Mor<. ...,6 ~o/4• 95 ious about a drive faster than the sidereal rate,
~
'/- llM.FASf
'IUJ 20 ....... '$-:12. s• 1I lb !IA . FASr the right hand side of Fig. 2 table gives the near-
est approach. Of course most of the odd-tooth
'l:zA )II.Moot
.
~ ' 6o
-
6" 59 10M.fAST
gears are not available •
=4.9 ,y,.,•
. ~

~ 30 ''"" . ' 41 )hM. FAST The same gearing used for a clock drive is
Y-iO 40,,,,.,, IJ L: ~
- I-
10° .35 31> M. FASr often used for a manual drive, Fig. 3. The motor-
V4s 45,,.,,. E } '2. 11Y4° 31 4 1M. FAST ized drive is just a matter of adding the motor,
•
1z.• 44 M· Fl\S'f Fig. 4. l\-1any amateurs get the happy idea of a
V4e 46 .... ~. 0 " '30 2.9 PE.It 0 ...

l!>RACKE.T
15 ATU&JJ£J:I
TO POLJIR
~T Jl()Wt!Wi

~--------
WORM
tr
IS' DIVISIONS s.a Tll UST e>u 1111'16 MOTOP.
liAC.H: Y4° eEAAll'I<;
COMBINATION MANUAL SLOW -
@ MANUAL SLOW-MOTION @) C l.OCK O~IVE ® MOTION and.. CLOCK DRIVE
144

•
manual drive and a clock drive, all on the same
shaft, Fig. 5, Thia calls for n clutch between
wot"m and motor, and an appat"ent solution is the
built-in ft"ictlon drive which motor manufac-
turers supply fot" about 25~ extt"a. However, you?"
luck may run out at this point because many such
mechanisms are strictly for no-load applica-
tions, such as setting the hands of a tuning de-
vice, But sotne built-in clutches are husky enough
to drive a small telescope, assuming it is in good
balance. The better two-way drive has the clutch
as a separate unit outside the motor where it is
accessible and adjustable.

CLOCK SLOW-MOTION. Among amateur build-

ers, favorite way of getting a slow-motion on the
clock itself is to remove the mounting bolts from
the clock motor and let It "float," controlled by
a threaded rod, Fig. 7. ln another system, Fig. 8,
the motor and worm are moved asa unit. 1/8 inch
travel is plenty for the purpose, which is only to
cot"rect the driving rate, Fig. G ls a refinement
of this idejj., with the clock and worm again as a
unit, but rotating around the polar axis. The
slow-motion ln this example is supplied by an
eccentric cam opel'ated by a lever.
SLIP CLUTCH. A slip or friction clutch must
supply enough tension to drive the telescope,
and yet must be loose enough to allow easy
manipulation of the scope by hand. A common
solution is simply a seH - locking nut. Fig. 1.
Belter but more expensive is the keyed washer
method shown in Fig. 7, The alternate detail
shows a clutch with a backstop ring fastened to
the shaft with a dog point set screw. The actual
friction pressure comes from two thumb screws.
This is a good slip clutch, offering o.ny desired
degree of friction with quick, easy release. The
same idea is shown in Fig. 6 except the fixed
backstop consists of a self-locking nut screwed
tightly against a threaded washer. In all cases
the tension knob or nut must turn with the polar
shaft to keep from "winding-up" when the tele-
scope is moved . If the nut stands still- -its
natural tendency--the friction will tighten when
the scope is moved to the west, and loosen when
scope is moved to the east.

POLAR
SHAFT OR .,,...---......
~AOAPTEA

/
/
/

,'
,---....' '\ \
,' : ', \l
ALTERNrTE I I
.SLtPCWltH \ ,' '
'
' ' ... _....... , / ,'
/ I

.,
..,.;J.~ --------

.. '. . J
.:.:........
....... ....
~,.. -

Q) @
ClOCK DRIVE CLOCK SI.OW·
~IHG SLIP MOTION WITH
C.LUTC.H <and. CLOCK SLIDING WORN\
SU)W - MOTION

145

•
The BRIGHTEST STARS
.STAil NAME POSITION ( 1966) VIS. O'f.r..,., STAR NAME POSITION ( 1966) 1.,. /l\E2 II>-
\II S
I A~ AT •
UWCAT'9
8AYllt P()PULAR R.A. S.ll.A DEC. MAC.
. ~ ....... SAYER l'OPULAll R.A. S.H.A• oec:. MAG. , ,.., LAT.
a Ant. 1 ALP!lE;;... o" 01'" 3se• t28'54'1 2.1 HOV. 7 'C4r f (1/4, UoA I AA 9h 16"' 211• -S9° oe• 2.."1. Mv.U
Bttu CAPH 0 07 358 +58' 58' 2.4 /{/)'/. 7 a.119.. ALPllARD ., 26 "l 19 -8° J I' 2..1. Mv. 18
a.Ph , ANKAA 0 15 354 -4'.rl~· 2..4 Nov. II a,/.eo R66ULUS 0
10'07'" 2.08 +ll. 08' 1.3 A;r. e
a.Cas Sc.~E.OAR 0 39 350 +56'11 ' 2.3 Nov.1r ')Lt• AL6E18A 10 18 2.05 +20'01' 2. '} /lpr. If
foat DIPHDA 0 42 350 - 18°10' 2."l. Nov.16 p /I.Ma. ME.RAK 11• OO"' 195 +56·~· 2.4 I/pr. ll
fttW. MIRACH 1h 08"' .3'43 +3s•u,· l .4- Nov. l1 o,/i.tl'la. OUSME 11 02 195 ,.61° 56' 1.9 I/pr. .....
a,Lrl AcHERNAA I 36 336 -s1•2s· 0.6 t./ov.19 8Leo OENEBOLA I I 41 183 -+14°46' 2.l. MIJJ( l
a.ILMi POLARIS 1.~ 00'" 3~ +89°06' 2.1 Oec..S a.Cra. ACRUX' 12!' lS"' 114 -62°ss· 1.0 I Mf.y JJ

''itW ALMAK '2.. 02. 330 +4).0 10' l..'2.1

()«.6 'J' Cr"' 6-ACRUl( 12. l.9 113 -S6· 55' l.E> I MU{ 14

a./lri f.IAMAL. 2. 05 319 +n• 18' I 2."l. /)(!c. 7 (Ce" MUIUIFAJN f2,. 40 110 -48°46' 2..4 l'fL'( 11

~~' AL60L Y' Ob'" 3 14 t40'SO' 'l:>."'

1.s,,..,.. /)«.ll /3C1u. MIMOSA 11 46 16'3 -59° :!o()' I.!> M1.yl8
a-Per MIRFAK 3 2:2. 3 10 t49°4S"' ( .9 Ott.,_, EU.Ma. ALIOTtl ll. 53 161 +56°09' 1., MA.I/ lJJ
a.!u.. AloEeAAAll 4., ?>4"' 292 +16° '2.1' I. I )Q.J>.13 Ctl.h1~ Mrz.AR 13~ 13"' 159 +5S'o6' 2.1. Ma.t/l7
/3 Ori RIGEL s~ 13~ 281. -8°14' Q.3 )4.n.'J.3 a, v,·,. SPICA I?. 13 159 -lo" 59' l.l.. /YI""( 21

a. ()alt, CAPELLA s 14 2.81 +45°58' 0.'2. Jan.~ -nllMa. ALKAID I?. 46 15.3 +49°2.9' I. CJ )11n~ l.

(Ori Sf,LlATRllC 5 2~ 219 + 6° 19' 1.1 )11.n,').6 /J (.e1< HADAR 14h 01"' 150 -60° ll' 0.9 J.,,. 6
Bl= ELNATH S' 24 119 +21!>' ~s· 1.8 ./an, .U fl Ce"' MEl'IKENT 14 05' 149 -36° l l' 1..3 J11•e 7
t Ori . Al.1'11 LAM 5~ 116 - 1° 13' 1.e ..14.n.18 a,Boo I AAaUIWS 14 14 146 +19°1~ 0."l. ;.,,, 9
f,Ori ALNITAK 5 39 215 -1° 58' 2.0 Ja.n.30 Q,~I< RIGEL l(EICT 14 31 14 1 -60°42' 0.1 Jflnt I/"

K.;;._' "'"°" 5 46 -9• 41' t'74 18'

1<.0ri
a.On 6£TEL6EUSE 5 53
273
212 +1°14'
'2.l.
o.')~
1.0..,. ...
''"·'
feo. 1
BaMi KOCAAB
aCr8 Al.PilECCA
14 SI
15~~3'" 12.1
131
- ~26° 50'
2.'l. .Jvn• 19
1.~ J,,,.,. l,
Saur ~f\KALl l'IM 5 51 21 1 444'51' "1...1 a.Sw Af'O'ARES 16"21"' 113 -u.· l.l.' I.'l. July IJ
'"'" J
BCMa M1RLAM 6h 2 1m 265 -11° 56' l..o ,__fl'b. /'l. a.TrA ATRIA 16 45 109 -6£! se· 1.9 .J11ty llJ

a.Car CANOPUS 6 1~ 264 -s2° 4 1• -0.9 Feb.fl £ ,Seo Epsilon, S<Df•" 1648 108 -34 14' 1,A. J.ly 19
$1..\AULA 11\,:01 M
•• ~1° os'
~Gem ALHENA 6 ?>6 261 +16° 2.6' I.<) Feb. IJ ).,Seo 91 i- I.I .July 2.9
'2.C!.'11 SIRIUS 6 44 259 -16° 40' -1.6 fib.I> a. OpA RA$ALHA6UE 11 33 91 f 1l.• :;s· 2.1 , .J,,ly 30

ECMa ADHARA 6 51 256 -J.B'ss· 1.6

-
flb.18 @Seo Tht>/4, SGot•1vs 11 ~5 96 -..n• 59' 2..0 July JI

Gt4 UIEZEl'I 7h 01"' ' l.S:?. -26°21J' "l .O ,r,/),J/ I of'#, £LTANI~ 11 56 91 t51° 3C' :1..4 AUf· $"
- ·:Lo
')( l Mi €f.a.I CA,.IS '"'·].J' KAUS l&hll."'
MAJOCl l 23 249 -19° 14' 2.4 t XAJ AUSTAALIS 85 -34°.14' A,.9.11

-. 6,,,. CASTOR 1 :.2. 241 +31° 58' 1.& fH.J.1 a.I.yr VE~A 18 36 81 +38° 44>' 0.1 Au9. 1.r

a.Citic l'ROcYON l 38 246 +s• 19· 0.5 ,Mu. I <T S~r NUNKI 18 53 11 -26· 2JJ' 2.1 A"'1· 19
p ~.. POLLUX l 43 244 +28°01· I.l. Mv.2 a.tt,,,I ALTAIR 19'49"' 63 ,.g- 4"1' o.9 Stfrl.. l.
'
e,P~; Zet.., P<1P•1s e• Ol"' :139 -39°54" l.?. I MAii. 7 'I c'IS SADR 20~ll'"l 55 +«> 09" 2.~ Y/lf.. /O

'{Vtl Gam-. VEL.A e oe 2.?>8 -41°14' 1.9 MAA.8 a. p,.,, PEACOCIC 2023 54 -56° SI' I 2.1 Sept.//

I Car AVIOR 8 21 2.~5 -s9°2A-· 1.1 M~A.12. a. Cyg Dfl.IEB 2040 50 •4S 09' 1.3 Sept.1$
.
~Vel O.LU.,...,£1.." 8 44 17..9 -54°3S' 2.0 Mi£r.18 a. Grv. ALfllAIR 21~06"' '2-8 ._41•oa· 2.1. Od. 7
9~ m"' 22.3
- 12.41
- c.
2.0 -41°04' 2.l. ()a.16
AI/el SU HAIL
0
-4> 1a· )..'l. Mtv.23 B Gr"- 8•tA., Go<tvs
- - - 29° 4~j'
Bw MIAPLACIDUS 9 13 1ll -69° JS ' 1.0 /V/ar.25 a.Psi/ FOMAUIAllT 1156 16 1. 3 Od.l.O

146
 section ry
.
Collimation and Adjustments
A GOOD telescope must have good
optics. and the good optics must be
AvE.RAGE
properly aligned or collimated. So
there ls a little problem here: U a
teles cope performs poorly. is it be-
cause of poor optics or poor collimation? In-
·-
E'fE Pl E.C.E

.~
FIELD,_
..
.. " • J
.Mo..
-;- ' G<>OO STAil IMAGE
variably, you can blame the optics since it is
rtearly impossible to align the average f/ 8 re -
c.ooe">::.
~TAB • • f_..
nector so poorly as to cause marked deteriora- "( ~
• GotlDSlM
1Mltti£S (yul
tion of image quality. The "good" field of any ~ )~ lwl€" OffgacElt
f/ 8 telescope Is over three times as large as the
image field of an average low-power eyepiece.
This point Is Illustrated In the drawing; it should
f/a tREFLECTOR
------HAS 6000
CCMATIC STAR IMAGE
RESOLUTION 01/£~ LAf:GE Ft£LO
be apparent that just ordinary care will assure ~~.- Sii W!Lt BfYW}
a workable alignm ent.
Coma is difficult to see in an f/ 8 reflector be-
cause it la so far off-center as to be out of the
field entirely. Coma is an off-axis aberration;
Permissible '(;ooo s:1ao"for
P~BO~IC MIRRORS
MllllrJQ Off., f/4 f/S lfl6 lf/7 lf f&
l_..
~·

by its natu re it cannot occ ur on the optical 3N Ll ~EAR+ .64" 1.00· 1.44'' 1. CJ6' 1 ..56"
ANGii""" 183' 229' 2.i~ · ~1· 366'
centerline. Hence. any time you see coma at the
~"' U ftl.EJUI.-+ 64" 1.00· 1.44• l.Cj16''l.s6"
center of t he eyepiece field, you will know you "' Nl(;(lt A!l• 130' 164' 2.00' %111' 259'
are not aligned wit h the optical axis. ft Ll!<E~ .64' 1.00· 1.44 t.'l6" 2 .56
Af<GUIAA, 91' I IS' Ile' 160' 18)'
Spherical aberration In a telescope can be
detected by the appearance of a star image in-
a• UPIEAR _,. .64" 1.00·
~- 69' 86' 103'
l.'6" l.'6"
120' '·""'
1)8'
side and outs ide of best focua. A test star should io· ""Ujt.. .64' 1.44 1.96 2..'6" A SHORT T ELESCOPE
be 2nd or 3rd magnitude, near the zenith for '""'
A!IGllUIR• ss· 69' 82' 96' 110' LETS 'l'OU SEE RESIJLTS
best seeing, or toward t he north for least move- U~EAR: 111c11ES Ai<UJIAtl.:/•t"""'*"'"'"" OF Ml ~ROR W<Jl/~NT
ment. At best focus the star image should be a
s mall disk of light, quite nearly perfectly round.
slightly r adiant around the edge with perhaps a
faint outer ring of light around the central image.
Usually you will not see rings around star
images, and if you want to see thls effect you
should use high power of 40x or 50x per inch
of aperture In order to obt ain a star image large
enough to reveal its physical structure.
Rack the eyepiece slightly in from best focus lf'ISIOE l'OCOS l!lEST FOCUS OUT'S!°' fOCUS
and then out. If the expanded star image looks
t he same in both positions. it is a sign there is
no spherical aberration. If, however, you see a
bright ring inside focus and no bright ring out-
side focus, you are looking at S.A., in this case
under-corrected (see drawing). The reverse
case--bright r ing outside focus and no ring in-
7' ~ST
side focus--means over-corrected S.A.
Star tests of t his kind work best with a re-
tractor. With a reflector, you will pick up a
silhouette of the diagonal which more or less ob-
Lf6HTHUE.
LOT.S flf
I.
·•• FQl?MS
M«iHT
a .· F'OCUS

scures the ce ntral part of the expanded star. 8tH6,

147

•
 DECl.INA'T ION

BALANCING
S.MAFf

a TELESCOPE
\ COUlllER· "'POLAR OR DINA RY bal anc1n11' of a telescope is a simple
WE.IGMT SHAFT
matter. You put the main tube In a hori2ontal
position. Fig. 1, checking to see that both lock
© SIMP~ 8ALAMCl"'6 HAVI FntDU "'
pt.ACE 1£ WU .PIM knobs are loose. The telescope 16 then b alanced
TOllS£7 by moving the counte rweight in or out as needed.

•
-·~" . .
_,""" -- -]J. Any slight imbalance can be re med led by apply·
ing moderate tension with the lock knobs; too
much imbalance will cause an erratlc action,
particularly noticeable with a clock drive.
The bala nc e obtained in Fig. 1 operation is
not true standing or static balance, as you will
find by moving the main tube to a vertical posi·
tion, F i g. 3. Now, in the form of eyepiece, Cinder,
@ C.EHTER OF <;.RAVITY came ra or other equipment, you have more
CAN 8£ DETERMINED
weight at one side of t he tube, with the result the
lfll SIMPLE MAHNE!t
£!NtrS, Al <o __.. t e l escope swings in that direction.

RfrPt& An approxim ate cor rection is often all you

need- - that is, you get some kind of weight in
s o m e pos ition nearly opposite the finder or eye·
lf~Mfifffl pi ece. If you want t o b e more exac t, t he weight

,,,-
TH£ TU&e. 1'£NOS
J
•Y
7kt.~
IS A VJ£1 GHT otl
l'UBE OPPOSITE
TllE EYEPIECE
and position of each part must be determined .
Then, as shown in F ig. 4 example, a simple
drawing to scale will show what weight Is ne ed-
ed to l>alance . If there are more than two weights
••• IT c.AJV 8Q
1'0 FALL. ' N AT£() AM'· i nvolved, the solution for two of the weights, as
11//UE 8'°"' 71J8E in Fig. 4, is combined with the third weight.
AL>O ...TlJRNS
ON POLAR
SHAFT-_ ,I The balanc ing weight can be placed anywhere
along the main tube. Attachment to the c r adle is
r; I
J @ IM &ALANC:E
often practical. Usually the weight Is arranged
to slide along the tube so that it can be used to
8ECOM£S maintain lengthwise balance as well as balance
APPAIZE,..T around the mechanical centerline.
U>HE"' 'l'UESGOPE
IS MOVED TO ME"' SU R£
VERflCAl. A>SITIOH _..T HIS L.I HE.
/ TO GE.T
1 INCfol-1-&S.
F I NO~~ Of l!AIAHCE
31.&S. ~1· WE. l &~ T.
"'2J l"'M•L&S . IT WILi.
SCA LL
MEASURE. TH IS
ANGLE. TO Gf.T
t.OeAT I ON OF
2ri11M1f
SAL.AMC.£
wt1c;11,-,
JT IJllLL U
.H_'l,~£x.~;w~e~u'.!'.)_JIC_. _ _ _ _ ST& P '2.
Wka.t
WE.IGllT I
AT WllAT I
l'O$tTIOl'I'\
WILL \ I
SAlANCE. \ I GAAPMICAL SOUITION
FINOE.R ~ MA..:E. OIA6~AM TO ANY
ANO C.ON\/E.NIE.NT SCALE. S:E.T OFF
E.VE.PIEa.? INCM· LSS. TO .SCAL£

148

•
 Gt4 &C K'IH w
1l'ffl t ! POSITION Of'
OIA60NAL
@

r··..•
lOOKING DOWN lMl MAUC TU6l ~----~
~f./

OIA~AI..

R'1'U.CTIOtf OF
MA.IN Ml ~lll Oi:l.

Collimating I H OIAGOM--.1..

a Reflector DIAGONAL. 0FF-t£NTER "~

RffL.Lttr(Dd
OFhfAl/11
M1MQAll'
COLI.IM.A TION is the process of aligning optical t::6Hr4Jl4D
IN~AL
elements. If you have a reOectlng telescope, col -
limation Is a "must" because the instrument will
not work well I! the mirrors are out of alignment.
As a basic starting point, both mlrrora should be Dll>GONAL ot:Av DIAG>OMAL
mechanically centered. ThJs is just a matter of RoTATION
ordinary measuring, Fig. 2. The diagonal must
also be centered mechanically under the eyepiece
tube. Check this by looking through the eyepiece tFLEC:TION
tube (without eyepiece) from a distance of several OP MAIN
Ml~OA.
Inches, Fig. 3.
Diagonal rotation comes next. Look through
the eyepiece tube from a close position, Fig. 4. It 01AGOllAL ANGLE
helps ln this operation to use a 1/8 inch sighting MQ't" E.XACI" 45..
hole or a 1/4 Inch eyepiece from which the lenses
have been r emoved. What you look at Is the re-
rlectlon of the main mirror In the diagonal. If the
reflection shows off-center, as at A, Fig. 4, turn
the diagonal post slightly to center the reflection,
as at B. A reflection at top or bottom of diagonal.
C. usually indicates an anele error although a
slight displacement toward the bottom, C, Is nor-
mal. as will be shown later. Angle errors can be
corrected by bending the diagonal poet. This re- C.1fNTL«
® AoJUSTI..(; MAii• MtllltOR
quires careful work -·don't rush It until you are CHtt' /tflC

sure a correction must be made •

•
The final step Is the adjustment of the main
mirror. Look into the sighting r ing as before,
Fig. 5, but this lime direct your c ritical attention
to the small rcflccllon of the diagonal. II will

~
probably be off-center but Is easily cente red by
turning the mirror cell adjusting nuts. It is con- MAIN MIRROR B<&.£&1«1Jt Mau«
11"'4'1' F8QW Ntlr
ve nient lo have a helper turn t he adjusting nuts NOT ALIGNED YOV T/GNTE/(

149

•
 l'lAI\. OA.
MATC.Ml'TIC : J "'- Q) •
SIGMTll'l6
llll'IG
II>" PLYWOOD ·-

' ~
----:ss;:~,..,s
l '!__! ~Q
@ C.EHlEIUHG TME MIR~Oll

Cf'HOL!c

. rOOT

C.OU.IWITION
®
~ ~S'J WnM arttER- DOT Mll~~OR
....._ __;/~@)
0#,

while you direcl him. If you do \he JOb eingle-
handed, the •implc rule is that th e ~mall reflpc ·
tion will move away from the adjusting nul you
tighten. The top adjusting nut is the one in line
with the reflection of lho d iagona l post, and the
other two are righL and loft lhe same a• your view
of the mirror.
Regarding the whole process, keep in m ind
that the large reflection or the mnin mirror in the
diagonal i" entirely a diagon:il ndju•tment--gct
this right before adJu•ling lhe mnin m• rror
1;crews which control only the • moll rPnection.
:>trong illumination is he1pru1, uch a• open ~ky
or a white celling, wall or cardboard 1>creen
flooded with light. Do not u~c dire c t ii luminatlon ,
As a final check, the alignment cQn be viewed
at the exit pupil, using a magnHyina glasa held
central with the optical centerline.
COL LIMAT!N"G W1Tll CENTER l)OT. ThiF
method i s fasl and easy and is recommended for
all r eflectors where the diagonal can be readily
pushed out of the way. 'fhe cent er dot i s painted
on the main mirror with a ny l<ind or color of
paint applied through a cnrdboard mnsk, J ig . 6.
You don't have to worry about tho dot spoiling
your mirror because this part of a telescope mir-
ror is never used , being lo st in the shadow of the
diagonal. A needed accessory ls a sighting ring,
Fig. 7. T he cutout shape allowslighttoenter the
tube and the three -leg design corresponds totbc
three-point mounting of the mirror. !'be • lghhng
ring also provides a con,·enient way of checking
the mechanical centering of the m:tin mirror,
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9 shows how center- dot collimation
works. In this method, you adju~t the m:l!n mir·
ror first and then the diagonal, Look through the

COLLIMA1 101'4 W IT H ILLUMl l'IA'TE.D T,O.R(,ET

k Ye Mo1.e. "'
C.A llt.080A~D

SC.lt£.f-N

f __ _
--- -- --
DISK·
v~"TfltC.K
0 HoLE -.l.=. ==-=+::::41 ?r @
,_______...J..__ ....
/
I t

- -- ---
----- - IOO•W"l'T
\...AMP

150

t
@ 1?€.eL ECT(Qr/
eENT£REO
O IAc.OHAL
- -- -- --
@ D~OPPEO D1AG0tlAL
sighting hole at the painted dot. Yo..i will a l so see
a reflection of the sighting hole. It is helpful to
use a nashllght, shining the beam on the mirror if
you want to see tho dot plainly, and on the hole or
your face if you want to ~ce the hole. The idea of
course i!' to center the hole around the painted dot.
The required movement is obtained by tightening
the adju!'ting nut on the side toward which the hole
is displaced, ~ ig. 10, \\hen you get the hole ex-
actly centered around the dot, the main mirror is
in perfect alignment. The diagonal adjustment
follows and is the same as for ordinary collima-
tion, Fig. 4. The main mirror being already
collimated, the two axee are then in alignment and
the small reflection automatically shows in the
center of the main mirror.
COLLIMATl~C WITH TARCJ::'l, This method is
accurate 3n'.l convincing :ilthough It has a minor
drawback In that the main mirror and cell must be
removed. The setup s shown in Fl~. 13. The
telescope tuhe shoJld tX' strapped or clamped se-
curely lo the workbench. The target is then made
wilh hole at the same hei(lht ns renlc:>rlinc of tube,
Fig. 12. 1t Is then fairly easy even without an as-
sistant to move thl'l turget as needed until you can
see the illuminat<'d hol<' through the sighting disks
filled in bot h ends of the telescoJle tube.
Now, remove the sighting disks and mount the
mirror. Use care to avoid d!Bturbing tho position
of either tube or target. Turn out all lights except
light behind target. If the target ls approximately
- --
---
@)
or MA'"" OFFSET
M t RAOR ($ OIAGOHAl
C£"'7VlE.P
JJ&o/'IAL
two times mirror focal length from the mirror,
the mirror will reflect an image of the hole back
onto the screen, as shown in Fig. 14. By turning
adjusting nuts, it is easy to make the imn11e coin-
cide exactly with the target hole. You now have the
mirror in perfect alignment with the mechanical
centerline of tube. Fitting and :idjustmcnt of the
diagonal follows, as previously described. \Vhen
a spide r diagonal mount with center hole Is ust'd,
it can he fitted in place after the initial target sight-
ing by r emoving the front disk on ly and sighting
from rear disk through ~pider holi; lo Lnrgel. The
centering of 3 diagonnlpost can be similarlycheck-
e d by dr opping the diagona 1 be low the light bell m;
the post will block the beam if accurately centered.
Don't forget the trick of blow ing smoke on the light
beam if you want to see it clearly at any particular
point.
OFFSET DUICONAL. Properly, the diagonal
should be off -center slightly. This becomes obvi-
ous in a high-speed system, Fig. 15, whl're it can
be seen that the top part or a centered diagonal Is
wasted. With offset diagonal, Fig. 16, the same
light cone c:in be fielded with a much smaller di·
ago na l. Offsettin~ causes some romplic:itio'ls
since it can be seen, Fig. 16, that the diagonal is
not mechanically centered with the eyepiece tube
nor is its reflection centered on the main mirror.
If you use an offset diap:on3l, the optical center
should b'? marked. ;>. rub':>er band snapped around
the d1ago'lal at this point provides a guide mark
which can be centered 1n the main mirror.
Offsetting the diagonal ie not commonly prac-
ticed if the mirror is f/8orbigherf/numher, The
offset for an f/8 mirror is a scant 1/16 inch--
bardly worthwhile in view of the extra complica-
tions in collimating. However, it iA worth noting
that the centered diagonal will .how the main
mirror reflection slightly off-center, 1 lg. 15.
Thi s is correct for a centered diagonal. Do not
try t o obtain better centering by droppini.i the
d iagonal, Fig. 17, because lhismcre lydlsplaccs
the optical centerline and does not me<ke the de-
sired correction as viewed from lhe center of
focusing tube.
151
•
 Adjustment to POLE
NORTH by guess is good enough for casual star-gazing, but
when you get into more advanced observmg and photography,
the setting of the polar a"is to the celestial north pole be-
comes an adjustment of considerable importance.
In any case, the first thing to do is to set the polar shaft
at the same angle as the latitude of your location. When this
is done, the polar shaft will point to the same height above
the horizon as the celestial north pole itself. This adjustment
[Y\,l\f\J ,w---/ TEMPI.ATE can be made indoors, using such levels, protractors, etc. as
(~) may be available . H you have a pedestal mount, a roundabout
+ ""DESTAL yet practical method is to measure the angle between pedl'stal
Q) and declination shaft, as shown in Figs. l and 2.
POLAR
.SHAFT
ANGLE •.. BORE SlGHTIKG. The simple, direct way to ACt the polar
shaft pointing exactly to the pole is to sight right through
the bore of the polar shaft housing. Thl s is not a practical
method with many mounts because of the numerous parts that
must be removed piecemeal. With some mounts, however, the

EMPl.ATE

TU &E (Jl&JISE} ADA PTE ll

~=·=·0=11=1..=6="L.Ot'
=Cl~\b==.:~=
~~)
AN~ E'ff.PtEc£-
~
tuwP AMI> !l(1 ICl.E
MOU HT (TllltNlllA411f•!.}
CAP -"
U."l.« 101)
/
4-4<>--
----- - - s·
RETICLE
ADJUST)~C.
@ SORE TELESCOPE (6><)
SCll£Ull3)
JOl·on<.I. IS
Ye" «;LEAR SZ.' ANC.lf:
Pl.ASTIC FOil L.!NS
•
~ .IO~J.'.':e!< SPECIFIED C.LOCI:: O~lVE
1--.-f--+-~ (Hf m.IS) IS R£/fC'/ED
SCMT<t!
JN1Il:J AS A UHlf AIO....J
NUDI.£

RETICLE - E.11/4..~!ZI,

152
 @ PARALLAX ERROR 1rt
l=INOE.R AUGNM£NT
»0<t16Y..."
______ J

~OSSLINE RETICLE
for MAll'4 TELESCOPE
' / ,,.e) TM E OPTIC.AL.
( ~~NTERLINEOF
whole drive can be removed by loosening two set TEL£SC.OPE
screws. Of course, to sight through the bore, you I S HOULD BE.
90•..r' SQUARE WITH
need a bore telescope, Fig, 3. The optical center- DE.C.LI NATION
ing of the reticle is checked by rotating th.;, as- AKIS
sembled te lescope on vee blocks while looking at
any ta1·get objeet--the center should stand still,
Fig, 4 shows Lhe bore sight being made. The
illuminated reticle is helpful but not essential
since it is practical to work at clusk or in moon - ® THE ANGLES OF THE POLAR ADJUSTMENT
light when an ordinary non-illuminated reticle
is easily visible . Get Pola r!s ln the field and then C:RAOLI!
by shifting and &himming the base of the mount, il
put Polaris on the reticle circle at the same angle I FAUt.:r
I (Malfl
as your refe1·ence star, which can be either
Alkaid in the Dipper or Epsilon in Cassiopeia. If .-.... / ~
desired you can turn either the bore telescope or
the reticle holder to make the reticle line assume
the same angle as ~he rcfe rcnce star. Fig. 4,
TOPVtEW

Fl~L>ER ALIGNl\fENT. Lacking a borescope, you \

can make the pole adju~tment with the finde r - JJJJL".J«IU
~
scope. This Is considerably more complicated.
MACtlrtlE
To get started, you align the finder parallel with VISE lriST
main telescope, Fig. 6. The finderscope eye- \, llQARO
piece. Fig. 7, has the usual crosaline reticle, as @) SQUAlllN(i. TH«: CRAOLs;
well as the polar circle which will be used later
in setting to the pole position. The eyepiece of
the main telescope has a plain crossline reticle the declination shaft and the mounted telescope
Fig. 8. The actual sighting iii' usually done on a tube, seldom exceeding 1/4 degree , This can be
daytime object and ls not difficult. corrected by placing cardboard shims between
the crad l e and main tube , A simple tcstini met hod
SQUARING THE C.KADLE. This involves two 90 is shown i n Fig, 10 , Re versing the main tube end-
deg. angles, as can be seen h\ Fig. 9. Or these, for-end, you will be able to detect a contact diff-
t he angle between polar shaft and declination erence as s mall as l / 32 inch, which means about
shaft is fixed immovable by the manufactu rer 5 min. of arc accuracy. This is c lose enough for
and nothing can be done about an error, which a preliminary adjustment.
happily, is not often present.
There is ul:lually a modest angle error between POL E ADJUSTJ\IIENT, Sighting the pole with a
153

•
 @
AOJVSTMEHT
TO POLE
Ul l TH A
FINDER

l " -..!.--' 2 3
GET Po/ari• USE fRE£00M MOl/E WMOLr
@ jW'(WMERE IN A'LIMUTM T E.l.LSC.OPE. IN
ALTITUOC (S>l'ttt s.u c.J
........._ IN F I El.D

TELESCOPE tr• TELESCOPE IN

-·- -
"SIDE"
POS.
"TOP" POSITIOl'C "SIDE" p0SITIO!f
CAN &EMOVED ' -..!--"' l
_...._..., ~
CAN SE MOVE.D
~ IN FIE.LO
IN A"Z.I MUTH IN Al.TITUOE GET use. MOl/E WHOLE.
Polari s FRE.E.DOM TELE.SC.OPE
SUT rs l'l x'EO 8UT I S Fl)CEO ij ..., ••
IN AZIMUTH
IN A"tlMUT H IN Alli l'tJOE.
IN ALTITUDE

finderscope i s muc h the same as with a bo r e-
scope, except you have to do the sighting twice in
orde r to e l iminate the moveme nt of the telescope
itself.
F ig. 11 shows the main telescope in "top" posl -
tion with ma in tube directly over the polar shaft.
If you s t udy this drawing, or, better, an actua l
e quatorial mount in this position, you will see the
telescope can be moved from side to side. This is
a movement in azimuth. But you can't move the
telescope up and down at all--you have no free-
dom in altitude.
The other basic position i n making the polar
adjustment is the 'side" pos1t1on, Fig. 12. Here
you can move up and down in altl•ude, but you
have no freedom in azimuth.
It is best to start with the telescope in top
position. This position Is u,,ed to set t he altitude,
which is not soapttobed1stu1bedby later mani-
pulations. In top position, a slight movement In
azimuth around the decllnaUon axis is permiss-
ible if needed to put Polaris at the desired posit -
ion . Similarly, when in side posi\lon, Fig. 13, it
is permissible to use a slight movement in alti-
tude if needed. In both cases, these movements
are not in the plane you arc adjusting a t the time.
T he various positions of Pol aris as seen in the
findersco pe are s ho wn in Fig. 13 diagrams. Of
course, P olaris may be a t uny position in the sky.
The whol e ope r ation can be done in about fi ve
minutes- - but no t the f i rst lime I
After c omple ting the sighting to the pole, you
can r echeck the square ness of the cradle by s low-
l y m oving the telescope from side positio n west
of pe dest al to side position east of pedestal, all
the while watching P olaris in the finderscope
e ye pie c e. The star should walk aro und t he retic l e
c irc le .
REFERENCE STARS. 25 years ago, Alkaid in t he
Dipper, and Epsil&n, Cassiopeia, were nicely in
line with P olaris and the pole. Currently, Thu ban
in Draco and Ko. 50 Cass are better atlgned altho
less bri ght, Fig. 14. Alkaid and E psilon Cass are
still quite reliable.
li you can catch P olaris at transit or elongat-
ion, the job of making the adjustment to pole Is
somewhat easier, more accurate. A fixed tele-
scope can be wholl) adjusted by using a transit
position for the azimuth setting, and an eloneat-
ion fo r altitude . Although this means a 6-hour
wait, the procedure does not require a reticle
circle and can be done with eyepiece with c r oss-
line reticle used with main telescope , 10 or 15
minutes before or afte r the exact transit or elon-
gation can be tolerated- -Polaris moves about 2
min. of arc in 10 min. time .
T RAN SIT T IME FROM PLANlSPHERE, In ordin-
a r y use, a planisphere is used by putting the time
opposite t he date--the cha r t t hen shows t he s t ars
on the m eri dian. Thi s proced ure can be re versed
-- if you put a certain star on t he meridian, you
can read it s t i m e of tran sit o p posite any date .
Almak ha s the same R.A. as Pola r is, and it is
Almak you set o n the m erid ian to get Lhe transit
time of P ola r i s, F ig. 16. Accuracy within 5 m ln-
ute s is possible.

154

•
 IP116lf .4/1M,k. IS_ _()({ M£8101AN, Po/acit IS
@ , Qt{ M,£&1Dtllt' Ar //f>PER ri?AtYStr
fro1n
REFERENCE STARS l. YEAR i:!. A . Oi<C .
AETICU!
\ L I& FACTO«'
fo,. TRA,.SIT and 1960 1h S6"' 89" S' SS ' .016
Et OHGATION
OF POLARIS 1965 1h 59~ 89° 6' s-+' ,016
19"70 2." OlM 89° 8' 52' . 015'
~ 19'"75 2.~01"' 89°9' 51' .015
e Al"""1< '2.... or 1980 zk II'" 89° 10' 50' .015
" tf>lcVWPJ.:f M U.
OF £LNOUl,SC,.QJ!.£
"l::' PB.1£CTLV£. W VLT
RADIVt OF 8Er1a&
~
() CUf'li
....
~'4
~
"l:: ~
()~
I
~ "\ c.vc:,,.Js"-
.2
Atf4'r
191'1~

<£
~
~

<,, --...l!!l--

19&6 $Tl\ll POSl110NS

use TABLE ~oR -t.\
POS• T IOH OF Polaris.
OT>lt.R Sl"I> POSl'ltOt<S
CHIet. USED TO AGOUT
1985. (llfl .1>111(/MVM (Jl~E
.SJ ~'
IN 20 YJiS. IS AIJOUT i_ -tt) (1.ISNW:Z '&3//107') ;vb'l(Tlb'?W No S't
'1,0 UfDQ '/illlli!llll.9w )JlJ sl J1/11'f/1!' 1"5HIYI

SI--- - ---..
TRA.'\SIT BY CALCUL,\ 1'10::-1. The transit time l'tEAO TRAICSIT
TIME OF AlmoJc
of Polaris or any star i~ ~imply a conversion of {also Po/tvl.s/
sidereal time to it~ local mean time equivalent. OPA:>Sln
A specific example dealing \\1th Polaris itself is @
shown in Jig. 17. You should surely know by now
fx.ample: J UNE S TRANSIT
UPPER TRANSIT
that sidereal time i~ the R.A. on the meridian 01' POU\R IS ai...t 9: OS . .... l.11.T. TIME
at that ln:;tant. Currently the R. ~. of Polaris is From~
an even 2 hours . \\'hen it i~ 2 hr. ~idereal time, it!\ TRANS IT TIME. Pl.AHi SPllERE
Polaris will be on your meridian above the pole. W BY ARIT HMET IC , u.a;A8I.f)F CAIQ/!ArJtN!i
~ tS $/Q£.AUI- UYrE R V'AL.
The problem Is simply a conversion of 2 hr.
sidereal time lo your local mean time. After FORMULA:
hJ
L.M .T. =R-.-A~.,.-- G.SJ~ -
CATO I
CORRECTION
•, i.
you get the L.1"1.T. of t he tran• it, you have to ~,.,.e : Pola... is , JULY 1, ZONE6 \ ,r11t~,;o-
convert to your standard time. This is jus t a R.A.··· -i"oo"' + 24h :.'2.5"60"' ~
6
matter of adding or subtr n.cting your time MinusG.S.T.···18'-:!>S"'··········· 18 " l 5"'
(D"JIJLY I) {Wzm TA&.,f:1 ~ ,.,.
correction. . ..... · · · · · •· · · · · · · · · · · 7"' 2S
After you know the time of u ppe r trnnsit, you .····"Minu.,- CO~R~~J:\QI'(, ... 02."'
know that western elongation will be 6 sidereal --~.;.._ .. ··". [ M,T. 1" 2.3'.'.' UPP£• TRMSIT
Plu s Ii. 00 ···~ ..,~,
hours later. ln solar time, It will be 6 hours COfllZ'./
h '.s1D·'"J
1 -z,0~
.
•
. .. ·
•
i; .,, ..,
19 '2.;:, Cf.ll111L,IJ•N.D/l
""'
later, minus l minute, The minus 1 minute Is P'~ .'' M tnv.g 0 2"" a lll- §ip.r1Me
the correction for converting a 6-hr. sidereal 6~..... J111.Yl···L.M.T. 19" 21"'lowtll TllAHSIT
interval to solar time .

155

•
 ,

A
Lens 1 DOUBLE
C.ONVEX
PLANO
CONVEX
C.ONVEl(
~ISCUS
OOUBLE
C.ONCAl/E
PLANO
COfo+CAVE
UJNl:.AVE
MENISCUS

Prirner ~ POSITIVE LENSES

A LENS IS POSITIVE IF IT CAN COii·
VERGE PARALLEL LIGHT TO FORM
AN I MAGE . IF Tl1E LENS IS A SINGLE
NEGATIVE LENSES
NE6A"f1V£ LENSES CAUSE PARALl..EL
UGflT RAYS TO Dl\IER6€ - NO IMA6E
IS FORMED. USED ALONE AT
•
PIE.CE OF 6LASS, IT IS A SIMPLE. LENS

--
E'<E, A NEGATIVE LENS REDUCES

IMA6E O~ PPt -+1 l - PP2 PLANO ........... DOUBLE

OISTANr AOM l$s.t/U:l .£ttttSSIOrl CONVE'o( / C.ONVE)(

-- -
-- ~
POI NT O&JE<.T I-ENS
~
!-ENS

- -¥J~ -~
Ro.cliu S" .,, ...
--1--+-- ........ 't::9.U.1u!~--'-· I
F"'. -
Fl R.ST
FOCAL
I SECO~D
FOCAL
I
c
'n . 1.500
\ SYMBOL FDR
A&Aiiii- c
POl l'IT' POINT
ilPP/!C[IW[_fN{)g./
rOCAL LEN6 TM- + -F.L.---, r--F.l 4 F.L:2.R '- _./ F.L"' R
P. • 1/2.F.L. -
l=OCAL LE.NGTH l'IC?INCIPAL PLANES RADIUS of CURVAiURE
DISTANCE FICOM A LENS TO POINT IMA61NARV Pl.ANES FROM WM I CH ALL SIMPLE LENSES µAVE SPtlERICAI.
WHERE IT FORMS AN IMAGE OF A ElC.Oa FOCAL ltN(iTM MEASURE.ME.HTS CURVES. TME RADII DETE.RM1NE THE
DISTANT Ol!>J ECT. l/£uau.r MEArtllllll AlitE TAKEN, IF TME LENS IS SVMMET- FOCAL LE.NGTH. F<MM!UrtfltL fll'ff?Qlf..
£.<a:JM CEJ.ITEB Of 'WJlLTHO llOT .Dtl!CT RICAL1 1ME PP's ARE SYMMfTRICAI- . . , £~AC T Of¥t:'( FOR THIN I 'Nf, tNDtfX /.S

~...:;. ,~ .. l.
l""-.1 I ! '

I I
\ I
I I IMA6E
\,J..-OF SU>I

FINDING F.L. of o. LE.NS WH ITE LIG.HT LONGITUDINAL COLOR

140LDTHE LENS IN SUNLIGl-IT AND WH11E LIG~T 15 COMPOSED OF ALL .SIMPLE. LENS BeEAKS UP WHITE
Al..Or"GSIOE A RULER. MOVE LENS UP THE COL.ORS. Ar&AA!tOW SEAM OF SUN· L1611T JllST LIKC A PRISM . 61.UE RA~
A."D oowri TO FORM Sl\WilST IMAGE LIGHT 0411.ECTEO 1llR\J A PRISM WILL FOCUS C.LOSEl<!THAN RED. T~E FAULT
Of. SUN. ~E.AO Tl1E f. l.. ON RULER EME116E AS A COlDREO EWID·l1£51'ECn!l~ IS CONSTAAT O\IER Wl-IOL.£ FIE.LO

LATERAL COLOR SPHERICAL A0ERRATION ACHROMATIC LENS

FAIW~"- OF THE LENS TO FORM As SMOWN, A POSITIVE LE.NS 1$ AcHROMATS ARE TWO-El-EMENT
SAME IMAGE Snee IN ALL C.OLORS. SP+IE.RICALLY UNDEA·CORl2£CTE.0. LENSES CORRECTED ~OR lON61TV-
Tt\IS FAULT INCREAS<:S llllTH f'I ELO S.~. VAJUES WITH .f/VALUE OF LEN$ DlNAL COLOR ANO SPHERICAL
.ANGLE .•• IS NOT PRE.S£NT ON AlCIS P1-10 IS LESS ~OR A SMALL APERTURE A!?>ERAATION l'OR AM A1CIAL Ol?>JECT

156

Telescope Optics
OPTICS is a big subject. Most beginners a void
lens design, knowing very well that such work
is a mathematical jungle. The simpler approach
is to buy lenses, prisms and mirrors ready made
and take i t fr om there, Then the math work re -
duces to simple lens equations. If you use stock
optics of good quality, you can be assured of good
imagery. The problem of designing a telescope
is just a matter of getting light through the In-
strum ent to form an image of a certain size at
a certain location.
The ast ronomical telescope is a narrow-field
section m
insti:-ument of l degree or l ess. As a r esult the
objective is nearly immune to the off-axis aber-
rations--coma, distortion, field curvature and
astigmat ism. The two axial faults are chromatic
and spherical aberration. As you may already
know, chromatic aberration is non - existent for
r e flected light. In brief, if your interest is in re-
flecting te lescopes, your only problem in ima ge
quality is that of s phe r ical aberration. E ven when
you make your own mir ror, t he job of fashioning
and correcting a single surface is well within the
capabilities of the average person.

...-OBJECT
10" ' c"~

L{~
•
I

lJ'.1-1 E
VISUAL SIZ.E OF AN OBJECT ]",
DEPENDS ON THE ANGLE IT 11 '.... APPAREJ'll"
SUBTENDS A.I IHE EYE 1 ',, ,-FIELD
1
I --.... I AF so
~)1 M"' -TF ::. -10 = Sx
.•.
J'RUE ~IELO IJ OBJECTIVE

II
/
500
• '
.' .... '
',

-----
__ __
_.. •
~.
---"!!
I
IMAGE

I ' ~
WHEN YOU USE A TE.LES~PE,
- - -- - - - - ---
II SX TELESCDP£ \ 4----7
11 ~fa
'THE OBJECTIVE LOOK9 AT 'Tl-IE J~V lltfUAL ~~ ... B VT YOUR EYE
How the TELESCOPE OBJECT AT EXAC:TLY THE SAME
ANG L E AS NAKED E.YE ....
1-7 IMAGE
I I
~ SE.£S ;ME IMAGE
OF T HE OBJECT
MAGNIFIES AT A MUCH
GREATER ANGLE

acsr NOTS"flA/lP
FOCUS'\,.
.sMe.e ~

P/iRS&CTl~
Q;'£TcH S!/OJ!S
mtQ~OF
L16ffl CAYS' ar IMAu~
Effif(T M6L£S

COM A ASTI GM~ISM F IE.LD CURVATURE

COMA IS 08l.IQUE SPHERICAL AS£2- THIS !'AULT SHOWS AN IMAGE POINT THE NATURALIC.NOEl'ICY OF A
RITTIO~. IT occues ONLY Ol"F - All.IS AS A SHORT LINE E:#ICM CllAr(;E$ RlOM L£N'> 1$ TO ~ORM A SHARP IMAGE.
WllE.~£ THE UHSYMM£.TRIC OEFOR· HORIZONTAL TO V ICAL POSITION ON A CURVED SURFACE BENT
MA'TION Pli:Ol>llCf.S A CDMa·SllAPE llNa OH EITHER S I CE OF &ST FOCUS iOUJARD THE. L-£NS

157
 ~"OBJECTIVE TELESCOPE SYSTeM-
-- / S.YM~L~ a.nd. ~P£Cll=ICATIONS
EVE PIECE • ~&o

j.
TF ( Tll\JE ~IELD'
- ,....y..-.;
--r----
dtl(;JE ~
-
- ,.
~:
' $
-=--.;
--
- -----=---
~ffft'lAl\c.
-
£:0-
-- --- - -----'\;; !
~
-
IMA.G.E _
.94-"
'\
_
AF (APPAQ.EN'r

··--
11 - .
/ l'IELO}
--

OBJECTIVE.
00 ;

-
- - -

-
-
&v- ...P0¥1
"""' '
- - - --
~ ~ i
--1
-=-=-- _-::_- J
,, NQT TO .$CAL£ k-•
€OB liiXIJCm&.s.s,
THE C.A. ("EAR
r {FOCAL
Fo•
36
LENG.TH OF- OBJECTIVE)
- (r.L.Fe"" "•1
EYPC~
8,P£8T~/ Sl-fQULQ
BE </SCQ, Bttr SIM""-.
r;m,,&._tlLA TJ{)f"S AB£ ilSVAl..LY

ARITHMETIC
Ot:JHE WJTN • NAft1£·,,S1Z.£''
0

'TllR£E WAYS TO TELESCOPE

CALCt/LAT£ MAGNIFICATION
l E){AMPL E
FO 6
- 1.5 2.4.C
1 M =- ~ ONE OF the first t hings you have to know nbout any tele::;cope

2.

~
M =
M :. TF
AF
FE.
00
E.P
I
*:.
l1.5
i=
3 ><f:2.4JC

2.411
is its magnification. This is easily calcula t ed by the No . l equa-
tion in box at left, a form ula well-known to even the beginner.
Equ<ltions invol•ing the field angle--Nos. 3. 8 and --can be
applied to a pa rt of the fie ld as well as all or it. For examp le.
M. Mt/ST BE Kl'(Oflll'( FOR if the se pa ralion of a double star is 6 se cond s of arc (its true
OTHER CA/..CCll.ATIONS field angle) and you want to see it at G minutes o f arc apparent
field angle, you use equation Ko. 3, first changmg the 6 minutes
4 FO ... M x ~E '2.4 • I Y2 "' 36" to seconds. ThPn by equallon No. 3. M equals 360/ 6, equals
s FE=- £Q. ,,,~
" 2: -
3 It."
I 'Z.
60x . Of course, you then have to find out whal f.l. eye piece will
M I give 60x, or. in other WOt'ds, you have to find FE when l\l and
F O a re known. The solution is equa• ion No . $ .
e, DQ: M 'I! EP 2/4>( ~= 3"
The image dia meler lS easy to calculate lf you know the ap-
I EP"'
DO
M
J/ ~ "- "!"I "
,3 parent field, equation No. 1 O. and a simple t ransposition of this,
Ko. 1 1 reveals the apparent field angle when the image size
8 TF s- AF iii~
-- 3
=-2== lY4
Io is known. The linear field diameter for an)· normal focal
M
length can o. Lso be obtained d i rectly from the Image Table
9 AF "'M l(T~ 2.4 >< I 'h_ • *'o in the c hapte r on eyepieces.

CALCULATION OF IMAGE DIA. a.nd. TABLE. - DE.C.Q.EE.S To RADIANS

APPARENr FUtLD by RADIAN~~ OEu. 1RAO. DEG. RAO. OEG. RAD. OEG. RAD.
~ 71t.~'f s· .08lQ :ts• .4 36° 41 ° .116" 51° .995"
AF- :. 3& 0 10 .115' 2.6 .454 42. .133 5'8 I.Oil.
IMAGF: AF )C FE )6° = .62.8 Ra&.ian~ (~ ~
(.QJA {B!J.MlllJ II .192. 2"1 .411 +3 ,151 59 l.030
IMAGE : ,{,28 ..c 1.5 : •94"
- 12. .209 1& .489 44 .168 60 1. 041
.!.!..! IMAGE A~ =- .94- ::. 63R 13 .22, 29 .50b 4S .1er; 61 I 1.065"
AF ::. (/?AQ1Art~) 1.5 .
{.R8. fJ.18.C!.i.) FE 14 .244 30 .524 46 .803 62 1.082
.63 PaJ.io...s .. 36° ( ~ ~
IS .76'2. 31 .541 47 .820 €.3 1.100
4' DJ.~ U.t:1lZ Q~ 'ld'tl'=AR tJ::!.~Arll.8.~. JJ/d. ~ 16 .21'il 32 .S59 48 .838 64 I.Ill
RADJ.d/'I. EMB~,.S Ill!! ,!IS.:: e/' I!! ClBf.": -. ',. · • ~
6'J/IJL TO ITS RADIUS. J RADIAN - sz40- ,,,.- S~. l(//JAl.f 11 :2.91 33 .516 49 .855 6S ' l.135
I Bdl2.lfl.S
18 .314 34 .593 5o ' .813 66 I.I S2
t /VALUE ••. L£1'1GTH TO APERTURE IS THE RATIO OF FOCAL 19 . 332. 3S .611 SI .890 61 1.169
-12. 13. 20 .?>49 36 .628 52 .908 68 1.181
-:: /VAUJE : ~ - )() l=O =S:O .. f/" DO
.,.. {fVAUIE 7.1 .:>61 31 .646 53 .925" &'I 1.204
E'l(AMPL.E AS A90V E: 'U .l84 38 .663 54 ' .942. 10 I. 242

ff =~
.3 =-f/n
00= 36 -
12. -
?>" FO: t2'lC>a~6" 1~ .401 ~9 681 55 -~ ll l.'239
24 :419 40 .698 S6 .9n 12 1.257

158
 0SJECTll/E
,.
SLIDING
EN OPI ECE

Ri?" f'. L. EYFe1£C£

of scope~
L li.tlS AE.tt{Gr
B&Jt{fi. U$6Q rEST£D
AS A •.
THE HOl£.S ui C.OW MA"T~
META L fNoptECE LENS ->r"
E!KQ\/IQES..it. .
TARGE T

~ CD OPTICAL
~O&&Y

ME.T~RSTICK SENC.H
EOMll!'IP lfQ. 83 1 003

Optical Bench
an~ Collimator
AN OPTICAL bench is the kind of equipment
which may cost $5 or $5000 , You can buy or build.
Fig. 1 s hows an inexpensive hobby optical bench
you can buy. lt is mounted on u wood mctcrstick.
If you need a stronger or longer base, the con -
struction shown in J!'ig. 2 can be used.
A collimator consists of some kind of illumin-
ated reticle or target in the focal plane of an ach-
romatic lens. Such an arrangement provides the
equivalent of a distant target. A ~ollimAtor can be
built right on the optical bench ns needed. Jn the
equipment shown, the end plate is perforated with
a vertical line of small holes. Th.is 1syour "tar-
get.'' The coilimatorlenscanbl'anygood-quality
achromat of 5 in. or morl' focal length. It is
mounted at exactly one focal length from the
reticle plate, a setting which is easily checked
by auto-collimation as de:>crlbed on a iollowlng
page. F ig. 1 setup shows a small finderecope be-
ing te s ted, the bench providi ng a means of hold-
ing the lenses while the collimator supplies the
equivale nt of a di stant target.
Fig. 3 shows a simple homemadP optical
bench. The adjustable lens holde r s can handle
lenses to 2-1/8 inch diameter, and sizes over
this can be mounted in individual holders. The
sliding vee blocks which clamp the lens in the
grooved frame should be made of ha1·dwood ply-
wood. The collimator Is a military gunsight,
which requires only a simple conversion to 110-
volt lighting, details of which are supplied with
the merchandise.
The obvious weakness of the optical bench ar\d
collimator is that the equipment should be some-
where near the ph_ys1cal size of the large.st tele-
scope you plan to test. Small equipment works

&'#5""' I 1+--v+·:---.i

Q I~
.~~

•
•
INDIVI DUAL
LENS HOl.t>EP.

OPT1c<Il S.ENCH
w ITl-I C.OLLINIATOR.
,W.OE !=ROM GU!i~tGllT

159

•
 I

DIMENSIONS OEPENO ON F.L. OF LEH$

..
ie;)
J
ALI l!G>ITMYS, f'ROM CEN.1:££LOE
TAR(;E.T £NIER4/i PA/?IJ.l.LEL

- -
-----::::_ =---- --
- ==---
@
~ENCi\ COLLIMATOR
o.nd.- TARGET
R ---- ,,•v -

- t • •• AAGU~ Ol.d. Y.o RAOtAl'I

C.OLLIMA1'0~ TARGET
FOR ANY LE~ l'io t<AD•AtJ
CI RCLE -
fjc•
~~
2.0"F.L.
(/""- ~n1f" f;nli FORMULA • COLLI, LENS

DIA .of Yio WiGn =

.IC.ll?CLt f ><. I 20 " .I "2.0•
~~ RAP~ CIRCLE (/21A. •

DISTANCE
~ ~~ACE.. ~ ' .0115 20 ~ .ons: ~ . ;s•

•
EQUAL TO 1°
mator lens ar·e given in the draw ing. Fig. 4•
T~U£ FIELD
~
of Ewnt/~: 2 '£, L . Light from any distant object reaches your
~~
o.. TELESCOPE UiL~· Xfl<J DO /WlTKllOOJ
.£L 11#1 r£.JJU~ eye in parallel bundles. In the same manner,
"it F.l. of a.. ...a.s IMAGt OI .... of gug_ ,;;!OQ"
'-11" 8EJHG TESTED
F :. .I Ro4ian Clllll.E
.I
F" ·lf' •
2.0·
light emerges from the collimator in parallel
bundles. That 1s, a point at the center of the
~ /k:Tt!?IVIJTE,' l~~OF 7,f.Wl/4fUN).
c:s j:O,e /.EIVS£S I PACE
.2C'[.,. UtiS
3$0:J target will send out a beam like A in Fig. 4; a
~ 0¥6R S "F.l.
F ::.
F = ~:20' point at the edge of target will send out a beam
I\( .011 . at some specific angle, as at B. All of the light
is 1n parallel bundles, but the whole light cone is
fine for riflescopes, finderscopesand small ter- spreading, diverging. In other words, parallel
restrial and aslro telescopes . Suitable equipment light does not mean quite the same thing as a
to test a 6-inch reflector Is som ewhat of an over- parallel "beam" of light.
size luxury. However, you can do many tests and Any angle that the target makes with the col-
operations with a small collimator. limator lens will be reproduced exactly by any
lens or telescope placed in front of the collima -
HOl\1Ell.IADt: COLLJNIATOR. You can house a tor. F ig. 4C shows the situation as it applies to
collimator in either a box or a tube . Fig. 4 shows the 1 / 10 radian circle . This particular unit is
a typical box job. The collimator lens should be used for the determination of focal length. The
a good quality achromat of fair size and focal Image of the 1/l0 radian circle produced by any
lenj(.h-- 3 Jnches diametE'r and 2-1 inches f.l. isa lens, eyepiece or telescope will be 1/ 10 the focal
good su;e, suitable for some tests with telescopes length of said lens, eyepiece or telescope. In
as large as 6-inch aperture. Much smaller equip- other words, If you measure the image diameter
ment is perfectly satisfactory for some opera- formed by any lens, you will know im rn edlately
tions. The collimator target is drawn with ink on its focal length, which is simply 10 times the
tracing paper. The target is taped or cemented image diameter. For short focal lengths under
to a piece of glass, as shown. Simple rules for 5 in., a pocket comparator (measuring magnifier)
scaling the ta~get to suit any focal length colli- is ideal for measuring the image diameter.

160

,,
 Optical Bench
PROCEDURES ·~ '
'ii'EsrrN(, A
LillS ,,. sur1-
FOCAL LEl\GTH OF A LEl\S. When you rocusa camera Ll6ITT JS
$/WE. G£l4!RAL
or telescope on a distant object. the 1ma1e forms at on~ I OEA
focal length behind the lens. So, ,r )OU have a lens of un-
knollffi r.1., you simply !ocus on a distant object and then
measure the dislance from lens to l.m&ge. which !s the
focal length. Indoors, this Is done with any bench colli -
mator, as shown ln Fla. 1,
..-'.-.'. :·
-I ,.~:: -
FIELD OF A TELESCOP E. If vour collim.:itor target
includes degree marks, the Cleld or any telescope or
-
@
binocular can be 1;een d!rec»l> on theiarget--justcount
the number of degrees you can see. This ls the true ang- F.L.8" ..
MEAWRIMG , ..
.350 O•A .
: 3.~ f .L.
ular Held. The Apparent F •eld ls TF times M.
IMA6E. OIA.
F.L. FROM lJIL\GE SIZE. Ttus melhod I I cepeciallyuse-
tul for cyepiecee and oth"r combinations or two or more
lenses. You need a I/ IO radlan reticle larget, as de-
scribed on a previous paae. Set up the lens or eyepiece
to be tested ln the usu3l mo.nncr, o.nd I.hen measure the
image 11 forms with a fine scale or with a direct-read-
ing magnifier, Fig. 2. rho Coco! l<'ngth le 10 times t he
Image diameter.
FOCAL L£~Tl4 by s,y.,11Dl!"l.Vl'~l?..nl
AUTO-COL..UMATlON. The target ror this isanopaque AUTO-C.OWMATIOtol f:l{G&K f'll>Sl['DN Of"
material ln whJch Is cut 11 sma ll hole. The target ls al- "'WM9ZLY! TAMCT
so a screen and should b~ white on the side facing away
from the light. An ordinal'.)' Clat m t rror is held behind rtttl ts. IMAGE'
the lens being tested. When prope..ty rocused the lens J!e..2.- OFCOUJ.
~~G&T
will form an i.mc\ge of the target hole on the tar·get it-
self. as shown in Fig. 3. The diatanef' from target to
lens is the focal len1th.
IMAGE
f· @ -··· I
•.•. '
T

PRINCIPAL PL..A~ES. Make some kind or setup similar Pvl w•TH cou.~TOR
to Fig. 4. The general Idea 1a to JU&~le the eyepiece and
screen back and forth until the image on screen 18 ex ..
ac:ly in focus a nd exactly J / 2 Inch long, the same as the
target. Tltis Is Ix spacina, lndkat1n2 t he PP's are lo-
cated two focal lengths from the ObJeCt nnd image.
Alternately, PP2 can be located with a collimator,
Fie. S. Re•ers11111 the eyepiece would locate PP ! but
usually the image will not bf' accessible. Uthe eyepiece
is symmetrical, PP2 I~ all you need.

Ma;,,_., I l.L<tif:skirt 11

PRINCIPAL PLANES JIBoYr~.

V£RTEl/ I ~ . -oE li:41f E.
i... 1~·
II
II
I
I
tf SIMPLE POSITIVE LENSES IHJm(§$S. I
I

Usually it ls close enough to set arr the

1: mr)
11
I

focal length or other measurement from

the center of a Iona, but Jf you want to be OOU&U CONVEl( MEN ISCUS
exact, the proper measuring points are "I :Ii..-AR.1.1J.C£/ir
P~V
the principal planes, as shown . When you I
'
make lig ht ray diagrams, the light goes I F
' " IA I

first to P PI, then parallel with axis to PP2

and then to t he 1mO.l(C 1>0int.
'4--F. '"·
"'· I
- +t•I
F. L,-.
,<ff
~~~
$Pile£ I

,. r'~''
. "·" •. :.'.,. liQVA'-
RELATIOf'I 10 FOCAL LEN6TH R£LATI~ TO S'PAC1NG

161

•
Ray Tracing from bench setups
IN designini; a telescope, the first step is to se-
lect some suitable lenses for the obJective and
eyepiece. ?\ exl, you do some paperwork to get
basic data. The third step is to "test" the design
in some fashion, usually with optical bench and
collimator target if the telescope is nol too large.
The end product of optical des1gn1ng is some
kind of plan drawing, showing how Ught gets
through the system. Thi'.' light path diagram, plus
the actual "look and see" test on the optical
bench, give» ample assu1·ance -:hat the telescope
is AOK.
PAPERWOHK. An example of a small refractor
is shown on the opposite page . Instruments of
this size and power are co=only used as
!inderscopes on larger 1elescopcs. The pre-
liminary da•a is obiained by applying the formu -
las given on page 2; information about the field
angle and linct1r imt1ge diameLer is given in the
chapter on eyepieces. The prelimln::1ry paper-
work reveals on overly large exit pupil of l I 2
inch diameter. Even in the dark, :he pupil of your
eye is not more than aboul 5/ 16 inch diameter.
In brief, the design wasLes a lot of llghl. So, if
you we re actually building this telescope. you
would probably substitute a l · l I 4-inch diameter
objective or the same focal length. This would
assure bet;er optical performance all around
while retaining the maximum useful diameter
of exit pupil.
BENCH TESTING. The first operation 011 the op-
tical bench Is to set up the objective and locate
the unage plane, Fig. 2. You can work m ordinary
room light. The image is not confined in any
manner al thi1:1 stage and it will spread ove r a
considerable area. Next. the eyepiece is mounted
behind the image and moved back and forth until
you see the image in sharp focus, Fig. 3. In other
words, you focus the telescope- -you make the
focal plane of the eyepiece comcide wi1h the focal
plane of th<' ObJective. Uncler such circumstance,
the emergent light is 1n parallel bundles. The
fmal bench operation is lo locale the exit pupil,
Fig. 4.
LJGHT RAY DIAGRA}.1, From the bench setup. it
is easy to pick off spacing dimensions and dia -
meters. You can also check lheangul:'I r held and
linear diameter of image. "the first stage in the
light path diagram is lhe light cone froma point
object at the center of the field. This funnels down
lo a corresponding point at the centerof•he im-
age, and then emerges from the eyepiece as a
parallel bundle of light rays, Fig. 5 . The light
cone for an edge- of-field object point is drawn
next, Fig. 6 . The most important light ray for
edge-of-field object point is the ray that passes
lhrough the center of the Objective. It is not de-
viated by the objective and goes directly from
the point ObJcct at edge of field to the point Im-
age at edge of image, st rt1ight through to the
eyepiece. This light ray through the center of
the objective is called a principal or chief ray--
if you can get it through to the exit pupil you are
'
assured of no less than 50% lighting a the edge
of field. You can see that for this particular tele -
scope, the principal ray does get through, but
the marginal ray criss-crossmg the :ixis tails
to strike the eyepiece. This instrument has a
little better than SO'lb lightmg at the edge of field,
and such lighting is gene rally satisfactory, based
on the fact the eye is self-compensating for such

Field of an Eyepiece
You can measure the linear image fiPld or
-
"->~ any positive eyepiece by 1nlroducinga told-
ed-o\.•cr strip of trac~ne paper into the open
end. Gel the folded-over end sharply In
focus. Can you see the whole width of the
paper? More? Less? Don't crov1d- ·youreye I*-- - F. L.,.-._ _.,
.)
should be at about the cxlt pupil position.
Once you know the linear field. a simple MEASURE THE ANGLE WIT~
diagram w i 11 reveal the Appa ren1 Fie Id. A PROTRACTOR OR
ADJUSTABLE TRIANGLE

162
 4>C ASTRO TE.LE.SCOPE
lighting. Your eye secs sha1·pest at the center of oe.JECTll/E - e"F.L., :t OtA.Ac.M~
the field. but it detects light and movement more EVE.Pl ECE - i' F. L., I" OtA . At•HlCMAi
readily at the edge of the fie Id. Hence. lf you lose
a little light at the edge or fi eld, lt will not be
FO
M=F'E=2 = 4JC
8'
CD
noticed. As a matter of fact, y·ou can look as 00 2. , •.
closel) as you like and you will not be able to see EP= M 4 = T =
a 50% light loss at edge of held unless the overall AS: = 20° ,)EA:iM IM'<-1 'lflP
illumination is very d im. IMA6£ DIA.• ':10"('Yi,')j1$;,"'J&/J!IP
TF = AF = 20 = S"ftoMQJN!.S) ~~Ill<
NI 4 AWB
TRACE THROUGH T\VO-LENS EYEPIECE. A
two-lens eyepiece, Fig. 8. is set up in the same
manner as a single lens eyepiece. You can locate
the el<lt pupil. You can check the angular and
hnear field . From this incomplete data, it is
possible to draw light rays on either side or the
@
EiC II PUPIL .. !$ /MllGE QF LocATIN6 THE
OfAJfiCIIVA FORMED BY
TH E. 6.'f'EPIE(E IMAGE PLAN£
OSJECTtVE
EVIOPIE.CE

@
- @
E't'EPIECE IN
LOCATIMG- THE El(IT PUPIL~-.....:....:::::u:J Pt.ACE, FOCUSED
ON IMAGl'
06JECTIVE LL6HT 8A'l'XER<M1 .:9
PO/NT AT C£ta18 DP

~T - -- -
EJ§L~ TQ A PO/NT AT
G£f:'7 E/l. OF IMAGE IMAGE EYEPIE:'.C.E

I ~-T -- , 'Y."
~-"
2" 11/a,"-+ - - - - - - - - 1 - / l l f t S

.I ® L16HT C.ONE. l=OR A POIHT

AT CE.NTER. 01= IMAC.E
l
- Pll.JrfCIPAL &'(
SllOULD{tf"'~oot;s,)
E 'IC IT l'U?IL POINT

- - -
- ----- - - OR E.Y£ POINY -
-- Gt=r TIJR1!
- -- -f---= -·~=:;;:===:::;:~----
-=:·~-~!:!!l..==--~<--=---IM-A6E ~r c-Ye<>1E:~.
·~·~•JlllN.. RAY

--- . ?:n c:::£:

'"

.. --7
Pllt/ClfAL BAY

l- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,,,.,.
ltllF &!Y
<-O$S r.JJBJl
cua:eJ< C1F'
@ L16HT GONE FOR A POINT M1Sr£.~ Ul.I..PVPJL
AT EDGE OF IMAGE
MAIN TU!!oE
FOCUSING
TUSE~
-------
- ----
--
163
 ,. c. .:;;1.::'=F-=l=.:::R::::~=
M=S=O=E=N:;'I
' /0&JECT1ve /MA~"· ElCJT
1.os' for "'T F=u.• l'•U POPIL lyu Atfllet1St'CJQti
30°A.F. -. 1 R!OM Afflrll S:OW)
~~~~~~~~~-

J.
@ SAME- TELESCOPE AS P~EVIOUS PAGE, Bur 2•F.L. E¥£PIECE, "30°A.F.

- ..
PAil.Ai I SJ IJiJNDI ~
•
-=-
--
,
IMAGE ••
~ ........... -- .!
- ~~ -
loi ).._ - -

- w::-~ - .
--
~ ,

1s• Pi!RAll&L.
- ~---

@) LI G~T RAV~ YOU CAl4 DR.AW WITM KNOWN DATA

~
B Ul:J. li!J.rE-.

FI ELD
LEiis--.

ANY LIGHT RAY TJ/&l rJ/E

04/ECTj'r'£ IJUlL PA$f T1lllJI S4ME PART
OF 08.JECTJllE IMA&E, Bff'4VSE THE
@) OBJECTIVE IMAGE FORMED BY !=1£LO LENS a8/l:cVllE IMA<iti 1£ A PICT!/!U:
OE THE OB 'ECTtVE

eyepiece, Fig. 9, This is actually all you need

---
fl ELD LENS
-----
--
know sinco .it can be assumed the light rays get
through, but just in case you want to trace the
rays in approved fashion, you can do it easy
enough if you do one lens at a time , Remove the
--- --
- -- ---
eye lens but keep the field lens in its normal
position, As before, you will pick up an image

---
------
"'' 001
P't PP2. E.1C IT
of the objective some distance behind the lens,

-
PUPii.
Fig. l O. This is a little picture of the objective
as formed by the field lens. If you put a mark
on the objective, 1t will appear on the objective
image because tbe objective image is a picture
of the objective, If you can imagine li11ht rays
-- --
-
.- ..fklt.:._EVE
-- LENS

making visible tracks through the objective, they

@ LHiltT PA'Tt-1 THRU EVE.l>IEC.C COMPl.£TED
would make exactly the same tracks through the
objective image. In brief, if a light ray passes IMAGE'i.
PP2 PPI lblll!.&Wfi)
•

- L---:'"..-....i..- --
------
-------
through the center of the objective, it will also
pass through the center of the objective image.
Likewise, rays through the margins of the ob·
ject!ve will go through the margins of the ob·
--·
- ·- -
... fiOTE esJt:!l:J.PJSI.
! ~
~f..AOE~@.

jectlve image. Thus, you have a simple and

accurate 11Uide to put the light rays through the
field lens, Fig. ll. Then, putting the eye lens
in place, you repeat the operation with the whole
eyepiece, the fJ.nal objective unage being or
course, the exit pupil, Fig. 12. This diagram also
shows the manner of drawing light rays if you
are using principal planes--you go first to PPl,
then parallel with the axis to PP2.
RAY TRACING TO PRINCIPAL PLANES. When
you are using a purchased eyepiece, it is incon·
venient to take the eyepiece apart for the lens·
by· lens trace just described. Instead, you find the
principal planes ot the eyepiece as a whole and
then draw light rays to the PP's. ignoring the
lenses entirely except for the single item of dia·
meter. The method of finding the PP's has al-
ready been described; the manner of making the
drawing is as shown in Fig. 13. You draw a light
ray to the image and keep right on going until you
strike PPl. From PPl to PP2, the ray is parallel
to the axis, From PP2, the light ray goes to the
corresponding part of the objective image, i . e.,
the exit pupil.

164
 OBJECT-IMAGE ¥ LENS
6'' F'.l. - - - ?
---

...-08.Jecr-:-~:-:::==r
- --....-__- --
MATH ~10"
J
W~ere isihe I~?--
SOLUTI ON! T/11$ 1$ A CASE l f'e"'llf'd:I f&autll94~
-... •

YOU KHOUJ1 F = E."

\VHERE is the image? This 1s a basic problem A "' 10..
m all optical des1gning--you can't even get
stared until you know the answer. The common
then CASE l [!] B :. F" A ::: 6 " 10
A-F 10-6
= 60
4
=IS"
textbook soluuon is the classical equation: LENS F=- 6·

1~ECT;:::::::~~tt=~------:::::
l 1 l
-~-+--
... L L'
The F, of course. means focal length . L means .i~~ ~
"length," the L without a prime mark being the
leng:h to the obiect wltile the primed L is the
~ ·g~IS'" • ~
distance to the image . Other symbols are often tbu ~G is~ lmaqe?
used, notably S (Space) instead of L (Length).
Some writers use the letter A for the obj ect ALL CASES =t = %:. l.S'i<
distance, and B for the image distance, which is HENCE: If Tt!E oP.J,Eer
the system used in this book . It i s easily memor - ~ l tf HIGH ANQ M.
ized from t he fact that yo u must first have an
l TY.a>! :
lhl~6E _ " ~ 1.L _ "".L"
object to look at before you can have an image ; S!Z6 - " ~ :r. - -.z.
hence, A (f]rst letter of alphabet ), is the object
distance, l3 is the image distance.
The numeral l above each quant ity means that @ IJMAGE FORMED 8Y "TWO OR MORE LENSES
lhe reciprocal of each quantity is used in the OR Mle~oRS Jliu; lhllr'jE FQl?MEO BY'
cal culation. The reciprocal of any n umber is the S.ECONO FJ/?Sr. 'Ch$ BR¥Jtrl6$ 71/E
>ro~r LEN~ LENS , OdJECT FOi? Sg;(,W() lflJS
~,F =6" >'>;
---~·
number divided into 1. If you have a mirror or F .. 4 ·
lens of 50 inches focal length, lls reciprocal is
l / 50. Some simpl e problems can be worked with
the reciprocal in tlus fract1onalform, but usual-
-
C- ":=::of-j::=l:f __ ,.... - -
------
-- -
.
_
Ol>JECT->i
LS VVUtH4L
.
t

ly you have to convert lo the decimal equivalent, A s JlBQVGIN!Tlf - - - '?

WOtfDl£a$llOO£o •2·.----A~r~· __ ..
which, for this example, can be calco.Uated men-
10'-"---.~ IS"'-----..
tally: 1/50 is 2/100 or ,02 . In actual work you
must refer to a Table of Reciprocals which can Soi..UTION: S€qWO L€f!$ IS A CASG 4 P"h>IJ/,"'1J
be found in many math and eng1neer1ng hand- 'tllJI KllQUI: F = 4 "
books. For the beoefll of beginners who may not A= 13"
have such a table, thf' basic Gaussian (Karl CASE4 IIJ
S :. F >< A _ 4 >< 13 _ 52. _ ?. 06•
I= + A - 4 + I?> - fl - .· •
Friedrich Gauss, 1777-1855. German astrono-
~.'?'!:~ ........ .
...
mer and physicist) formula Is converted to other M. FOR S«ONO
I.ENS.: ~:.:J --- 1
M = B,. 3.06 ...... " rI .- - lMA6E
- - _._..._
- - o&J£CT_,.:'AY,<
: -r z. •
YI RIVAL lfMGi FORMED 8Y F!l?Sr
A 13 .....
-- !
@ (
4EtfS IS UCAtE.12 LIKE. A.REAL. ~: 4.5 < .24 =I.OS" ogtA$~L - - - 'f
,.__ _ _...A <>::..1"'3_ _ __
.QB.J fCI FCR se<:bNO t.EIJS • .. JS 04$,f l

--- --- FIRST L£NS

I=• 6" ~
S£COMD LE~S
~ F =4" FINAL.
IMAC.E""'

,.. '
165
•
 OSJEGT-IMA6E MATH for Q. SIH6LE PoSITIVE LENS 01" cortCAVE MIRROR
~
OSJECT AT MORE THAN ONE o&JEGT AT LESS THAN ONE
F=OCAI. LENGTtl ~eoM l.Ef'IS • FOCAL LENGTH FROM I.ENS
IMAGE --
.. - - - - - oeJECr F~ 6·
IS e4Wll)S -......;! -----\ '
~t--
VIRIIJJJL.
Jl/(Q ON $9M.E
St0£0FIE/"f
II

!
., -
-----L-j::::::::~~r::=-
' u
AS~T !
i-- - -
---- •
A'·4-~~
- .11.3'1<
. 8. ~ ~~1
1---;;.-----~ ~·
'• V'" -
• ...........
I B•(M+l)>CF B :(2.+l)JC4 =~ic4=12" S=(M-l)X F

2 .. - 4 x 6 - 2-4 - 12."
<> - 6-4 - 2.. - 2. B :: 66 -" 44 =- ~
2-
=- 11."
-- - - - ---- --i---- - -----1
3 B = 6 >< 2. = 12." B=AJCM 8 =4 "3 : 12."

4 A= ..!.!::.. = 6" 4 A= 12 =-4"

2.. 3

5 s A=F-~ A= 6 -.§.. =6-2: 4"

3

6 A= 8-F
F W8 A :: 4 x 12.
12-4
:=. 4-0 =
8 6 .. 6 A .. ~+ic ~
6
A= 6 +
"
12
12. = 2!:
18 = 4"
- ---l
e
1 M= - A
M= ~
A
M= E_ =- 31'
4

8 -
M-;t F 8 M - F M: 6 .. §.= ~~
-F - F - A 6 - 4 2 ""

9 M• B-F
F

10
A
F = M+ I
1l M F- 6 " 2.. =- 1:2. =4 " 10 F_ A JC M F =4 x 3 = ~ = 6.,
- 2+ I 3 -M-l 3- 1 2.

II F- 8 I== 12 = 12.= 4" II _ B = r2. =- 12. = 6 ,,

F
- M+ I '2..+ I 3 F-M -1 3-1 2.
- - - -+-- -- -- - -- - -l
,,_ f_AlCB
- A+ B
F - 6 " 12. :. ~ =-4 "
- 6+ 12. 18 12. F -_ s-A A 'I. B F :. 4 1- 12. ::. 48 = 6 ..
12-4 e
I ~ I 2.
I
13 F=A'+
I I
a I
F"Zi -
I
12.
I
I 1!=
F :.
n-a"i2.
J.i- "6"

14 -k=-t-i 14 I
-= -I
A F 9
I
+-
IS
I
e.
I
=~ - A
I
' -.!...
0- _ _1 Ii"'~-~=--&
4 _6_ _ ·~ =
&=-__..__ 12"
.. ~ 1~ -e' =i- -F'
f - - - ' - - - - - -- -..._ __ _ _-i" "I :> ,..

C-ONCAllE F 6" --
Ml RiOR'-w.& • •• - -- - - • \/1RTUAL
C'--~- ---· .r l M AGE

O&J£CT
F1 ~

/' -~
4•
.. ... _
--- --- . "' ,, 3~
~A"'-· s • 11• - - -
~
!
IT•

Two CAsE.S: UHIEN THE OBJECT IS MORE THAN F BUT
LESS THAN 2.F FROM LENS (SllOWN), THE SYSTEM IS
PROJECTION-- THE IMAGE IS LARGER THAN O&JECT.
\.UHEN A IS MORE TAAN 2.F, & WILL BE L£SS THAN
2.F ANO THE IMA6E WILL SE. SMAl.LER Tl\AN OBJECT
W HEN TME OBJECT -TO-LEl'IS DISTAMCE IS l.ESS THAN F,
THE IMA<'>E. IS \/lll:TUAL, ERECT A ~D MA6MIFIED. NI IS
NEl/ER. LESS T MAN I lC .,, IS GREATEST UJMEN OBJECT
IS JUST IHSIDE F.
Tll& SM1A llCT!Ot( IS OIJ74l\ILDll!Olill C/JNGfV.! llt[,(8J!B
£xct:er VfRTl/AL lbfdll dpf'£AKS iJC!/l/l!D 'tl/4J!llµgR.

166
form suited to simple arit hmetical solution, as
shown in the Tab les on the following pages. OBJECT-IM~E MATH
F IVE OBJECT-IMAGE CASES . A Case 1 problem ~I NGLE NEGATIVE LENS OR CONVE;i! Ml~lt
concerns a single positive l ens (or mirror) with OBJ ECT AT ~I( DISTANCE F20M LENS
the object located at more than one focal length
lMAGe •.• ts w n VAL - F =6 "'
from the lens. Fig. l is an example. You know
the focal length (F) of the lens and the distance -+----=-
,...OBJEC:_
_-:_·:_--:_~-:_~~S°~t:::::;:;~~I-:
-:r=--_____ ._""'..__;- -
NEGATll/E
k°"' LE NS
t o the object (A). The probl em i s to find the image
distance, B, a nd this i s ea sily calculated wit h
t he sccontJ eq ua tio n i n t he C ASE 1 Table. ~
lf the pi·obl em involves t wo or mol'e lensc>s,
the image formed by lhe first l ens becom es Lhc •
object for the second lens, as shown in Fig , 2, I
This example is a continuation of Fig. l example,
with a second lens added. The problem is to cal- 2 g = F lC A
F + A
S= 6 • ii. :. ~
6 + 12. 18
=4"
cul.:lte the image position as formed by the second
lens, uslllg the image formed by the first lens B =A ll M 6 = 12. • ~ =1; = 4"
as the object. In this particular instance, the
second lens is a Case 4 problem, i. e ., It is con -
A =~ A= ~; = 4 >C{ = 12."
cerned with a virtual object to the right of a pos- l---'1---------+-~
itive lens . You use Case 4 Table. Again you know
F and A, so Bis found by using Equation No. 2. s A= MF - F A:2--6=6Yl-6= 18 -6
1/3 I : tl."
Sometimes the fi rst lens looks at an ObJl'CI at
l ess , ha n one focal length, and this is Case 2, of 6 F -- B
A -_ F A=- 6 "4:. 2-4 = 12•
whlch F ig . 3 is an exampl e . Fig 3 a lso shows Lhe
situa tion where t he vi rtual image formed to the
left of the first lens becomes the real object for
1 M=
F
*
- 8

M=
6 -4

J
6
2.

M~ ~ : -j-)1' (oR .33K)

_ 6 _ 1 ..
the second lens.
Case 5 co•ers the situation of a negative lens
e M =A+F 12+6-19 -3,.
or m i rror inside the focus of a primary lens or
M= F -F 8 M - 6-4 :. ~ - .!...IC
mi rTOr, a situation which man) readi.1·s will 1m-
9 - 6 6 -3
m ed1a1ely identify a s the Barlow Case, becausE' F = ..;.A..;,...;.lC_M
~
this is he way a Barlow amplif~ ing lens works in
10 I - M
a te lescope. rhe five cases covered bv the tables 8
will handle practically any kind of object-1magc 11 F = ...,....---,.,....
I - M
problem. An important e xc eption is the com1non
12. 2. )( 4 - 4a - 6 "
F -- 1li-
t elescope situation where the object is a l infinity. 4 - 9-
F ot· such a target, the e quationsareuseluss, but

SYMBOIS: 14
M ... IS Ll14EA1t MAGICl-
1' ICATloN ... IS ACTUAL 15
AATIO OF I~ SIZE
iO O&JE.Cl' SIZE. COMlT
(;L'JNFUU lllltH Ati"'1Afl
M AfJll£!(J/TJOtl /tf&D TO
$e8:/FY Tt'£ pt',)#1£.R
.Q£.Jl T£L~~CQPE.

F••• 15 FOC"L L£14C.Tl4 F dJlli,M

A ... IS 01STA~£ F ROM ~---- A" l:2.
•
LEN9 TO OBJECT I
!!>. , .IS OI STAl'IC€ FRON\
LEN!: 'TO I MAGE M aJl4, B THE IMAGE IS Al.WA'fS Vl ~U ... L, E.RECT AND REDUCED.
& 15 Al.WA'IS LES~ TJ.IAN A, AND ALSO LESS 'Tl-IAN
Fall rtCHN!CAL fXACllt6.SS,
sPACl/IG..$S(}UL Q BF y:r Off
Aw B ~. M 1S ALWAYS U'10ER I~ . Wll£ N THE 0 8JECT IS
AT IN F"l l'l l'TY, TH E EOQ.Ui"T IONS eECOME USELESS
FllQcd 7Jlf£.ilM'ICINT PJ?!HCJ· l--
{/§,
- E_rH
_ l_
S_t_f{_'D_6.
_,_X_.C.
_Q_tt...tl_J.
_L._-1
AND Ul'INECESSARY. JN S UCJ4 CAS«=:
CA ffit. WQl?K f!U.. P~Q!Jt.Cbli
PAL PUINi OF UE LEJ!S
Oil VERni"X o. {tlt1gp;oR W/Tli SIMPtfi 11/t/T//M"TIC A "oo.·- Jl'}'JH ITY B =F M =0 {lx6AW/
167
 08JECT-IMA6E MATl-4 for Second.. of Two len$eS with Virtual Object
SEC01'4D OF TWO POSITIVE THE NE6ATNE LEHS OR MIR~R
C.ASE. 4 LEl'ISES OR MIRllORS. Vlln'UAL OF A POS- NEG COMBINATION.
FIRST LUIS OBJE.CT AT ANV DISTANCE. l'IRST LENS VIRTUAL OBJECT LESS T4-IAN F
F:. 8"
x- SEC()MD f FINAL •••'f. •••
F IRST ""'"' F-= 12" NEGATIVE
, , ~ • PRIMA...,
""
6 .. 6
- J'2.f'i:•<H-==:::.
:
.f/4
.
LENS..,. : IMA6E / 1.~
~
. ~
\,,:t.,,,oBJE{:T ~~rn==~~....,~N~>~F~,~~.r~•~M~A.~G~e~
2• £l/U6GT .. ~·/$~1
•::-.Ji&6,l.kl£
EO/l FINAi..
•.- .11MA6E

: -9. •" -
i£j~-::.'>-j_
.6J
=
08.JECT
&
4
A""'-"+I
~
• 4M$3 1(
• OBJECr
AT ll'l~IHIT'I"
""'----A~"'
T""'" -
Me " • Ar //'IF IH1rY - - --8 • !:I'

~~------~---------~
B : (I - M} 'IC F B = (I - .&) "6 ° ,4 >< 6:.2;4' I B =(M- 1) ic F 8=( 3- 1) ,..6=2><6=12."

2 ~ = 66 +" 44 :. ~ : 2. 4"
10 . 2 8 =..;..___;_.;...
F >< A
I= - A
6 )( 4 - 2.4 - 12."
8 -- 6 - 4 - 2. -

3 8 = 4 "' .6 =-2.4" 3 B = Ax M 8 " 4 "' .3 = 12."

4 A= ~ A = ~f,4 =4" .6 1J_ 4 A = ..!!..
M

5 A=-MF - F A= ~-6-=10-6::4"
.6 5 A = F- M
F
Ae 6 - ; = 6-2 =4"
--+------ -----t
6 A _ F lC 8
- F - 8
A = 6 t 2.4 :.. ~ :. "
6 - 2.4 ?>.6
4 6 A= 6 x 11.
6 + 1'2.
=~
1e
-= 4"

M= ~
1
F
M

M
= 244 :. .6JC
6 _ 6 _
7
M
=* F
e M =F+ A =6+4-IO-· 6
;1.
e M= F-A

9 M = F s:: 8 M = 6 - :.4:. ¥=.6't 9 M = 6 + 12 = .!.§.. = 3 ic

0 6
- - + - --
10 F =~A-"~M~ =4I ".6
F =~ = 6 .. 10 F = AM-1
>C M F =4 >< 3
3-1
& 14. = 6 ,.
2
I - M - .6 .4
F=
-+------ - - ---; t---i--- B
II B
I - M
F = 2.4 = 2.4 ::. "
I -.6 .4
6 11 F "' M-1 F=
12
3-1
=~
2
= 6"
I---+----'-'---'--~ !---+-----~-+---~
= A ic B F _ 4 " 2.4 _ 9.6 _ 6 •
F -_p.ics F =4•12.=~= 6"
12 F A - 8 - 4 - 2.4 - u - 12. 9 - A 12.- 4 ""
I I I I I I
13 1= =s-'A 13 'F = 'A-s
I I I I I I
14 A= e -F' 14 - = -
A F B + -
I I I
IS e;= A+7 I .S

II.IH0 LE SYSTEM: (00"""'4 OOICCTMVS7 & AT'""''".II:f) LUHOLE SVSTEM!

FIN~ IMAGI< DIA.= Fl~ IMAC.£ x M" I Y. .6 =.6" FINAL IMAGE. DIA.= FIR$T 1Nllll;f Y. M ::. I i. 3 = 3 "
E..F'.L. = F.L.OFFIRSTLE.NS>< M. :. 8JC.6: 4.8" E..I='. L. = ~.L. OF Fl ~ST L£N'> Y: M = 12 l< °?>" 36•
f/VAIJJl "'f/~l>J.JJE QI= Fl ~T WIS >< M "f/4 Y. .6•f/2.4 f /VAUJE : f /VAWE OF FIRST WIS 't M :f/6 i. 3 sf /18

168
also unnecessary. For example, with an object at Pll.INCIPALP!..ANE l\K PP~
infinity, the Image distance (B) is always one H0.1~ PP1
focal length, and there is no need to make a cal - FIRST LE.NS.,. I Sl;COND LfM.~A~

4~~
F;: 6 " I
culation. Al so note that an object at infinity does I Jl
- -.w.i- Fc
not permit the calculation of linear magnifica- : Fjl<F
Il
E.F.L.'"' F.+~-d.
,Otf:6CT10c! OE
tion . For example, the moon at the focus of a /d(;IDEtrr I I "L
telescope of 50 in. focal length wiU sho•v an image /..16HT
about 1/2 inch diameter, Comparing this to the ~1"e:
actual size of the moon (about 2000 miles) is use- _6>14 2.4 ...
E.F.L.- 6 +4- 1.. =a~ "
less. The kind of magnification used in such cases
is angular magnification, which com pa re» the
apparent angular size or the obJeCt seen through
@ E.F.l. OF TWO POSITIVE LEN.SES:
the telescope with the angular i.1ze of the ObJeCt
as seen with the unaided eye. Differing from this,
linear magniflcation is the exact rauo of image
size :o object s1zc--1t isB/Aforallcascs, Usu -
ally, magnificaiion is thought of in the sense of
being bigger, but linear magnification can indi-
cate same size (lxl or even m1nification, such F 1.-;1 I - ~'F,._
as l/2x, as well as actual enlargement, like 2x. t-i'i-!!+--3" ~~~
I 1 PoiNT
DISTANCE. FROM .,,, '2."
OTHE R CALCULA TlONS. Quite often you will PPl 01' l'lRSi - o f ,.!
LE.NS TO PP l F ,
h:ive to figure the equivalent or effective focal
length of two po1:1ltivc lenses spaced a certa in
OF COMBIWl.TION = E. ·~~'!Ca. ::
3
4 --
~ :2.. - 6 -- 1.L··
2
distance apart. Eyepieces a re corn mon exam - DISTANCE !=ROM
PP 2. OI' SECOND
ple s. The E.k'. L . calcu lation is easily made with LENSTO PP2 J
the eq uation given in Fig. 4, which also shows OF COMBINATION::= E.F,L. " o.. : 3 )( 2. = ~,,. I"
~I 6 6
an example. The E •.r·. L . is shorlcst when Lhc
lenses are close logerher·, Fig. 6, increasing :is @ P211"CIPAL PLANES OF COMSINEO LENSE.S
the spacing distance ls Increased, until " d" is
equal to the combined focal l engli1s, at whi ch
spacing the system becomes an astro tE'lescope F•4" €Fl_ 6K4 _2.4_ ..,..
with virtual image and Jnfinllt> focal length, · · .-6+4-.s -.,,.s- 25
·,.,
F ig. 7. I -.2 11'
The calculation ror the location of principal •
ii
2
.s
® SPACING
2.' q.- CLOSE
planes of two combined positive lenses is shown
SH~NS E..F.L
in Fig. 5, and will be found userul if you design
your own Ramsden and Huygens eyepieces. After
finding the E.F.L, and principal planes, the dub- -- ''I"
2
.. ,. 6 il4 2.4 "'40"
....r.L."' &+4-~.9:. T ( "'
l et is treated very much hke a s1n&'le thick lens.
Fig. 8 duplic:ites the example shown in Fig. 3 ex-
cept the two lenses are now treated as a single
unit. The object al ~ame distance as before is
II(
VlfttllliL
IMAGE 1$'
EA&OFE
TOt FFT ;: •6"
___ _PJ'J. _r$f~EF£~~r

Ei'B PH T!l t&U_!. __ -

f=•4 .~-
..
----- ~

now more •han one f . l . from PPl. m:iking the

calculation a Case 1 problem. .....---- d. ~9.9"
l/JIDE SPACING-
® 1NC.REASES €.. F'. I....
CoMBINED LENS£S Ali!E TREATED (
PRN. T,"Je.11IL y 8 T&tJ:fCaf>lii)
"JS
pP2 ?Pl
LI.Cf. A Sll'6LE TMICK LE.~$ (0:6" ~ =4"
oo.n~ is same as Fig.3 r -----...--·- 11.'\AG>E.~
11.e"
J_"f
-~-
Y<J(I KNOW: 1.s '">.,, . .
- ..___
S:: -
A:
e "' :
~..
s.s··
~ ~ rw..1.1tU1
f-...oe.JecT

4'-
Fk:::::::: :t'
-T
•
'~I"
,'!..D - - -
------
S'.6''..,_ _ _ _,
- i
- 3 x s.s :.
S.S'-3
16. S' -
2.5 -
6 6''
' :!-" k s ~&. 6"
•
lof-- - - A
~ s;:,.
..
169
 OSJECT
graphical RAY TRACING
/ l'll~ST ( 08 F8.(lNT)
F'OCAL POtl'lT /
LE.NS ... /$ WJAU.Y
1:1!2 .MORE Tf/lltl
.r,., N THICK ONE WAY of solving the various object-image
problems in optical design is to make an accurate
_ I
__._ _ _....~- _ _ _.LIJ_~A)(I~ IF clrawing of the system to scale, after which you
can run in the needed light rays graphically
1 I\
r
LoNE F.L. oNE F.t.
~ S:E.cOND
(01>. REllB}
by following a few simple ru les.
FOCAL
POINT PARALLEL RAY METHOD, You start with the
LENSES ARE ASSUMED TO BE. THIN. basic drawing shown in Fig. I. Then, by follow-
IF Tit£ Ut!$ IS THI/\/> II L/NG TtlROUGtf Tf{E ing the three simple rules shown, Fig, 2, you can
f;.£.tlTER. PROV!/)£$ ,4 €£11$0NABLY flecl/&9T~ trace three light rays th rough the lens, any two
CE.FECENCE PLAtlt{ fQR. 8£fRH:rtON ANO MEM/R£-
./tJ£/{[.S. Tf/E PRl/'ICl!YU- PLAt/FS .$/:llJ.V/.J) BC REFofR- of which will locate the image position. The use
iif'/C€ (./f(c$ IF ?EIYS' IS' TlllCK

@PARALLEL RAY MEIHOD- POS\TIV£ LENS @PARALLEL RA'< METHOD-NEGATIVE LEN~

LENS
Ru.Le 1: A LIG-HI Ru.le 1: A L IGHT
RAY PASSI NC. THROU(,H
F
RAY PASSING. THRLI
~BJECT
THE Ck.NTER OF LENS Ti1E CENTER 01= LENS
IS NOT 0£VIAT£D -........--... IS NOT DEVIATED OBJECT

lQ.J..le 2 '. A LIGl4T RS-AQ:

FOCAL
Rule 2: A UG14T RAY
RA.Y PARALLE.L UJ IT~ POINT" PARAUEL TO T~E Al(l.S /
A'l(IS WILL, Ant.R RE- UJILL1 AFlf.R R£FRACTloN 1 AXIS
F F F._ f
F~CTION > PASS THRIJ APP£AR TO COME FROM FROrlT
Tl4E. REAR F-OCAL POINT TllE !=RONT FOCAL POtNT FOCAL
POI No

Ru.le :?. : A ll(,f\T RA'( Rule 3! A RAY DIRECTED

Tl-lROU(;,f.l !Ht l=IRST "TOWARD THE REAR FOCAL
FOCAL POINT WILL Be • I t!J.~S. POINT WILL 8e REFRACTED -- ---
REFRACTED PAAALLEL F PARAUE.L TO THE A'i.1~.
F
RfiAR
/''
WITH Tl16 Al(IS ll 8/tXllJ!J8D W£/'JS/!)f{ OF Tiii$ FOCAL.
o!i'tll'. /JJl/.L. 1¥/!S 1Nl?ll71¥ lt'rflll>CAJJNT POIN'T"

THE llffE~ECTtON OF Ti.IE. ltnel<SECTION OF

/
ANY TWO OF iflE l!IREE
LIGHT RAYS SflOUJN 1.UILL
ANY TWO OF 1 HE TtlREE
RAYS Si.I OWN WI LL /"'• -- ---- F

~·
F 4'
LOCATE THE POSITION
OF Tl1E tMA6E OBJECT
LOCATE TtlE PoS1TION
OF l+IE tMAG-E ~OBJECT \
IMA6i;
(JS Vl8T/ML

@ NEGATl\IE-AND- FINAL
IMAGE
POSITIVE
Tfff; VJRTUAL !MAG& .FOB!(J,£/J.
;...1
• • - ~·
BY THE t{£GATLV£ t Fr::l.S..
BE.CQMES A Rt;.AI OP+JECT
EQ8 XHE {?OSLTJVE LENS.
O~JEC.T
( lr. DllJG[!J.8.1..
IMA<iE.J
F

~POSl'Tl'IE
LE~$
-
FIRST L£NS-.

@ PARA! I EL RA'( MET4'0D for 'lUlO LENSES ® Posrr1VE-ANO-NE6ATIYE

170
 PARALLEL RAV METHOO
QJ POS ll" IVE (C.ONC.AVE. l M IRROR. @ NEGATIVE. (C.ON\lf.)C.) MIRROR
PP~ _!'.Pi
RlLle 1: A LIGHT AAY C.ENTEROF Rllle 1: A RAY
c--- • _.._...- __
-----,----.I...
C.ENTER~

'
CUR'im'URe CURVATURE
THRU iHli C£NTER OF' FOCAL AIMED AT T~E
' POINT \_
CURVATU!i!E IS NOT CENTER OF
DEVIATED - 1r1s ......... c CURVATURE IS
F C

§p~'"Pff#OVE8 'f...OSJECT NOT OE:VIA1£.D .._OSJECT

MIRROR

Ru.le 2: A RAY FOCAL

RlLl<.? 2: A RAY PAAAU£L TO AlCIS , POI NT
PARALL.£0 TO T HE WIU., AFTt.R RE- ...... I
FLECTION, APPEAR --1-+--~'~-1~---~·
FC
Al<IS \IJIU.. BE RE-
Fl-E.CTED Tl-\ROUGt-1 10 COME Fl<OM
T~E FOCAL- POINT Tl-IE FOCAL Pol NT

R1.Lle 3: A RAY ,.
Rule 3: A RA'< AIMED AT THE
PA~I NG T~RU THE FOCAL POINT WILL
FOCAL POINT WILL 8E RE.Fl.£CIED 'F C
Be REFLE.CTE.D PAAAU.EL 10 Al(I S .
PARALLEL TO Al(IS A BACKWt!Bp £'(-
T ENSION Of TIJ(S
BAY 1JJ1LJ. pAS$ TH&U
ill£ IMAGE poJNT

THE. {/'{TERSl:C TJON

OF ANY rwo OE THE. /1{7U$fCTJOtl
THE rt/Rel?; RAl'T OE ANY TWO R!l (.$'
SHOWN W/(.l..J.QCATE. W//..L LOCATE. Tt{E 4--..
Tiie P0$J.IIJ)N OF I~ IMAGE POSITION OBJECT \..

of an entering nnd cm<' rgent pa ro lie1 ray gives

LENS
this method its name. Fig. 4 exp lai ns the parallel
ray method as applied •o a negati•e lens, while - - ... '= ft ti="
Figs. 7 and 8 covc-r 1;imilar situations where a
~
mirror is the optical elc1nent , oa.ie.cr
Once you have loca ed the image, you can run
m any number of add1l1onal hght rays connecting
the object point to the image point. Fig. 3. This
is the basis for ; racing light rays through two or
more lense». The general iclea is to locate ;r.
the llgh· cone of the flri;t lens, that ra~ which
passe" through the center of the second lens.
Fii;:s, 3 and 6 are examples. \Yuh one pnrallel
ligh: ra) alrcad~ a,·ailablc, ~ou can then plot
the image position as formed by the second lens.
Ii the first lens of a pair formi. a virtual image Pl'l PP'.1
to lhe left, as in Fig. 5 <·xample, the image itself
immediately becomes tht' object for the second
lens. Fig. 9 is a.nothl'r exa.mpll' where a virtual
image to the le ft would be immediately available
as the object for a seconrl lens.
\Vhen two lensci; a1·e in vol vccl. it is often
simpler to calculaLe the e . f.I. and principal
planes of the combo, after which it can be
treated very much like a single lens. Between
lJ.§l F•
principal planes, all light rays a redrawn paral- CROSSED --::-::::!!..._~
lel with the axis. You always draw to PP l
first. since th.Ls ls the plane of ad 1nlssion. lf @ CONSTRUCTION WITM PRltolCIPAL. PLANES

171
 OBLIQUE ~y ME.Tl-IOD @ w·1th a. POSITl\/E LENS @with o. POSITIVE. (Conc»Je) Ml RROR
'Jhe Problem: LENs-._,. FoCAL
ANY RAN DOM POINT
LIGl-IT RAY~ '-<IF
F~CAL/F
- - - 1 -H - - - -

where doos itg::>'? --.. --F.t.cfillns--, POINT

Jhe Sollltion:
AN lfMGltlARY ---
---
-- -
!'OCAL
~LAN\.
AMirror Proble?m
IS WO~KtD IN SAM£
FOCAL
PLA~--
PA~LLE.l.. BUNDLE OF
RA~ AT SAME ANGLE
VJO\JLD i:ocus Ai 1!1E
INTERSECTION OF
C..£NTE.R RAY AND
FOcAL PLANE.
---
-- -
PAl'Ali.EL RAY_,,/
MANNE.R E;xCf.PT
THE. PARALLEL ...<,<-,....,=.-P:::~
CONSTRUCTION
l-1 NE IS r:ROM
CEl'ITE~ OF
----
CURVATURE INCIDENT RA'<\ -
••
IN ACTUAL WOl<.'I:'.
YOU OgAUJ ONLY
0

'\
Jr -

C
~~£ t~~-:
'I\_ F
_____
itl£ PAAALLE.L A POINT ON <l_ CAN ..... THIS IS tM'!<ie
CE.NTER RAY
BE. USED AS OBJECT...:
-
® FlllST LENS (SE.CDND 1L£NS
the principal planes are crossed, this means
Problem: I'"' 6" J ~ F=4 ' you must then backtrack to PP2, as can be seen
in Fig. lOB example.
~AGflAPfllCAL
RAY ~E. TO FINO -111>---
~l'IClPAL PLANES OBLIQUE RAY METHOD. This is probably the
fastest way to trace a single ray through succes -
sive lenses. The general idea can be seen in
STEP 1 l?lfl/ ('IQ. 2 Fig. 11 -- you don't know where the light ray is
LOCATE PP2. l'll~ST --~ -- -- going, but you do know that an imaginat·y ray
.START 8Y DRAWING> ---1t1;--- · - . -~-......-+=- th rough the center of the lens would come to a
A PARALLEL RAY ~· F". focus at the focal plane, By making this ray
FROM LEFT
parallel to the incident ray, you establish a point
INCtOENT RA'/
through which t he inc ident ray must pass.
STEP 2 Fig. 12 shows the oblique ray me thod applied
CONSTR\KTIO!'I
USE OBLIQUE RAY - - L.1NE to a mirror. This is worked very much like a
MEnlOD TO FIND
PATH OF RAY THR\J :::21._N IF .q:•
lens, the main difference being that the con-
struction ray parallel to incident ray is drawn
SECOND LENS
f?/ffW!U. -;;r-
efiSS TWJif.Rli
through the center of curvature, as shown. It
should be noted in both cases that the intersection
of the construction lines marks a point through
which the light ray mustpass--itisnotthe loca-
tion of an image.

PRIKCIPAL PLANES. By t racing a single ray

STEP4
E.l<'.TEND
- fro m the left, you can locate the plane of emer-
gence (PP2) of a simple lens duplet, as shown
in successive steps in Fig. 13. It can be seen
BOT!-1 12.AY.S 10
LOCATE PP2 that this graphical trace also gives the back
focal length and e.f.l., both of which can be scaled
!!<>GK
F.L. from the d rawing. The graphical tra ce itself
makes use of the parallel ray method tot race the
light ray through the first lens, Step I, followed
by the oblique ray method for t he second tens,
i:6" as shown in Steps 2 and 3.
The plane of admission, PPl, i s traced in the
STEPS
Dl2.AVJ A PARALLEL same manner by running in a parallel ray from
RAY r=ROM RIGl1T 10 the right, as i n Step 5. If the two lenses have
£.f. L.
FIND PPl IN SAME WAY OF C.ONI(?>. the same f.l., the PP's are symmetrical.

172
 TELESCOPE EYEPll;;CI? APPAl?t"°
,~
OBJEC"TIVE
/ IMAGE \
--...--~ I~

'~-
\ 7RU6
- -lu
j

----
.\ '1
•,.
\l
----, Fl-...i:..
\ . . , __ _... _ _ £J.PIW6'-E
-- -
- -- -- 1' - -....--. I

-
\.'-Lo'-)\ - - - - -
OB.16CT \{l(ffl.IU) tr
EAR. OFF TOL€ET:
'=tt<Hr RA YS: E12t1A1
CD OPTICAL SYSTEM OF iEL£5COPE
AIYY POINT FOB!rf • • . • •

EYEPIECES
you can make
WHILE a few hardy amateurs grind and polish FIELD
their own simple lenses to make eyepieces, Lhe IMAC.E /s
usual "homemade" eyepiece is o ne assembled \
from stock lenses. Some common types you can
make are shown in Fig, 2. Except for the modest
field of less than 40 degrees, homemade eye - tl10 .. tli<jhe<
pieces perform practically as well as complex, llUYCiE('IS PERFOl?MS UJELL
WIT~ f/10 OBJECTIVE.
expe nsive oculars.
MITTENZ.111£¥' IS VARIATIOtl
~
RAMSDEN. The Ramsden eyepiece is often made ME1'11$C.US I

_.FIELO~
of two identical lenses, F ig. 2, since this simpli- FIELD WiS
fies construction. However, the eye lens can be
made much smaller and still pick up all useful I S.ToP
light rays. The origi nal Ramsden is a 1 - 1 - 1 de - f/8 °' IHq,,e•
~AMSDEN IS PRACTICAL
sign, fully corrected for lateral color, F ig. 4. T"'PE FOR REFLECTORS

@ Lt NEAR !=!ELD 01= TELESCOPE IMAGE WITM VAR.IO US EYEPIE.CES

APPARENT FIE LO ~OC.4L LEN6TM OF EYEPIEC.e
O~ E.YEPIEC.E. + '16' 'Is" l/4" ~la" l/i' S"/e' o/4 "'1a· 18'
I " 1Y,6 11 1!.-4 l~a· 1V;,' 1:},4 2"
65° .19" .u· :28" A"2.'' .5'7" .1t 1• .85 " .99" 1,13• 1.20• 1.21· 1.4'1" r.ss· 1.10" 1.98" 1.l.1"
AVERA(,£ E.RFLE 60" .11 .' ll ,26 .39 .S2. .66' .19 .9l I.OS' I. I I 1.1& 1.32 1.44 f.S'I t,84 :i..09
55• .16 .1 9 .24 .36 ,48 .60 J2. .84 .96 r.02 1.oa 1.20 i:n 1.44 1.68 I~
/!.Y&JIAGE KELLN f.R
OR Oftt!IDSGOPtC so• .14 .11 .n .32 .44 .54 .65' .16 .81 .92. .98 1.08 1.20 1.31 l.S'Z. l."14
~'!.·
JiVMMET0<ICAL.
OR LOS.SL 45° .13 .16 :lO .l9 .39 .49 .>9 /,8 .18 .83 .88 .98 1.07 1.11 1.l6 l.S7
LIMIT for MuV6tNS 40• .12. .14 .11 .26 .~ A4 S2 ,61 .10 :74 .19 .88 .96 I.OS j ,l.'2. 1.40
Ull'llT fo• AAMSOE.rl 35° .10 .12. .15 .D .31 .38 .46 .53 .61 hS .69 :16 .84 .92. 1.01 l.U
mFIElO OF CNJ~ 30• .09 .10 .13 .20 .'26 .33 .39 A6 .52 .SS .59 .65' :n .18 .91 I.OS'
'T STlttAl. SCOPES
2s· .Ol .09 .11 .16 .:u ::1.1 .33 .?i3 .44 .41 ;49 .55 .60 .66 :n ,81
Sll'IGLE AcllROMAT '21:). .06 .01 .09 .13 .n .2.'l .).6 31 .35 ,3'1 .39 .44 .48 .S2 .61 .10
Sll'IGLE. SIMPLf. lEl4S 10° .03 .()3 .04 .01 .09 .II .13 .15 .n .re .19 .2.1 .2.3 ,16 .30 :;s-
5TM(IMSD !~" EYll!£CE
You PLAN TO USE A so• E.YE.P•eCE. OF 1" F. L WHAT IS IMAGE. OIA.?

~~:
~y t«2.4,D.€JS.. UL.If../. l:i.Qr.G'21ta·
SOLUTION: IN Lt.Fl' C.OL, LOCATE S0°A.F. ON SAM£ LINE UN DE.R
I" F.L1 REAO .81"(1/a") DIA.OF F I ELO AT IMAGE PL ANE AREA ~.QU ~fZ: MA¥e tl.J/BlSll:.~
BJJ:.JIS.flfR. £$...f!JliC.t. Hfl.LDl/I.
l"F.L...MUVGENS, 40°A.F.
l-IUVC'7ENS
E.\'EPIECE Ol'll'r' •
, P!iAIJ. e.Rl/JlltJ.li!Y L/Y!At:E. 0 1t1.. e.g,Qr:a Ul.131.e ....BJt:r
READ F/NflLJMBGE lsroP Dlf1.) .:?.LINES DOWN f;~. PRIMAl<Y IMAGE~ JO •
FINl\L IMAGt =- .s-i: {APPRox.)

173
 PP2. FIELD PPI PP2. PPI
1=:0 1 I LENS
I 1.3 1
S:U;LO
LENS-.
PR IMAR'<
IMA6'E
PRIMARV
IMAGE
~ I
EYE
F•I /
l..£NS
F:
I
::::t~::::=---~~§~I -
--d.~l
EXIT
PUPI L.
(EY£R£UE(
IS~)
I _-_;.
L® 0.= ?/Jiwlz:Ot£/fS
.;;JI>'~--

f?NE
E>CIT
PUPtl-

l?f<JfE &!!ID DI' 1• d.~

. I tflif?
@) E. .!-". L.= I E.f.L.:3,4F l.i~ ~
~
~.7 TIME£' 6L.
OE EY/i < fNS
1- 1- I RAMSDE.t' IS CORR€CTED , _ ,_.,_~RAMSDEN IS STOCJ( L O NGER F.L. ~ I EL O LENS'
FOR. L.ATEAAL. C:.OLOR BuT EYE Dl:.S16"N WITH LENSES SAM E F..L. IS 6£.ST FOR Powee s OVER IO)(
Ra.1EF IS 'Z.f.RO ... DUST CAN 8£ ANO .SPACE. 7'?> F .L. OF S INGLE ... GIVES BETTER. POWER ~IO
SEE/I ON FIE.LC> LENS Wl11C.tl COii~ - LE.NS. SPACING LESS Tt4AN Yi.(F+IO) COMA COR~TloN 10-, oa.ucs I OR I. I
CJ DES \JJI TH IMAG~ PLANE CAUSES LATERAL COLOR ... LD~R E.YE. lQ't. T04()lC I.I Oil 1,2.
RELIEF '30< 00. OOll I.lot I.~

CT> RAMSDEN Specifica:lions

IMA(;IO R ATIO OF I RATIO OF I.I R ATIO OF l."l. RAT IO OF- 1.3
E.F.L. ~5.FIEL.D ~I £1..D £ '(£ SPACE FI ELD EVE SPACE l=IEL.0 £ VE SPACE F IELD EYE ~
.l.4 ".n" .r4 ".u· .1.3 .. .2.5~ ,35• .14-g,32• .2.S>< .37" ,l5)1 .31'' .16 ...40' .IS>' .31' :i:t'
'/4 " .IS"
6•8- 4 ><8- 6 4 "s......
"s>- :2.2." 61< J0"""4 4w 8..,.,,. :2:l." 7~/0- 4K8-
•
1 ,42.' .6S" .u.• .65'" .4l • .10· ::i:~ ".63 .44~ :is· . 2.4" lil.' .46< .80 .25>< .64"
12· .~I
If X/7,... 6>Cl7- .45' II 'If 18- 6 ;t l6J#tw .4S' //'If 19- 6 'll /6,,.,.,. .44
.
12. ":i.t- 1)(16-
.43
.60• .<ie· .30~.98' ,61 )(I.OS" .31 ".95° .64>'t.n: .32.><$4° .66•1.'lO· 34< .92."
o/'4" .4 & IS><:l.>- 8,cl.S....
.60 /6y. l.7- 8 ><l.4-
,6,
/6 "2.9- 8 "lA~.
.66 17.,, 11- 9 )C24M>-I .64-

"7/9" .53' .69. 1 .·~· .~3 ' l.•3"

18•23- 9)(29MM
.19 .it • 1.1-i.• .lSll t.10"
18 •31- 9 >tUl-
,, .1llll'J.30''
19 )(33-
.36. 1.09"
9 ><.28~..
.1 6 .16' 1,39• . 38i<r.oi
;l.OllU- 10 '/().?..,,. :75
I
.ie,.. 1.30 .~1 .r.30• .e11'1AO' .?9111.l.1' ,8),'11. l.SO'' .41 • l.45" .06•1.60" .43<1.2.;·
I" .61 XII" 33,., /0< 33- .91 2/><36- /OJ())MM .89 l./" ... /I 'I( 3,,,_ .87 2.'J..)14/,.,., II .,, 3/ ..M .06
.82.• IA6" Al< IM " .90 • l.S7" .4~ ' 1.42." .92<1.68° .45<1AO" .96<1.19" .4i • 1.l8"
I Ys" .69 :U.•37- 11><37....
l.Ol. ).3 'If 40- 11 X jl,..., t.00 J-4 1'4 'l.... lfll36-
.CJ 8
2.5 "46- 12.• 35-
%

J..6x-n- 13 'f( 39,.,. . 0

f.02< 1.81' .5011.56" 1 I ~ 1.06<2.00 52"154"
I Y,4' .16 .%•1.63" .45" 1.6~· 1.14
:is• 12. <42-
f.00 • l.15' .41'1.59 I. II
2.6 ,,4S-/2.1'4f- l.7'1151- 141<3'J- l.08
L14 « t.95~ , 0Y l.9S ~ f.1912.1a1.S6 . ,,,, . l.U • 2:l.S .59< 1.81" l.261'2AO .62.<l.85" ' I 1..'3
I \t':t" .~1
29<sa...l/4K.>O-
I .:!>,
30,,~ /41<49-
t.34 '3/ 'I<51- IS'lf47-
I. 31 Jl.1<61..." /6'1(41~,. •
I J4:• 1.01 •. h•2.l8" .60• 2.28' 1.59 1.31 "l:'IS .64 ><2X1. 1.56
JS''lf62- /(,'J(56,....
1141>'2.~ '.(;1•'2.19 "'
36JC67- fi1'S6-
I S'2. 1.4 6•2.90 1112.15• I SI
' "¥}'1.7/,.~ i81lSS-· ·
34 'I< 5/3""' .!) 'I( 5"8.- I
t.~r.ES. i!l.!l.c ta.all. B l: f)/d. &Y.ll. E.t.. , .. 't1.Ctt£"~"__1tt+1. ~µ$TQ2: t!Sli. VAL.I/ES ~
AU l>/AM£.URS &gE. AJJPm>r. C.(.i!l.l!£8.l<4!lE. e~ 'J:tJoe Mfl!Umll~ ~~/:ME; AHfl. h!l/Ult£Y" 8Y'-/.IWllW'T

This construction i s ext'ellent fo l' an erecting

syste1n or for a projecting eyepiece, but it is
poor for ord1na1·y tel escope use i n that there is
no eye relief,
To provide eye relief and also move the im age
away from the field lenF, a spacing of 2/3 the
f.l. of the individual len' ! often used, and this
is the s tandard Ram<:den, I- lg. 5. The eyepiece
ie improved Elightly by m:.king the field lens a
little longer focal length, I lg. 6. The Epeeifica·
lions in Fig. 7 Table can be Juggled a little to
suit, an example being shown in Fig. 8. Spacing
can be reduced to as lillle as 50'/o of the f.l. of
the eye lens without introducing an excessive
amount of lateral color.

H UYGENS. In Hu.~gens ' time, (Christian Huy·

gens, 1629-1695). the refractor was the only tele-
scope of note, and this eyepiece was designed
174
 ® 6EN£RAL FEATURE.S OF THE l-IUYGE.NS E.YE.PJECE
FIELD STOP
\._ Pl!.IMAll.Y
FIELD LENS
EYE
LENS
,, PP:>.
PPl.
a.P.&...
PPI
IMAGE I
,y;m,.y ~:•Yi' \ J/• I t>PI H.1
FINAL ~:: '4 I
~F+
~
:.r-:-J---J--- R-A-1'-i'<2- - ...
~...j
.I EXIT
2 S/JOWN ' .... .
POPll- ~
~!Ci:
RATIO:
!.-ENS IS AUUAYS
F I ELD
~

......
~"
UTIO
I.)
l cL-- 1
Vz (~.+ "•••)
LIGHT PATH:
~ P~l,\l\Al?:(
lUITHOOT ICYEPtECE.,
THE TELESCOPE Oil>JECTIVE WOULD
IMAGE AS' Sl-IOWN.
TH£ FIE.LO LENS ll(TEl<!CEPl'S 'ffi£
LONGER f.L. T~Alll
£Y6 L£N~. BEST
AATIO 0£PENOS ON
St<
101'
~
,,..,
t.~s
1.4
2.0
SPACING: LATERAl-COtDR
IN ANY SIMPLE E.YEPIECE IS
CORRECTED &Y SPACING OF 1/:i..
Pa.uE:RO~ SCOPE A/ID TtlE COMl'>INEO FOCAL L£NGTtlS.
L16HT !CAYS AND FORMS A l:?EAL ~INAL 301' ~.~
( tJ:ltlr,ITVO/Nl!f. CQl.OR IS f(Or COll.-
IMAGE WHICH IS VIEWEO BY THE Sl40ULO 8t sa.B:TED !501' 24 ~U{J). $PACING IS MEASllltED
EYE 1..E.NS ~litOM TABLE-"> or • ~
&1UEN N>)llC.CJ(r PRl~IPAL ruHES

@ HUY6ENS ~iAcations
RATIO OF 2.
40° ~1£LO -
RATIO OF 2. ~ RATIO OF 2.f. RATIO OF "!
E.F. L. FIELD EVE SNCE'STOP FIELD EVE SMC£ STOP fl ELD EVE S1'llCE . STOP FIEU> EYE SPACE STOP
1
/4' .15" .'l8· .13• 19 ·
:i.e· .13''o.
l.S•~l.· .12 t .1e•
•'3C>'' ,l3uo..
.25•:4S' . 14<.ll
.>I" . ll.'"o.
,is•.so'i'l41.n· .>>" .12 ·0 .
? Y IO -.M 4 • $ - 6•11.... ·~~~ 7 '1112- 4-/IS- '~''- 4~s-......
I Ii' ,'44Jt .lS" .'ltl• .~
ll'J/19- S'~IO-
.s& .'26 44•.83 :xJ~'
ll~J.J,.....S"tt-
.S9 :2s
A4t.'l0 .UJ<.35'
6 X'9<MM ,62. :l.S 4S'<I"' .ll•.3Y
6)(9.-.. .66 .214
"""'- fl•Ui
'!>/4' ·'1• 1.1Y .21 lt .56·
16•l.9- ?iC '"'"'... .84 -~ .62•1:.::
16113
.' l1do4 "
'",,,_ .89 .;a 62<1.?.S"
16Jt34
.19" .R''
8Jtl3 .9~ .31 ,(A•l.50 .291'.SO
17X38 1Jtl3 ... .99 .36
i19· :th 1.31• -~·45· ,11 • IM .~• .6l .11x1.S"T ,'!;Y ,&o• , 4 Kl.14' .33• .sa·
1
18 •14 8 X'l1A*I .98 .46 18 •37 lJ1f/6MM 1.04 .44 18X<f0 9xlS....,. l.08 .43 t9 1<44- 9~15"- 1.16 .4 1
•a 1•1.61> .3'1 • .T.t .a1111.eo .'rl• Hi• .11•$1
I" .e1 <I.SO .~Y .1S
:VfJ8- 9~19,....,.. 1.1'2. 53 2./ «12. 9(/B 1.19 .SI 2/>t"6 IO>fl B l.:lA .49 .&4•2.0C
U1<S-/ 1oxn- 1.:n ,q7
!lO• l.68 .ll• .84 1.2.5 .90••.86 .n•~t· ·'iOKlAI• A l •,.,, 1. 39 ,9)•;t.l5 .4 1•."?5
.
r'le" l.3•43 10¥ll
.59 2Jr~7 1/0112.I
1. ~) .S7 2.3><$.l. l/r:N>- .55 / / '1119- 1.49
'*•S7 .Sl
1.00• l.e& .41• .'74" 1.40 t.00(24111 .41• .9o" 1Al0"2.1; .4f" .El6 IDl>IZSC .4$Y.84
1Y4 2Sr4il //•2.4- .66 2.SrSJ II<l.J 1.49 .&4 )S',($1 ll•n.. 1.55 .61 l71f64. // >'U 1.66 .59
I 'lz'.' 1.19 >'].'\S IM Yl.1~ 1.69
.80 IJ9•2fl9 ."'8Yl.Ql 1.18 .16 ·"•i.10 .n"\.04 1.86 .14 LU•S.<z .Sl• l.oo .11
4':h's-i....12x l!}.,. tJru
JO!t6J JOY69 14qi... JI "1<16 l41<U. l.'39
FoR BX-'!£.~ NOTl.1Sl£.D. ~QR ~.8., 'ENG'C/I.~ NOT £l<TZ(4 ltf£. 'HlllF<" {i£.HEIMI. Rll~( FOA
RAT~ O/C 2 CAN I.~ CA/Cf/LATED E.Q8. l # E,,,
AS. tkJ.V.(.l:(/!~,"tf.N~ EACTllR,f /SdrJO ~ .]:
JN lJ.l.li. FOLLOWIN(i.: ~le~ =1.~3" F.L.
£xilmb~: i"F.1.
Uc11m1>le: -
I F.L. E.F.L.1• bt .8'
FIELD LE~S: 1.66 " .8
EYE LENS= .12 " .8 = .58 " l'.L.
EYE • ~EJ.L.~ 7'3" I • ?';r~
FIELC>e '2.E.f. L; 2. " I ~ 2.•F.t.
F.L. EYf'44£.F.L.• ¥4 • I :. ¥4"
r.L. ~tELP = 1Yz.E.F.L.= I~>< I = I Y-z'.'
RA'TIO OF 2.3
SPACi: =
1.19 " .8 = .95 " OC 3UMU EYE ~.J l<'?j •;z•
$TOP DIA.= .5 1 = .4t" "' .e SPACE~ ~ EFt•'J;" '" 1Yf
~ TJM~ .sye ~ :t x ~•/JS_"
SPACE . 1)8f.F:L.• 1% )(I - 1Ya"
12r h rwu £YE ~ -U v !J ~ /J4i •
btGu\
fCK E·F.L.: F F 1.33 •. sa'as
F-t F - d. e 1.~l ... 58-.95= .96:
l( .771+
fl" .2 tJMB a'!= .Z X '3,
STOP-tpl!Rt!T@OE !, .. f,f
M1°"1A~ ~TWEEN LPi,tfi
-'=' I~"'

solely for the refractor with which It functions out with the proper ratio for a certain power,
r a ther we ll. Spe cifically, the Huygena I& Intended F ig. 9. the eyepiece will be ,.·ell- corre cted for
for use w1lh telescopes of narrow aperture-- coma. Fig. l 0 Table e1ves spe cifications for
f / 10 or higher !/numbe r . The best featureofthe va rious focal lengths. These are gene ral calcu -
Huygens 1s that it can be fully corrected for lated values which may be modified s lightly to
late ral color ; in other re spe cts lt is slightly in- suit such lenses as may be available. For astro
ferior to the Ramsden. The field lens is always use. the field lens-eye lens ratio i s pre ferably
longer focal length t han the eye lens. The ratio 2.3 or m ore for best coma correct ion, longest
to use Is tha t whic h gives the best correctJ on eye re lief.
for coma, this being d ependent on t he power
of t he telescope, o r, m ore exactly, the numbe r ACHROl\1AT1C DU .P LE TS. One of the m ore popu -
of foca l leng lhs of the e yepiece contained in the la r a nd pr actical homemade eyepieces i s based
di stance from eyepiece to ob jective. If you st a rt on t he general idea of us1ng two achromats. The

175
 •
construction is usually symmetrical, Fig. 11,
with the two lenses in contact or nearly so.
E 7JXETW£R l
F~2· ~
" I
ri- F• 2·
l\tany excellent eyepieces can be made in this •
/2E.l:!.Tlt!AL~
manner. Unsymmerrlcal construc tion, Fig. 12,
lllA(;E- ffl!Mi)JMII r--. - (:..35'~1£~
... CAtt GQ m 87!- a Hows you to use a big field len s for light
I,
- '-;-,~ pickup in combination with a smaller and
~

~--JEXIT
PUPIL
stronger eye lens. l'hc 1·atio of focal lengths and
the spacing can be almost anything; specuica·
L
SYMMET~ICAL. ~d ... ,,~-
-----
_E:ui RE/JU IS
tions given 1n Fig. 12 are popular because they
arc simple and result in a single principal plane
~-~.%
-0}:6:..fJ.., for the combinat ion. ln any case. the lenses
used should be good - qua l!ty, conventional achro - 1
mats, i .e ., duplcts designed for incident pa rallel
light, corrected for spherical aberration and
achromatized for the C (red) and F (blue) lines
of the spectrum. ?\ot all war surplus achrornats
compl> with these basic spccif1eations.
~,t,3•:.....,
DESIGl'\ PROCEDUR1':. 1'01 conventional Huy-
@ IJf'ISVMMlTRICAL OOPU.T ~IML'F.1..) gens or Ramsden eyepieces, the specuic lenses
needed are given in he tabula1· data . For other
CHANGE @ €'((1.mple: Conr44.y; p.498 types, you can find diameter in a roundabout
way from Fig. 3 rablc, which g i ves the image
Specifica.tions ~SDEN E'l'PC., RATIO 1.2S
size. For most eyepieces the field lens must be
F . L. • I. S 6" fp';,:.~/,..,r:
Wov w1 Lt. F1No
E.YEPIECE D€SIGNS IN
flE LO LENS f.L. ~ 2.42."~j
EYE. LE.f'IS f.L.: I. 93".
a little larger than the image diameter. Note that
for th e Huygens, th~ fin~! image, which i s also
MAAV OPTICAL BOOKS. SPACE = I • .:!>S" the field stop, is Sll)'(htly smaller than the prim·
1£ Ill~ f.L, IS NQT = ===<11111_ _ __ ary image.
~.. Ytl!l~li. Yau WANT, !itff, !"f. 4., ..$Q Specificat ions given in o ther Optical books
CNMGC 'fl2.A/'!.illl: ldULZIPlYING FACZQ8 tS ! may be followed if desired, and if radius only
~D 61...~'ll!f.UJ.: o•"'"-"l·· .1 64 is given you can 1·eadll) convert to r.l. by using
IlW~ AIL ''$.eta: ~oU'$- I 56 = '
a&~.....
the formula given in F ig. 14. \Vhen 'he f. l . speci·
!3Y. A FACTOR' THCH:
fled is not what you \\ant, 1l IS easy to change
,,,....,..., F.l.'IOQIA~H l"IELD = 2$12. ".64- = I, SS ~
F..,._I""'~ ORIGl!<il(fL to anydesired f, l. by the method shown 10 Fig. 13.
E.VE = 1.93 • .64.a 1.24"
This can also be apphed to an~ !:iingle lens, such
SPACE ::.f.35 >< .64 ... , 86"

l..P~ ,. L _ 1. 55 >< 1.24 _ I"·~,

as a telescope objective, or to any optical system.
•• 1.92. _
V E.... · - 1.ss+ 1.24 - .a& - t.93 ·~­
tJk

(@)
Conversion Formulas F.L. = l.S'"
CPLAl'IO·COl'N£)( E.YE.PIECE
LOOES AAE OfTEf'I SPECl~lf.D KNOWN FINO )o'l.rn• g f"lCa.m > e
.-----.---=-----...----r--il I A .

BY AADIUS ~ CU~Pi'TUl2E,
~ATllCR. lllAN f' .L.
-
1 rto.d.iu.s 'W'lbiure
- C; * C= .116
1
= 1.19 ..... t.:i.::;_.,.
••
COtll/ERT Ii.$ NllDEC>
BY 11.5/tlG 711!$£ EORJrtl/lAS
'2
-
ho.dh1s
-
F.L. F'.L. ::. !- i F.L. = I. 5~16
Ii - I -
J76 - 15"
.5 1l - •
... Avnlf/.c~
""15"~vii.
THE APl>ROi<. COl'IVERSIOrl ~ c.ur11aiure JtuilLS /1, - c..I I
I 2. o. - , f
·,--,,,,..J jJ<d< USI ftNf'
OF AAOIUS 10 f.L. IS -- 1
--1---- • 7 .. • .......

SIMPLY: 4 C.Ul'lla.ture F.L. I

F.L.-::. (I\.- 11 'll c. f • L ·"' .511 "I 1.2.9 - .661 = •
I S"
F. L. : '2. fl.. 1----~-"'--->--
I I
Tll15 IS £/lillCT OllLY iF GU/SS s F.L. CU"'1ture C- I
-("!l, -1) )( F c .. .5 11" 1.s "':716 =1.1.~
HAS Jr/12£6, OF I. sa.Oll!C,f<, -
U1/S£., JISE FORMULA r/O. 2 6 F.L. Will~ 1l =F )( ('yl..-1 ) h,, = 1.; " .511 = ,"'1"16"

176
The REFRACTOR FAAVN HOFER
oe.Jecnve

THE TYPICAL refractor objective is a broken - MAIN

'TV&
contact or ;ur- spaced style, usually purchased \
01!>.JEC.TIV£
complete with cell, Fig. I. Sold unmounted, the CEI I
same lens has register ma1·ks to show how the ,.-;.
.....
two elements should be put together. Adhesi ve c,..,..,,,
foil is supplied. from wh1ch you cut three pieces (' CD OBJECTIVE AHO CELL
about 1/16 x 3/16-lnch, attaching these to the 11EtAuitll6 11tNG
concave side of the fltnt <>lement, as shown. P rac -
tically all air-spaced objectives are now coated
~
on all four surfaces, pn1ctically eliminating the •
I c;......, :~
18 to 20 percent light loss from four uncoaied
surfaces.
I ,;...,....,. • '
•
Small achromats up to 2 In. diam<:'ter are usu - I LtoHzt 1.•
ally cemented for convcnlenc<:' in handling and I £lt
v
~
-
mounting. An equ!-convPx front lens, identical in-
ternal radii und u flat-back flint are conditions
often specified for inexpensive achromats, Fig,
2. T he same dr·awing Mhows lhe air-contact type
used in rnany inexpcnsiv1 t<>l<'scopes . Over 3 in .
diameter, air spacing bec<.>mes almost neces-
sary to eliminate the risk o r cement failure
caused by unequal g lass expansion. In top -qual -
ity air-spaced objectiv('S, the [•' 1·aunhofer-type
is a favorite of long sLanding. The Clark is
al so excellent. Both of these arc corrccied for
coma, which is usuall.) nei:l ected In a cemented AllPLICATIOl'f USUAL
Of LENS CORlt~tOM
achromat , C LI N E ond.
VtSUAL ~LINE N

COLOR CORRECTJON. With two glass element s OROIHARY 0 L.INli ""<i.

to work wllh, the lens designer · can correct an
achromat for any two color11. For a vi~ual inst ru-
men~ like the telescope, the two best colors are
:he F-hnc in ~he blue part of the spectrum and
the C-hnc in th<:' rt:d. These two hnes bracket
:hat por<ion or the spectrum to which the eye is
most sensiuvc. Tl e1·<:' is, of course, a residual
of uncorrected color, Fig. 3, both be,ween and
beyond :he CF lines. Tins sccondar) color will
put a hairline of purple light :irouncl a bright
star, but unless you look you will 1'arely be a-
ware of the color fring!' .
CF achromatisni ls quite satisfactory for ord-
mary photography on pan film. ,\ yellow filter is
often specified, but this need is univcrSlll fo r
long-range daytime photOl-\1'31Jhy with any lens.
The o r dinary photog1·aphic objective leans a bit
m ore to the blue end of the spcctr·urn to favo r a
wide r range of film emulsions. An astrographic
object glass is often corrected fo 1• bhte only ancl
can be used only with blue-sE>nF\ftive, i .e ., co lor -
blind film . Some aerial cnmcra l enses are ach-
romatized for the high l'C'd end of the spectrum
~ 17· LINE
RAPlllC
-""""-
F LINE o.nd.
40SOAH•<r~ @ ...........
A ' LINE. 4..t.
~ D LrNl!O * COLOR C.ORRECTIOtol
for use with infra-red and ot~P1 rE>d-st>nSl'lve
emulsions. Such a glass is poor' for visual use
because the blue ravs are badh .
. ou· of focus.
THE LIGHT CO)IE. The moon;,, 1/2 deg ·ec in
angu lar diameter. Th1& is commonly taken as thl'
mini mum fully-illumina•ed field of ~n~ tt>lPscopc .
You can find what it an1oun1s to in linear size by
multiplying the f. l . of objective b~'.OOR . The situ-
ation is shown in Fig. 4. The field will be fully-
illu m inated if you can draw the th i'ec l igh t rays
shown without obstruction. As a tnatte r of fact,
the lowe rmos t of the three rays Is the only one
tha t matters --iI you get this one through, Lhe
others will clear auto ma tlc::illy .
While keeping the minimum field in mind, moF<t
builders lry for a bit mo• c . \ common standard

177

•
 ~pie: ?>"f/1s R£FRAC'10R

@ ~· DIAMETER IMAGE IS STAl'IOARO

··---- 8 .•......... . ---··8"'-· -··· ""

174 I. DoA.
FOCUSING iUSe
t
0:

'
'•
•
-+...-i....

I
1MAG-E
l " ..
114 D1A.
PL.A r< E

I FOCUSING TUB6
I
1--Aaour 0
9() /q OF t.£tiJ,C.ILJUPPLilS:
Il LIGHT TO EC!<TE. OF. ~().JAJAJ_A:.:
' £!10 Of f«tdldY ~
I nse IS ~cK
6 ------
e J_____ _ ---- ---~
i.~----- IS"'------
A_
~OCUSING TU&E TOO FAR FORWARD WILL REDUCE THE SIZE. OF FULLY-ILWMINATr;.D FIELD

is a 3/4 in. linE-ar im::igefil'ld, regardlC'ssof ob-
jecti,-e focal length, Tills particular diameter is
used because 't is about the linear size or image
seen ·111·ough n I-inch c~cptCcl'. In most cases
you will have no trouble 1!l lighting a 3/ 4 inch
image. Proper!~, the bot llt·n<•ck should be the
eyepiece ltst>lf, hut more· often it ls the focusing
tube that lin1its Lhc light cone . Fig. n shows the
situation with 3 in . rcfi•actol'··the focusing tube
can extend 10 in. forwo rd from th<' Image befor·c
encroaching on th~ light cone: ,
An) light out.,irl<· th<' light cone is useless
and should be blocked-off to cl1mtnatc glare .
This is done with a set of 3 or 4 glare stops.
You are assured the glare stops arc really
working if you can draw lines as in Fig. G wllh-
out striking the objective. This d1ag1am shows
one glare spot at front of tube, which could be
elim inated with a narrow glare stop at thnl poin1 ,
Alternately, black flock paper offers fairly good
protection and is especially useful whC'n glare
stops become too shallow.
Fig. 7 shows t he case where the focusinJ'.( tube
encr oaches on the light cone. How much light
does this cut off? Make a condensed sro.le dia-
g1·am like Fig. 7 , Ora w a line from the edge of

178

•
 Focus1"'(7 MOVEME.NT FOCUSIN6 TUBE
.from /
ZERO A.
..-(/J'dAGE
~ CO!NCIO£Nr
l.!/(Tf{lit/O
Ol' F«l/J'l/l/P
I 118£J -
IN OUT I MA6f.

OROIAARY E.YEPI EcES o· •l':i'

Pl.At'E- s.
.., . •
l!tl\RLOUI LE NS" ( 1.8~" F.t.) :Ya•"" I 1 • 14 3¥8
STAR Dll\60NAL. 3• o·
SUN DIAC70NAI- 3" o·
RoOF PR1SM ERECTOR 3" o•
1
r c:.
1...6.NS ER£CTOA. 0" I~
PORli!O ~ISM E~ECTOR i" o·
35..., CAMERA (AT FOCIX) 2" O"
(EO/f. DISTMC q4.JfCLJltfl:t)

FLANG£ OR.
SHOULDER'-,.
®
• i::LANGE
FOCAL
T
I
LENGTH
F.F.L..\

LAVOUT AND DIMENSIO~

WMEN EXTENSION
t:acvswr& tulJE --- ~ FOC~ING TUBE IS USED
MltSXMQYA our

objective at •.\, to ccl&c of focusing •ube '\t B, zeroed a1 a d1s:ance o~ 1-3/ 8 1n. "1n' fl·om the
finally cutting •he imaee pldne al C. This shows maximum " ou:' pos1:1on. \V1·h a single focusing
the held of full 11lum1na1ion. !\ow, d1·a" another tube. :his pO!>l:ion will accommodate all onllnar)
line from O •hrough 8, culling the ob;ec·i•e at e~ ep1ece:; and all acc:csso1·1cs t. xcc1>t n l>11 flor ro

E. \'/hat ~o· arc dr:l\,ing in each instance is the
ou·ermost ra)· of the light cone. All other ra) s of
~he cone will get through, meaning th:n all 01 1he
objective above po1nt E will cont1·lbute light to
point D at the edg<: or a 314 in. image . As can be
seen, this is about 90 •liithllng and en•ircl> prac·
tical --jn an actual telescope }OU can't see this
sligh' light Lo~s <>V<'n when you tr)'•
LENGTH OF MAll\ 'fUBl::, l'hc ze1·0 position of
the focusing tube, Fig. 8, is a maner of choice,
selected according to what accessories you plan
to use. Eyep1.,ce1; alone nC>cd only "out" focusi ng
movement from t he zero position, a scan be seen
in Fig. 9, the dli;tancC' being the same as the
flange focal length of Lile eyepiece.
Fig. 10 Worksheet shows th<' focusing tube
erector. The ,·est of the problem tak1: .. a 11•11,
thinking. but i: is JUS1 a rr.at Pr of s1mp:P arith-
metic to find the propel ler.gth of th' m:uu tub.,,
It is a good idea to ch<'C)( ·.-... ex3c· b.'\c~. focal
length of your ObJCC\1\'C••\ 3 in. f /If> ob cc tn e • s
supposed to be 45 in. f .I., but m(lvbf' :>.s much as
1/2 inch more . lf you do no· cl.eek 1hc ob l'Cll\L'
f. l ., you can allow fo1 this rossiblt lncrc•;JSP b)
cutting the main tube abo111 112 inch k•ng<·r han
calculated. ·"'" actual ·est or the teleoscop£> will
then show the exact >;ILUU\!011 und yvu can takc: ii
fro 1n there . \ Porro pr1s1n cn.:clo o· r·cquu cs tl1c
use of either an extension tube or a rll-.1w tu be.
An extension tube is ,,;i mpl~>st tlnd c;hl'apt.' st, bu1
has the fault that the con1binerl long length of
focusing tube enc roachco; to so mt' l'<L<•nl on tilt'
normal light cone .

179
•

•
 OBJECTl'llE
12." F. 1...
E.YEPIECE
JI F.l...a2."

.,. . __ ----- t

---- -----
-- --H+---·== ....... ''
~.. .
-O<fl1il~~~~-----
'I ..
OSJE.CTIVE
STOP •
,,
B."' 9
•.
2•
CD B "' (M~ I) )( F
f.xo.mpfe- 2)1' ERECTING SYSTEM = (2. ~I) >< 3 "'9"
IALL lj.8.£&'loA Gk&.A-
11!l£!S. dBi; OISE l )

Two UIA.VS TO APPL'{

®
RECTING stems
ER.ECTOR MAGl'll~IC~IOl'I
ffi MULT IPLY ~.I.. OF OSJECTll/& S'f
ERECTOR M. TO 6!0.T e:. F. L.
~ ~: 12 >< 2 =24"E.F.l..
m DIVI OE. F .L. OF E.YIO.PI ECE
SY ERECTOR M. TO G.E.T
Al\ ERC:C rOR lens erects the image. It can also magnify.
E.F.L. OF ER.ECTll'K> f.YEPIECE Obviously • moves the .magc from one position to ano:hcr
position. Fi·om these varied functions, an erector lens I soften
ec,)CalTIPIe: 22 -- l" E.F. L. called an amplifier lens, or a rt>lay lens, or a transfer lens.
Call it what you like, it is all one and the same optical system.
ERECTOR The magnification factor can be applied to either the objective
OBJe.c.r LENS
,/ or eyepiece, 1''ig. 2, to get an equivalent focal length for the
combinatlo11. UnH or Ix magnification is o btained when the
erector lens is at a distance of two times its focal length from
the object, Fig. 3. Of course. th!' "object" for an erector sys-
tem is simply the image fo1·med by the telescope objective.
High 11.t. ,s obtained by moving the lens closer to the object,
Fig. 4.

ERECTOR ARJTHMETIC. First. dec1dc what magnification

you w:-.nt. It is then a simple matter to determine objecl und
image poslLlon~. using Case 1 equations, which are repented
in Fig. I C'~n1nple. This isactunllyallyou have to know. How-
OE LlfN'S'
MQV§MENT
ever, if you want to trace light l'ays through the system, you
IS I ffSSc TllfW
@ WHOLE ~A~E ONE F . L,

QSJECTIVE ERECTOR EYEPIECE

r s3•' .. F~2."
T
I\tz.•
/ - - --- . I'

~~~ - -
j_ ~--- ----A~" '1,.,Erli.: .'_' - - - - - --Ht---B- ~~~
, A
; 1.)q."
B
~ fz.1~2

.·.
I .....

0U.utl o.tioii - OBJECTIVE !:.TOP . SAME Co.lcu.lo.t!on R>R \

POSITION Qlld. DIAMETER . •
£.)(IT PUPIL :•
A "' 1&.S"
• .!
.·· ,.· A =i.34" F: 2."
F• 3"
B = F J( A 3.,, 16.5 49.~ =3.66..........
... .. ··
6 = _F _>C_A _ 2. x 7.34 _ 14.68 _ ~ .:. "
A-F - 7.34 -"l. - !:'.:14- - ~·
•
5
= l~.S'
A-F "'16.5-3
® M "' _ta - 2.1> - 3'"'><
A - 7.34 - . I
M• ~ 3.66
A "' 16.5 = :7:z ic
Sl/.IVIE /i")(ll!VIPl,E
'-Xlt PUPIL
M FIG,_/_ DIAMETE~ = . 3::?. " •37 = .12'2." :: I/"
/8
DlAM~TE.£ OF _ 3•
OBJECT'I~ STOP= l.S ".Z"l. - ·3

180

will have to locate the exit pupil, Looking at
Fig, S, you can see that objective and erector
alone make up just like any ordinary astz·o tele-
scope. What would be normally the exit pupil of
such a combination now becomes the objective
stop. This is a picture of the objective lens as
seen by the erector lens. An actual physical stop
is usually fitted at this point, The exit pupil of
the whole instrument is the image of the objec-
tive stop as s een by the eyepiece. The simple
arithmetical work is shown in Fig, 5. Note also
in this diagram how a simple graphical trace can
be used to determine diameters of both objective
stop and exit pupil. I! you are making a bench
setup, no arithmetic is needed because all spac-
ing and stop dimensions are picked off directly
from the bench setup. However, it is always a
good idea to run through the math work in order
to become familiar with the procedure.
I
I
TWIN ACHROMA TS, For good performance
while retaining simple design and construction,
a set of twin achromats in contact or nearly so
is the most popular, practical erecting system,
F ig, 6, The achromats range in diameter from
15 t o 30mm and in f.l. from 30 to lOOmm. The
odds are that a long focal length system will
perform better than a short one, but at the same
time it is desirable to keep the system as short
as possible. 18x38mm is a nice size for erector
lenses where maximum compactness is desired.
An erector tube for use with any astro tele-
scope can be a. very simple device, as shown in
Fig. 7. You can improve on this by adding an ob-
jective stop. the location and size of which is
determined as already described. A stop at the
first image plane is often used, This is seen in
sharp focus when you look through the whole
erecting eyepiece.
TYPICAL CONSTFlUCTION
181
 Gener'(l.l ~rnt:Jle :
laST ('~pl~ E..f.L.: 4" PP I S ECON D RULES 4" E .F. L.
l~E r °' 6'-' - - - --J
F
IMAGE
F ;. 1/'1..E,f .L. F : )12." 4 ... 2.' 1

14--- -- 6':...'--'-+---------.q 1 I 1"'DIVIOV.OL lb/S

r.
>.:~. · ..6{_+-4!--
+--d. ~ ~'-·--
----r---t~· I I
___i.
·,
...
E .f.L.: 2.F-

d."'
E.f. L.~ 2 1< 2. = 4 ''

d.: 1.s >f2.,. 3 •

I
J.." 1Y2F
I·" f·Y\~~ A""'b.,,. I !ft~ PP's: 3F PP~ s 3 "2."' 6 "
b----------- e.- 10 1&
3'' ~ '.. IUE<k>S<EO

SIM PLE L ENS E RECTO R

E RECTOR M. SHOUl..O ae
e.e:rwEEN Ill ANO ' ·""
l:!J.G>I~ .M.g.1J,.,L. ~FllUr
IM.04i WO_ Pfl;__ J.q.t~
(.ak,u.!.aJe M. At US II AL
Ua,rnt>I<> IS f,(,X'
6 .. (1.6 .. 1) l( 4;. 10.4' '
A : 10.4 + 1.6 .. 6.s•
~:r Dll T//U.li OISVW<'ll
l;SOM /JAl/'<CIPA/. PVi!JLS1 l,SS/{QWI!

M.Vii..L EBQ«J

-
2 "'D1e., W "E.L,. I

l
-
I

FIE t..e,...I
STOP
- 09.JECTll/I!
STOP t
M,. .. --r= - --
-.,. I - - ·=~- --.ac
l'
.
""'
.
tOYi' 1
'
.··EVPC· f.t..
@ lt)HOLE ERECTt rlC, EYEPIECE UltTll 2." F.L. HUYGENS (E.F.L,"'- -;};..'.'° 1.2.5 " )
' E:eEc~Ost M .

THE AFOCAL SYSTEM. This u~f'S two ach r o-
mats, but of different focal lengths . Eaehis used
in lhe afocal position, thnt ts, at its own focal
length from the respective image. ~ll\gn1flcalion
is obtained b) the d1f!crence In focal lengths.
1''ig. 8. A system like this ii. u11uall> "ide-spaced.
Since the light emerging fi·om tht> fH'"" erector
is parallel, the space between first and second
erector is free optical space which can be varied
as desired without changing the powe1 of the sys-
-em. A practical rrunimun1 spacing ls obtained
when the obiectlve stop 1R located on the surface
of the second erector, 1. he p1·acucal maximum
spacing locates the objective ~top midway be-
tween ·he two erectors, as shown .
Sll.otPLE LENS ERECTOH.. Fig. !J shows an ex-
ample and gives simple rules for making an in-
expensive erector f rom two identical piano-con-
vex lenses. Light rays can be traced Lhrough the
system lens by lens, but the more p ract!cal way
is to treat the two lenses as a s ingl e unit with
symmet rical, c1·os1:1ed princ1pal planes, as shown
in Fig. 10.
Traditionally, the eyepiece for a simple lens
erector is a Huygens . l'hls ls lower ratio and
wider spacing than normal, both departures aris-
ing rrom the fact that the "object" for the eye-
piece now becomes the objective slop instead
of the objective itself. Huygens eyepieces made
for microscope use are suitable since the work-
ing conditions are quite similar. :Speclfica.tions
for a suitable 2 inch f.l. Huygens for use with an
erecting syS1em are given in Fig. 11. You can
scale this up or do\l.Cn as des1 red by dividing the
desired new e.f.l. or lens f .l. by the similar
specification given . This gives a factor which is
then applied to all of the specifications given.
This p r ocess is illustrated in the chapter
dealing with eyepieces.
PRISM EREC TORS. The most practical way to
handle prisms in telescope design ls by the
"equ i vale nt air block" method . Fig. 13 explalns.
If you compare the position of the lmage plane of
an objective with and without prisms, you will
find t he prism set up forms an imngc closer to the
objective than when the objective is used alone .
The difference can be taken as the air equivalent
of the prisms- - it is approximately two-thirds
of the glass path through the pl'isms. More exact-
ly, the equivalent air path is t he glass path divid-
ed by the index of refraction of the prisms , lf you
don't know the refractive index you can approxi-

182
 PRISM
ERECTIH6
SYSTEMS

PORRO - F1Rsr TYPE PORRO - SECONDTYPc PoRRO-ASBE AMIC I {RpoF PRISM)

t
,
PoRltO
GLASS P R ISM
mate by the two-thirds rule. or you can deter-
mine air blocks exactly by making the simple -
PATH
I O~ECTlllE

-!-&-- - - - - - I
bench test shown. The glass path Itself of any IMo' c; E /""
prism ls easily determined from a full-size
drawing ol the prism. Often the corners of a
prism are cut off. \Vhen you are making a draw -
ing, the corners should be restored to obtain
the full side or hypotenuse from which the glass
path ls determined.
To design a prism erector attachment for an
astro telescope, you start by making a full-size
schematic diagram of the system, Fig. 14. This
is then redrawn In stretchout form. substitut ing
air blocks for the glass path. Measuring this
final diagram will show the amount or "in" foc us-
ing movement needed. lt ls excessive for a Porro
system of the firsl type, being a whopping 7-1/4
inches for the example shown, which is an actual
commercial product. You can shorten the eye-
piece tube on this to about 1 inch and other-
wise "squeeze" the assembly to cut the focusing
movement to about 6 inches. If you use a special TAAC-ING
PAPER
eyepiece mounted in 7 I 8 Jn. diameter tube, it can
be worked alongside the prism. eliminating the
projecting eye tube completely. The second type
of Porro prism is more compact--4-3/ 4 inches
~-.GLASS
using the same-size pr1sms and mechanical di- PA"l'H
mensions , The Porro-Abbe ls about the same. <z1se
Bta52'<
A roof prism is treated as a simple r1ght angle AAiiM,•
prism of the same overall size; this takes less
than 3 in. "in" movement, although some of the
gain comes from the fact that a roof prism with
overall size equal to a right angle prism will be
about 2S'fo lesl! in face width, Allt. 81.DCJC A IR /JJ«lf
To see how the prisms field the light cone, you ,, . r- ;;-.1,r~1
1•J6'---1t" -l-r&·~·-1'71:1-·>j+-I •16
,, . 1 ,:..
,,_~
simply draw them Into the system as air blocks, L __ _ JL __ _J
Fig. 15. The width of the air block is the actual
face width of the prism; the length is calculated i . - - - - - ---''IJl4•:...· - - -- --.i
STREn:t/Ollr. ... .s.J:!O!Vi"IUDVl/Wl t(Qll£1"6(rr
as already described. For most applications, 50% 712
1 >< 50 t.1NOC I:'.. f'<Xl/4.
edge - of-field lighting is satisfactory, meaning PRISM SllE.LF HOLE.~ ~
•rm ~l..OCv
that if you can get the principal ro.y through the
pri sms, the lighting will be okay. Optically, the
L/(,11"{ RR'3 ~-
"f IS OBJliCTIV/i I
---'T'
,qS'> '-+ ,91" "-+!IS"'
r --- ,
"' ~"'. IMAGE.
- - - - -+T ~ "
effect of prisms is the same as a thick piece of ;:;o:;;;==---..l t
gl ass with parallel surfaces. Such a glass block

®JE'~~,,::~;. ~~e:2'/!!J~ff~w
has optical characteristics similar to a weak
negative lens.

183
Oa.JECT IVE -1• F.L.
l:YEPIECE
-ri --- --- --
I" F.L.
I
Q<li

- - ----- -- - - ~
IMAGE P UP IL
11.e'c.A CD
f/~.,
====---------- _,..
- "
s!· ~

/X ASlRO TEL£SC.OP£
~ --L-- -- -
-- - - - - - - r,..O ~ '"E '
·"'-'--------~-r
•
1" ~.. 11a-
1
""

08.>E.CTIVE
STOP

@ ... AS Aa?VE WITH 3x 8ARi.OW {£.F. i.. ~ 7 x 3; :;.1'~

/
O&JEC.TIVE

the BARLOW Lens

A BARLOW lens is a negative lens used inside the rocal
plane of a telescope objective. Its normaldiverglng action
reduces the conve r gence of the light cone, forming a larg-
er image at a slightly greater distance. All Barlow lenses
are designed for a certain magnification factor--usually
2x--but work well over a moderate range of powers.

TYPICAL BARLO\V SYSTEM. A drawing of a Barlow

system begins with the usual light rays from objective
to image. except, knowing the Barlow will erililrge the
primary image, you make it just that much smaller, Fig. 1,
BARLOW LEtlS A and B spacing distances are then calculated for the de-
11'1 C~Ll.. sired magnification, using Case 5 equations. The hnear
field or eyepiece is set off at the final image plane, and
the light ray intercepts are extended from the Barlow
lens to edge of final image, Fig. 2. If you want to locate
® BARLOW ASSEM&L'( TUB' the objective ~op, 1t can be done graphically by extending
the light rays backwards, as shown in 1''1g. 2. As can be
seen, the objective stop is a virtual image; if calculated,
you use Case 3 equations. The position of obJect1ve stop
must be known if you want to calculate (Case 1) the exit
pupil position. In most cases, only the A and B spacing
distances are needed. Glare stops can bu filled anywhere
along the light cone.

FOCUSING MOVEMENT. Normally a Barlow setup re-

quires "out" movement of the focusing tube . A goodly a-
mount of "out" movement is supplied by the Barlow tube
itself, Fig. 5. The net result is that "in" movement or the
focusing tube is needed for the popular 2x setup, Fli. 6,
(j) EYEPIECE Al.Ql'IE ~'ig. 7 illust r ates in reverse fashion- -with eyepiece alone

184
 F INAL
IMAGE

1
----8::3~---
,!'t' 1.83 _4.83 - 2 LLl~ ••
CASE 5 • r<o.'l 1·83 - 1.8?. - · ~· •
••
CASE: S' ·H0.4 S ?. " I/"
Ni -:. 1.64 .,., 1.14 ~ I "8 +

@ MAlCIMUM M. - ff.K&MFt.e /LE_Ptf1VND 1!£

40•477 ~/JJ MC" fob.JO,J8.7 lf.'UflECE
DE M•.JS ~PPk/EO :IOJ.Y&eit!C£:
MFE s 2:6I. I == . 4 " E. ••
F L.

you have to focus "out" about l/ 2 inch, indicating

that the Barlow setup itself must focus "in."
Increased M. pushes the image back and re-
quires more ''out" movement. The n1aximum
case for the equipment specified is shown in
Fig. 8, 'fhis takes actual "out" 1novement of the
focusing tube. To determine the focusing tube
movement on a drawing like this, yo u measure @ 4,c BAR.Low, PARFOCAL
from primary image plane to the position the
focal plane of the eyepiece would normally occupy
1
if used alone.

SPECIAL SETUPS. The parfocal Barlow, Fig. 9,

has the same focus for either eyepiece alone or
with Barlow··the focusing tube does not move.
For this kind of setup, you simply space A and
B distances from the primary image plane, which WHOLE • E.f.L.~ 49 • 4 ::. 192."
ts made coincident with the focal plane of the eye-
piece used alone.
SYS'T~M '
if:: f/8 .,c4 :.f/32
A Barlow system 1!1 sometimes built-in as a
IN\ C.E.~J_
permanent part or a telescope. Fig, 10 is an ex·
ample. Because the diagonal is close to the pri- @) Bl.llLT-lN BARLOUJ
~T

I •
,.I
mary image, which itseU is reduced in size, it M =- ),c )'£.
is possible to field the full light cone of an f/8 l.UflOL.£
mirror with a 3/ 4 inch diagonal. 'i'or the arrange - SVSTf.NI: 1l
ment shown, spacinl! distance B is fixed at about E.F.L.: 48•<.~:1'14' 11
8 in. You select some suitable magnification and f /=f/8 .. ~ :f/2.4 ll<i
then calculate Fas shown. A good-quality simple
piano-concave lens of the specified focal length
will usually perform quite well.
--
~
-
-- - -
.ES:Si8:LQ:f.U Lf.lt.S.
~ ~;
i<I""
ANP. °"'GCWAl.'N Tll.8E
~"LYAGQNAL
\
*~,;£~~~ ~~R.

-==----
----- - - '.•
/ s,.
-A~ 2.:r9.,.
STRE1Ql()(([ QF .SY.f(EM
CASE 5 - II e.
F -- M-1 ... e :. -82.. "- 4"F
- L.e.ARLOW'
•
~------B .. 8'"'-
~ - - - - - - -"4
3-1

185
 Reflecting TELESCOPES
A REFLECTI:-.G telescope uses mirror optics
instead of lenses. A big advantage is that a mir-
ror reflects all wavelengths of light equally--you
have no problem at all with false color. However,
the other axial fault -- spherlcal aberration --is
still there, and, with the !lingle surface or the
mirror, can only be corrected by making the mir-
ror surface aspheric (not sphrrical). The aspher-
ic curves used o.re the ellipse, parabo la and hy-
perbola. The familiar sphere is also used. In all
ca:;es, the focal length of a mirror of any shape
1~ 1/ 2 the radius of curvature of its central zone.
Like lenses, mirrors are either convereing or
diverging. A converging (positive) mirror has a
concave shape; a diverging (negative) mirror has
a convex shape.
J?.tAGE FORMATIOK. Normo.lly a light r'ly dia-
gram Is made with the light coming in from the
ten, but if this procedure i:; reversed, the net
performance of o. mirror ls the same as a lens.
Fi.::. I. The light cone from a point ob;ect at
edee of field is .he onl} one you need draw. The
outer ray of this cone defines the Umitof the use-
ful light. The principal ray (the one passing
through the centorofthe objective) never actually
gets through in a reflecting telescope, but it is
no less useful ai; a guide line .
.\ common rule of thumb 1 · that the secondary
fl.i.t for a Newtonian reflector should not obstruct
mo1·e than 6% of tile incoming light . Some addi-
tional light is lost in a gray zone about twice the
--- - -- - -:81ct£L£N-,liJSY._ _,. . 0 -==-===----f-+~---1·~P,;,R;;;
--
- - - -).- - - - -- ---
L16HT LOSS BY DIA60NAL O&STRUCTION
4 f4." 4>0 13.36 '"'" I.~ 6.6 ,,9
6" 51"9 21.11 1Y4 l.'2.~ 1.6' 4.S' 1.0
JUI!...
c.na:1e
186
diameter of the diagonal silhouette, Fig. 2. In
compound telescopes with secondary mirror, the
obstruction may be as large as o ne-half t he pri-
n\ary diameter, resulting In a light loss of 25%.
l\E\VTO:-IL'\.I\ REFLECTOR. The manner of mak-
ing o. layout for a Newtonian reflector is shown in
Fig. 3. Steps 1 to 5 are obvious. Step 6 requires
the selection of some practical image size, which
can be 3/ 4 in. for any telescope, although the ex-
ample shown is somewhat larger. The edge-of-
f1eld light cone 1nisses the diagonal slightly, Step
10. This is fairly standard practice, but the light-
ing should not fall below 50%. Step 11 shows th.at
about 70% of the objective diameter contributes
light to the edge of field . You will want to know
what size image gets 100,. ughtmg. and tills lS
revealed by Step 12.
A final check ls to see th.at the incoming light
clears t ile main tube . Steps 15, 16 and l 7 show
that it docs, cvenasfaroutas6-3/4 in. from the
eyepiece cente1 line. However, to assure ade-
quate clearance, the front tube projection is usu-
ally trimmed to 3-1/ 2 or 4 in. as shown.
COMPOUND TELESCOPES. AU astro telescopes
are compound optical instruments in the sense
that an enlarged image is formed by the objec-
. i ve and this image is further enlarged by the
eyepiece. However, the accepted meaning of a
compound telescope indicates an instrumenl with
a built-in secondo.ry optical syste m which en-
R£Fl.ECTOll
INCOMING l.IGHr
_r
1HC~Je==!.=~=- - -• - -
---~-------
_.- - - -,--
·~
TRUE FIE.LO IMA(,£
CD IMAGE. FOl'WATION 6'< REFLECTION
E;~1UOR
tf GAA'< 'l.01'1£-Llt:llT 11'{DIAGQl'IAL
LOSS OfA TO toO'Y. J {E1 1
ter~
--
@
UC.lfT LOSS &'( DIAGotlAL 09STQUCTIO"
 •

~--@ FACE OF MIRROR

IT ~
6" s~·
CLE.AR APERTURE. 4J OPTICAL CENTERLINE
;
jID IMAGE PLANE-,..

~ IMAGE'. SIZE,..., i.
- - - - - -----------+.96"----
~-- - - - - - - BJ F'OCAL LENGTH OF MIRROR(48"J- - - - -------~°{l?~8£l2
IMAGE
SIZE

IJ] EYEPIECE
CENTER-
LINE--+ IA\ WIDTM OF
_i__ "f' OIAGOl'IAL IMAGE
- - -· IY.i" --!"""'------
@ .. ... • ---63/4---
.. ;:..-
OPilGAL LAYOUT for .. ..........-...
ANV tJEtlfTONIAN ~E.FLECTOR
~le IS 6•f/e WITH 1\1\AIN -
I" F'.L., 55° EYEPIEC.E TUSE~
1"0. O io...
AHO I'.r4" DIAGONAL
INC0MIN6 /.l'(l/ T
o:k-100%
I LIGJITIN6
: AT CE/'ITER
i- OF /MAU\..

[2)"L16MT C.ONE FROM A POllrr

AT CENTER OF F'lELO . . .. . ··· ·Ml/JTB/i. wHOLJ.YCOl!,06'£Q
BY TH£ f'.JIA(30t'AL
I
J/t/COMl/J/', LIC.~r - -- - - ff'l-THEfli. 7rgO &4>X S!IOVli2 STRIKE
l)ll!@&IL, .1&, Ar¢8tr.£Qo/o
1.1.(ulrJH6: ArEtx;E O£flE,a OlAGOl'IAL
¥
IMAGE

@ DRAW A LINE FROM D TO E

AND E.)l'TEN 0 TO IMAGE AT F.. ~
T
A8011T E ~1' ~
"10°/o
OF C.L
~R1VRE
\ B ...
A}~
{ill DRAW A LINE FROM EDGE OF IMAGE (A)··
c TO EDGE OF DIAGONAL (BJ ANP EXTEND
TO STRIKE. MIRROR Al C

~ ROTATE. IMAGE AND

~ DRAW A LINE E.l(TENO LIGKT AAYS
FROM 0 TOG

- ------ --- --- - - - ---- - - l.. lt&#r ON

IMAGE-.
1
1/:z'.' DIA. TIJ&E
MOLE CLEARS al''».

JQ% J.Jl!.HT CON/£ TO

- •
EOG£ OC IMAk£.

__::.-:.-:.- .,.~~~ I
• OIAGONAI-
~,__ ___________________ 41~·~·-------------+lo~3l<i~
187

.,
 t -- ----
_...OBJECTIVE o• ---........__~
~
£)( 4f11 t> Ie
6 • 01".,
c---
~" F.l. =f{s
IU<pq,)

/
I
/ I / Plll"\Airf MIRROR
IS A PA ASOLOID
S:ECONPAA'f "
Mlli!ROR IS
A CONCAVE
"

;:LLI P.SOID-....._ \
1 I" H
0
VltS N.J.QWS JN
£08 A $TAB RMGOtf/tL
TRAVE L

fOC.Uf HO. '1. ~ llO.I --....... G~IMA = M

F+ 30+6 - 3 6 -9·
- 4 -

1
- 1 5-1

if CA~F -- e. 45 _ 4 s _ 1 ,, .. '·ts·n..r ,
:S. S M+ I 5+ I - 6 - rz. 1" -
®~AN E.F".L. ::-. Fo x IV\ E.f .L . = 30 " 5 "' 1so"
O&..IECTIVE OPTICAL SYSTEM
1
'!0 f.l.
'
frt l/AJ.JJE ,. f IOBJ .,.. M ,, f 'l/AWF. -- /5 x 5 c.f/2.S
u
. ~ ..... ·•... PRIMARY SECONCAR'(
tfJ"··· :1~ ·. IMAGE MIRROR
LtlillT BA't< f8oM A b ):t~~
,,. · .. . VJ8 "+ y,34II 1:-'2'.' F.L
L
PofNT AT .E{)M QJ: Ft.£< p ~
•
• ...._FINAL .=-. - - --- -- --- --
l/VIA'11"

t.~ L• FO ~
21'1 ~
A~
q"

8 ::= 4~"
® GREGORIA"' LAYOUT (sr111q}
M lfl8.0R ts. /!£eEOli'ld PRIMARY
· .ra Bia i.!&11r. ~Ne
• -
· ~ - --
-- ..,.._ ___ •
IMA6£.,
'-.. .
I

1
1""\ --="'-- -'4-=
--
~INA"
U!d!!J.~ IS. BAFFLE rueiV' '-..~
LltjlfT PAYJ" FR.OM S&nYDMY
1
e.8ECr (DPT/OHM} MiAAOB lQ FJNllL. tJ!1A&Ji BAFF!.£ T1J et;f
(oenOHA4)

<]) COMPLETE (;REGO~IAN l..AYOUT

larges the primary image. So defined, a Newton- secondary mirror will make the design imprac-
ian is a simple reflec•or rather than a compound tical . A performance fault is that stray light can
one. The Gregorian and the Cassegrain are the barrel right down the main tube and into the eye -
two basic compound reflectors. piece. If you want to use a Gregorian for daytime
The GREGORLJ\N reflector makes use of posi- observing, you must use baffle tubes to limit the
tive projection to erect and enlarge the primary light rays to exactly that cone of light which con -
unage. The primary imaee itself is formed by tributes to the image.
a paraboloid:il mirror. This image is then mag- As usual, you start the layout by drawing the
nified and erected by a concave ellipsoidal mir- edge -of-field light cone from objective to pri-
ror, Fig. 4. The optical na ture of an ellipsoidal mary image, Fig. 6, extending the rays to strike
mirror is such t hat a light ray passing through the secondary mirror. The intercepts at the sur -
one of the conjugate foci is reflected without face of the secondary mirror are then hooked up
aberration to the other. As shown in the drawing. with the final Image, F ig. 7, to complete the lay-
one foci ls made to coincide with the focal plane out of the optical system. As usual, only one side
of the objective; the other coincides with the of the light cone need be drawn; the outer ray of
final image. this is your guide for g lare stops or baffle tubes.
You can calculate a variety of Gregorian tele- A CASSEGRAIN telescope shows the usual in-
scopes by the s imple rules given in Fig. 5. How- verted astro image. This system is more com-
ever, if you try to make a low-power design, such pact than the Gregorian. If you understand the
as 2x, you will find that the long throw and large Barlow lens, it is easy to visualize the Cassegrain
188
-
 MY tl6HT l?/IY DIRECTED
4T FOCUS NO. I WILL 8E
RERK7ED 10 FOCUS NO. 2
as being a similar system done with mirrors. All
calculations are the same as for a Barlow (Case
,. 5) except you need one preliminary equation to in-
clude distance b, which is image distance behind
the primary mirror. This isgiveninFig.10, to - FOcfu ~ ;.' '213.8'-'- - - + "
".'.FOCUS NO.I
gether with the two Case 5 equations needed to
N0.2
I
••. CO!NCJDU
IA!ITI( FINAL
...._
SEca>«> Bl?Aw;H
OF H'tP1'?BOl..A
.. . COtNCJOES
"''"' (JRIMB8Y
complete the math work. /MA6E
//il8!ilf

@) lo~VE'lC
The drawing of a Cassegrain system is quite
simple after you have determined the spacing. As HYPERSOLOIO /
usual, a cone of light is drawn to the edge of the
primary image. At the points where these rays
cut the surface of the secondary mirror, the rays @ 1-\()UJ lO j~Jt I 1'11 1' : ~ A CASSE6RAIN
-
are reversed and drawn to the edge of the final
image, Fig. 8. The outer ray of the light cone is ~ O&J£CTIVE MllUllOR
ANY DfA . ., ~ A.nd.. UP 11
ft!!!' ·r : {gwvrN~ l/80!lf)
6"D1A.1 30"f.L."" f /S
~ M.
USUAU.'< LOW ~/-fl>. .of/6
your guide for all diameters along the light cone;
M. OF SECONDARY
it tells you how big to make the secondary mir- "l..)l TO 6X 4J<
ror, hole in primary, glare stops, etc. Like the
Gregorian, the Cass needs glare stops or a baf-
§. -& IMAGE. DISTAHCe
UHi t-10 OalECTNE
6"
i:o+--<- 30 + 6 - 36 = .,•.,_..
fle tube to stop stray light . • CAss A ... M+ I 4+1 -5
Like any mirror, the hyperbolic secondary "I•
may be used at various object-image positions, B= A '(M 1:2. >< 4 = ia.a"
but it has one specific set of conjugate foci that ....
~ 8 9 6"F.L.
- I :. 2.8.a
Il 4l.8.&
give perfect imagery without spherical aberra-
~ Sf<.Oll!N< F = M- I 3 :. '
tion. This pair of stigmatic foci are made to co-
incide with the positions of the primary and final £..F.L. = FO" M E.F.C...= ;o " 4 ... 120•
images. as can be seen in Figs. 8 and 9. The foci
should not be confused with the focal lengt h of the
f(Vf.LJJE. e.f/oSJ. "M f /v/llUJE = f Is "4 a f/20

mirror, which is, as usual, one - half the radius of

the center zone. FINAL~ M"
:.q. t>li'\. E.MMPLE 1s 4lC
Both the Gregorian and Cass can be built with
IMAc.E /-
•I £ .F.L.: IS" 4 = '72"
unperforated primary mirrors. Amateurs often / I
3~"
Iz.
I=
.f f/3 "4 =f /12
~MARV
favor this construction to get around the some-
times difficult job of cutting a hole in the pri- S~IC'< P~!Cf
MtAA Ott Ml O~
mary. Fig. 11 shows a typical unperforated Cas- 0"0t11i., \8.f. IM.\GE
Y/2 1~·0t11.,6.l6'1.t.. 3/ii;'Dll\.
segrain. The right-angle bend in the light cone
can be handled with the diagonal and mechanical
parts used for a Newtonian reflector. The bend
----~
-- -.........
---- •
in the light cone serves also as a light baffle. It
~~s.<- tY~ DIAGO~l\L

also erects the image but leaves it reversed left

to right. The Cass requires good optics and the !~·-----Fo" •8"-------.i
beginner should not tackle this work until he has
completed the simpler Newtonian reflector.
- - - - - -e: 1e.e·•;_--~r"""''-'As4:i-
® C.A~SEGRAIN wit!. \l"PUFOAATf.0 PRIMAll.V'
189

A rotation, 149
Abrasives, 84
Achromate, cemented, 177
Achromatic object1vea, 177
Adjustment to pole, 152-155
Afocal systems. 58-61
calculations, 59
bow It works, 58
Alta"lmuth mount, 132
imbalance of, 134
made of pipe, 138
Aluminizlng, 103
Amici roof prism, 183
Apparent field, 14
Arithmetic, telescope, 12, 158
Asttamatlsm, 157
Auto-collimation, 181
Auxlllary lenses for photo, 55
Averted vision, 38
B Erecting systems, 180-1 83
Balancing a telescope, 140
imbalance, 134, 135
Barlow lens, 15, 184-185
in photography, 67-68
Bench, optical, 159
Beet shape for correcting
a mirror, 94, 96
Bore sighting, 152
cCamera mounting, 55,61
Cassearaln telescope, 189
Caster, mount made of, 134
Celestial sphere, 18
Centering the mirror, 150
Chamfering mirror edae. 82
Channeling tool, ualna a, 87
Clark objective, 177
Clock drive, 144-145
Clutch, friction, 145
Collimator, 159, 160
target, 160
Collimating a reflector. 149-151
Collimating, center dot for, 150
illuminated target, 150
Color correction, 156, 177
Correctlng techniques, 96, 97
Cradle, squaring the, 163
Croseline reticle, 153
Curves, a family of, 9 4
0 First facts about telescope
Dawes limit, 7
Density of filters, 44
Detail in extended objects, 8
190
Diagonal. centering the, 149 Fork mount, 133, 135. 139
dropped, 151 Fraunhofer objective. 177
light loss from, 186 Friction clutch, 145
offset, 151
G
alze of, 186 Galilean telescope, 2
Diffraction pattern, 6, 7 Galileo, 2, 3
Direct indexing, 36 Getting acquainted with
Direct objective, 52-57 the telescope, 3-15
test pica, 55 Glare protection, 54
Oorpat retractor. 132 Good seeing, 8, 39
Grapbtcal ray tracing, 170-172
Double stars. 4 7
Greek alphabet, 31
E Gregorian telescope, 188
Elbow erector, 128 Grindlni your own
Equatorial mount, use of, 9- 11 mirror, 80-85
Equatorial mounts, 138-14 3 Grinding a "wet," 81
bUnd In north sky, 135 Grinding, final, 85
English, 132, 135 fine, 84
Fork, 133, 135 greatest wear, 81
German, 136-137 movements, 81
movements of, 10, 136 push block. 85
Equivalent air block, 183 r eflection test. 85
Equivalent focal lengtb, 169 schedule, 82
Erector, elbow, 128
stand , 80
stroke, 80, 81
Ix tube, 121 w-stroke, 85
for 3" reflector, 117 Guiding, 72
Erec tors, prism, 183
Exit pupil, 163, 164, 173 H
Eyepiece, change specs, 176 Hadley's reflector, 3, 132
erecting, 181, 182 Herscbel wedge, 46
flange f. l., 179 Herschel'• telescope, 3. 132
Huygens, 115 Hot pressing, 89
Ramsden, 174
symmetrical, 176
Hour angle, 20
Hour circle makes
Eyepieces, best. 13-15 giant sky clock, 19
Eyepieces to make, 173-176 How the renectlfii
Eye position, 38 telescope works, 3
Eyes, dark-adapted, 38 How to find sky
objects, 30-33
F How to use an
Family or curves, 94 equatorial mount, 9-11
Field angle In afocal Huygens eyepiece, 175
systems, 59
Field curvature, 157
Field or eyepiece, 30, 162
I
Image. position and
Field, minimum, 178
· size of, J 85
Figuring the paraboloid , 98 - 103
Imbalance in
Film data, 77 a mount, 134, 135
Filters, action of, 77 Indexing, hour angle, 37
density of, 44 direct, 36
sun. 44 without a clock, 37
welding, 44
F inder alignment, 153
Finder reticle, 153 J
Jupiter, 16, 41
mirrors 1 78
Focusing, 38 K
movement from zero, 179 Knife edge tester, 91
•.
L Observing hints, 38, 39
Land-gazing, 39
Lap, makina a. 86-87
Lap, trimming the, 89
Lateral color, 156
Lena primer, 156
Lena, achromatic, 156
Barlow, 184-185
focal length, 156
negative, 156
principal planes, 161
radius o! curvature, 156
Ugh.I path thru prism, 183
Longitudinal color, 156, 177
M job procedure, 101
Magnification, 6, 7
Magnitude of stare, 8, 73
Map or north sky, 21
Equatorial stars, 22-23
111000, 49
Main tube length:
reflector. 187
refractor, 179
Mars, 16, 41
Masks, mirror, 99
Math, object-image, 165-169
Mercury, 16, 40
Mirror grinding and
testing, 79-103
blanks, 79
chamfer edge, 83
correction formula, 103
correction table, 99
first facts, 78
focal length, 83, 84
grinding. 80-85
masks, 99
rack. 91
shadow diagrams, 95
Monocular, !Ox Fltty, 107
Moon map, 49
photography, 70- 71
:\founts, aJ.tazlmuth, 134
beet, 134, 135
cemented bushings, 141
English type, 132, 135
fork, 133, 135, 139
German equatorial, 136- l 37
history or, 132, 133
pipe, 138-143
N Prisms, 183
Negative lene, 156, 167
Newtonian reflector, 2, 166, 187
Normal wear in
parabol!zlng, 102
0 Quick guide to
Object-image math, 165-169
Observing the planets, 40- 42
Observing the sun, 43-46
Optical bench, 159
procedures, 161
Optical quality, 15
Optics, pre- testing, 90
telescope, 157- 189
Orlon, photos or, 72
p it works. l 05
Parabola, 78, 103
Paraboloid, figuring
the, 98-103
three races, 100
Parabolizing, formula for, 103
long stroke, 101
shape diagrams, 100, 102
Parallax error, 153
Pedestal base, 137, 138
Photography witb your
telescope, 51-77
a!ocal system, 58 - 61
direct objective, 52- 57
four systems, 51
moon, 70-71
projection systems, 62-68
star trails, 69
stars, 72-76
Pipe mounts, 138-143
Pitch, 85
Pitch lap, 86-87
Planets, observing the, 40-42
Planisphere, used to find
transit time, 154
Plate scale. 74, 75
Plelades, photos of, I, 73
Principal planes of
simple lenses, 161
Prism air block, 183
Polaroid filter, 44, 45
Polaris, position o!, 155
transit time or, 154
Pole, adjustment to, 152- 155
Polishing, 88-89
materials, 88
Porro prism erector, 183
Position of a star, 18- 23
Power boosters, 14
Pr-testing optics, 90
Principal planes of
combined lenses, 169
Projecting eyepiec es, 43, 63
Projection systems for
photography, 62-68
ll
sky shooting, 50
R
Ramsden eyepiece, 13, 173
Ray tracing, graphical, 170-172
from bench setup, 162-164
Reflecting telescopee, 186-189
Cassegrain, 189
Gregorian, 188
l\ewtonian, 187
Reflecting telescope, bow
Reflection from glass for
sun viewing, 46
Reflecting test, 85
Reflector as a camera. 53
Refractor vs reflector, 4
Refractor, the, 177-179
as a camera, 53
mounting a small, 143
photo-visual, 52
Resolution of telescope, 6, 7
Reticle, finder, 153
illuminated, 75
polar circle, 155
orientation, 72
Right ascension, 19
Rollover or equatorial
mount, 11, !JG
s
Sagitta determines f. l.
of mirror, 83
Sagitta formula, 78, I 03
Saturn, 16, 4 l
Selecting your telescope, 4-5
Setting circles, 33, 34- 37
installing, 36, 142, 143
Shooting the moon, 70-71
the stars, 72-76
Sighting rina. 150
Simple lenses,
conversion formulas, 176
principal planes. I 61
Size or sky objects,
angular, 57
at I OOx, 17
Sky show, 16
Sky objects.
how to find, 30
selected, 48
Sky shooting, 50
Slip ~lute h, 145
Slit or pinhole , 93
Slow motion, 144, 145
Sphere, testing a, 92
Spherical aberration, 156
appearance or star, 147
Splitting the doubles, 17
Squar ing the cradle. 153
Star atlases. 3 3
Star image, sh.e of, 6
191
Star magnitude, 8
Star, position of a, 18
Star testing, 147
Star trails, 69
Strap mounting, I 09
Sun, observing the, 43-46
diagonal, 46
filters, 44
projection, 43
Sweeping, sky, 31
in Sagittarius, 32
T erect-image, 116
TABLES:
Angular and linear field
of 35mm film, 56
Arithmetic of projection
systems, 66
Brightest stars, 146
Degrees to radians, l 56
Equivalent exposures, 77
Grinding schedule. 62
Huygens eyepieces, I 75
Image size. 57
Lens conversions, 176
Linear fie ld of Image with
various eyepieces, 173
Magnitude of fa!ntesl
s tar (photography), 73
l\1irror correction, 99
l\totor-gear combinations
for clock drive, 144
Object-image math, 166-168
Object - image spacing for
projection systems, 65
Pipe sizes, 139
Ramsden eyepieces, 174
Sagitta of a mirror, 83
Selected sky objects. 48
Sidereal time, 26
Telescope performance, 6
TELESCOPES you can build:
REFLECTORS:
standard six, 105
utility six, 106
standard 4-1/4", 108
4-1/4" rich field. 108
2 - 1/2" baby. 111
plywood tube. 110
4-1 / 4" sk) bea1n. J 12
4-114" easi-bill, 113
16x sky sweeper, 1 14
I 6x bazooka, 11:;
3-inch, 116
convertible, 119
REFRACTORS:
Sx terrestrial, 121
prismatic, 122
low-cost, 123
tubeless. 124
Sx sky starter, 127
2-inch, 126
folded, 129
3-!nch, 130
30x baby, 131
Telescope arithmetic, 12, 158
Telescope optics, 157- 189
Te lescope mirrors, 78 - 79
Telescope performance, 6-8
Telescope, how it magnifies, 157
how it works, 105
Telescopes, reflecting, 186- 189
refracting, 177-179
Testing and correcting, 94-96
Testing e quipment, 91
plain knife edge, 91
micrometer knife edge, 93
Time, 24 - 29
Time conversion, 26
correction, 25
or position. 27
sidereal, 29
Transit time of Polari s, 155
Transit of a star,
by calculation. 155
by planisphere, 155
Turned edge, 94, 9 6
y
Venus, 16, 40
Vibration of mount, 39
Vignetting, 53
w
Wave- rating your
mirror, I 02
What eyepiece is best, 13-15
y
Yerkes refractor, 2
z
Zone testing, 98
with micrometer, l 00
Alu111inlzln9
SERVICE
DENTON VACUUM INC.
8 Fellowship Road
Cherry Hill, N. J. 08034
DUDLEY LE ROY CLAUSING
6036 Monticello Ave.
Skokie. lli. 60076
PACIFIC UN1VERSAL P RODUCTS
168 Vista Ave,
E. Pasadena, Calir. 91I07

BE SURE TO VISIT YOUR LOCAL PLANETARIUM

This is a rewardlng ex1>erience that you and your family will long remember. \lie have hst~ a few
in the limited space IJclow. Call your local museum for information on the planetarium nearest you.
Los Angeles, CA. Griffith Observatory and Planet.arium, Griffith Park.
San Francisco, CA. Morrison l'lanetarium California Academy of Sciences, Golden Gat<' Park.
Denver, CO. Denver Museum of 'iatu1·a1 History Planetarium City Park, Colorado Blvd. and l\1ontview.
::\1iami, FL. Museum of !)C1cncC' l'lanctar1u1n, 3280 S. Jl,Jiami Ave.
Chicago, I!.. Adle1 Plant!tarium and Astronomical Museum, 900 E. Acbsah Bond Dr.
Baltimore, MD. Dav ls l'lanctarium Maryland Academy of Sciences, 7 Vi . l\1u lberry St.
Boston, MA. Charles Jlayden l'lanC'tarium Museum of Science , Science Park .
Ann '\ rbor , Ml. University of Michigan Exhibit Museum Planetarium, \Vashtenaw Ave, at N. University.
St . J .ouls, MO. McDonnt!ll Planetar ium, Po1·cst !'ark.
Newark, NJ Newark Muscun1 Planetanum, 49 Washington St.
New York City , NY American Museum-Hayden P la netari um, Bl s t St. a nd Central Park West.
Oayton, O il. Dayton Museum of Natura l Hi s tory Planetarium, 2629 Ridge Ave.
P h1ladelphia, PA. Fels l'Janctar1u111, Franklin Institute, 20th St. at Benjamin Franklin Parkway.
Fort Worth , TX. 1\oblc Planetarium, Fort Worth Children's Museum, 150 1 Montgomery St.

192