Titianium alloys are also light weight and are replacing Al alloys

Ti alloys have excellent specific strength and corrosion resistance

Ti: fastening elements, airframe and landing gear. It is replacing Al

Mg alloys have Excellent castability, good fluidity and less susceptibility to hydrogen porosity

Mg:  aircraft engine and gearbox casings.  large magnesium casings can be made, such as intermediate
compressor casings for turbine engines. nosewheel doors, flap cover skin, aileron cover skin, oil tanks,
floorings, fuselage parts, wingtips, engine nacelles, instrument panels, radio masts, hydraulic fluid tanks,
oxygen bottle cases, ducts, and seats. However, Magnesium dust and fine chips are ignited easily.
Precautions must be taken to avoid this if possible. Should a fire occur, it can be extinguished with an
extinguishing powder, such as soapstone or graphite. Water or any standard liquid or foam fire
extinguisher cause magnesium to burn more rapidly and can cause explosions.

Ultra-High Strength Steels (UHSS) are commonly used for manufacturing aircraft parts such as landing
gears, airframes, turbine components, fasteners, shafts, springs, bolts, propeller cones and axles. Some
of them exhibit very high YS values, e.g., 300M (1689 MPa), AERMET100 (1700 MPa), 4340 (2020 MPa);
however, there is a tendency to progressively replace these materials by composites.

Oxide dispersion strengthened alloys (ODS) consist of a metal matrix with

small oxide particles dispersed within it. ... ODS steels are used in nuclear applications. ODS materials
are used on space crafts as a layer designed to protect the vehicle, especially during re-entry into the
atmosphere.

Steel: actuators, fasteners, and landing gear components. However, it is heavy in weight

Nickel: Blades and rotors

History of Aluminum in the Aerospace Industry | Metal Supermarkets - Steel, Aluminum, Stainless, Hot-
Rolled, Cold-Rolled, Alloy, Carbon, Galvanized, Brass, Bronze, Copper

Titanium and the Aerospace Industry | TMS Titanium

Magnesium Alloys - An Introduction (azom.com)

(22) (PDF) A new method for producing magnesium alloy twin-rib aircraft brackets (researchgate.net)

Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys (flight-mechanic.com)

How are Advanced Alloys Used in Aircraft? (azonano.com)

The pylon is the link that connects the engine and wing

In general, the 2XXX series alloys are used for fatigue critical applications because they are highly
damage tolerant; those of the 7000 series are used where strength is the main requirement, while Al–Li
alloys are chosen for components which need high stiffness and very low density.

Al: fuselage, the wing panes, the rudder, the exhaust pipes, the door and floors, the seats, the engine
turbines, and the cockpit instrumentation.
The combination of tensile stress and a specific corrosive environment can crack stainless steels.  This
mode of attack is termed stress corrosion cracking (SCC). The most common environmental exposure
condition responsible for SCC of stainless steels is the presence of chlorides.  Although no stainless steel
grade is totally immune to chloride SCC, the relative resistance of stainless steels varies substantially

Alpha and beta phase

Titanium is widely distributed throughout the whole universe such as stars and interstellar dust. After
Al, Fe and Mg, titanium is the fourth most abundant of structural metals  and is the ninth most abundant
element on the earth.

Titanium exists in most minerals such

as ilmenite (FeTiO3); rutile (TiO2); arizonite (Fe2Ti3O9); perovskite (CaTiO3) and titanite (CaTiSiO5). 

Titanium offers a unique property spectrum owing to the combination of high strength, stiffness,
toughness, low density, and good corrosion resistance. These properties are enabled by a wide variety
of titanium alloys ranging from applications at very low to elevated temperatures. This spectrum enables
weight savings in multiple key aerospace applications and other high-performance applications in the
medical, chemcial and car industry.

β-alloys are also used in the fan disc of gas turbine engines to save weight. The two most common β-Ti
alloys for fan discs are Ti–5Al–2Zr–2Sn–4Cr–4Mo and Ti–6Al–2Sn–4Zr–6Mo, and they provide weight
reductions of more than 25% compared with the use of high-temperature steel or superalloy.

However, the use of β-Ti alloys is very low; accounting for less than a few percent of all the titanium
used by the aerospace industry owing to their low creep resistance at high temperatureThe first β-Ti
alloy to be used in commercial quantities was Ti–13 V–11Cr–3Al, which was used in the airframe of the
SR-71 Blackbird military aircraft. The alloy was used in the fuselage frame, wing and body
skins, longerons, bulkheads, ribs and landing gear. Blackbird was designed to fly at Mach 2.5
(3200 km h−1) and, at this speed, the skins are heated to nearly 300 °C by frictional aerodynamic drag. .
[Titanium alloys for aerospace structures and engines

In Introduction to Aerospace Materials, 2012]

Non heat treatable alloys can be strengthened by using cold working, hot working etc. They donot
undergo phase change

Owing to their excellent specific strength and corrosion resistance, Ti alloys are increasingly used for
manufacturing structural parts of aircrafts. They are also employed in engine sections operating at
intermediate temperature (500–600 °C).

Primary reasons for using titanium alloys The primary justifications for using titanium in the aerospace
industry are: - Weight savings (primarily as a steel replacement) - Space limitation (replace A1 alloys) -
Operating temperature (A1, Ni, steel alloys replacement) - Corrosion resistance (replace A1 and low
alloy steels) - Composite compatibility (replace A1 alloys) [R.R. Boyer, An overview on the use of
titanium in the aerospace industry, Materials Science and Engineering A. 213 (1996) 103–114.
doi:10.1016/0921-5093(96)10233-1.]
High performance materials

High performance engineering materials are the materials that are been introduced into the

engineering sector / industry, in order to help in meeting the higher performance of
engineering materials in the areas of ; materials strength, functionability, deformation resistance, light
weighting, corrosion resistance etc.

Yan, M.G., Han, Y.F., Cao, C.X. et al. Some recent developments of advanced titanium alloy and nickel
base superalloys in BIAM. Adv Perform Mater 2, 217–229 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00705445

Nickel alloys are used to manufacture parts of aeronautic engines such as blades and rotors operating in
the highest temperature range (1100–1250 °C).

Why called high performance: These alloys were optimized combination of Ni-Cr and Ni-Mo alloys. Ni-Cr
alloys show good resistance to oxidizing corrosion media whereas Ni-Mo alloys show good resistance to
reducing corrosion media. Their combination resulted in high performance alloys of C family showing
extraordinary resistance to corrosive environments, pitting and complete resistance to chloride stress
corrosion cracking (CLSCC).

See percentages of each family Types of Nickel Alloys and their Properties (thomasnet.com).

Gama phase solid solution of the different alloying elements at temperatures near the melting point of
the alloy

Gamma prime phase As the nickel alloy is cooled from the melting state, γ’ phase starts to precipitate at
lower temperatures. This intermetallic phase (of the form Ni 3Al)

Carbide phase This phase also forms when cooling down the nickel alloy from the melting condition.
However, unlike γ’ phase, these carbides start to precipitate just below the solidus or even during
solidification.

Nitrides and carbonitrides TiN which exists in spheroidal shape.

Borides: It consists of borides of M3B2 type.

Laves phases (AB2): This phase has a hexagonal crystal structure present in the alloys in the form of
platelets

Sigma phase (σ): It has a tetragonal crystal structure

Mu phase (μ): This is also topologically close packed (t.c.p.) phase which has a rhombohedral crystal
structure.

The superalloy Inconel 625® is especially useful for the processing systems required for natural gas
production. Due to Inconel 625’s® particularly strong thermal fatigue strength and oxidation resistance,
it’s often used for the separation of extracted fluids or in line steel transfer piping. 

Inconel® is often used in marine applications because of its extraordinary resistance to sodium chloride
(salt) at a variety of temperatures. So, for processes that use salt or factory locations near the ocean,
Inconel® can be ideal for a parts washing basket. Generally speaking, this superalloy would only be much
more useful than grade 316 stainless steel if extreme temperatures in excess of 1,000°F would be a
concern as well. Inconel® would retain its oxidation resistance better at high temperatures than 316 SS
would.

Incoloy 800/800H/800HT are solid solution nickel chromium iron alloys with small additions of
aluminium and titanium to improve corrosion and oxidation resistance. They are used for high
temperature service, where resistance to oxidation and carburisation are required. For optimum stress
rupture properties, or for pressure vessel service above 815°C, Incoloy 800H or Incoloy 800HT should be
used.

http://www.pccenergygroup.com/

Welding apparatus [Baghel, P. K., and D. S. Nagesh. "Pulse TIG welding: Process, Automation and
Control." Journal of Welding and Joining 35, no. 1 (2017): 43-48.

Arc welding refers to a family of processes that rely on the extreme heat of an electric arc to create a
weld. An electric arc is a type of electrical discharge that occurs between electrodes when a sufficient
voltage is applied across a gap causing the gas to break down, or ionize. ionization process to grow
resulting in an “avalanche” effect. Once the gas is highly ionized, it becomes relatively

The ionized glowing gas that makes up the arc is often referred to as plasma. In order for the arc to be
maintained, the power supply must be able to supply the high current and low voltage demanded by the
arc.

High energy density (HED) welding processes are those that focus the energy needed for welding to an
extremely small area. This allows for very low overall heat input to the work pieces, which results in
minimal base metal degradation, residual stress, and distortion.

The word laser is an acronym for “light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.” Lasers
produce a special form of light (electromagnetic energy) consisting of photons that are coherent and of
the same wavelength. Light of this form can be focused to extremely small diameters allowing for the
creation of the high energy densities used for welding. The laser beam itself is not useful for welding
until it is focused by a focusing lens.

Electron Beam Welding is a process that produces a beam of accelerated and focused electrons. The
intense heating generated for welding is associated with the kinetic energy created when electrons,
which are accelerated to as high as 70% the speed of light, impinge on the part

Resistance welding processes represent a family of industrial welding processes that produce the heat
required for welding through what is known as Joule (J = I 2 Rt) heating.

[1] J. Tarraf et al., “Application of ultrasonic waves towards the inspection of similar and dissimilar
friction stir welded joints,” J. Mater. Process. Technol., vol. 255, no. May, pp. 570–583, 2018, doi:
10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.01.006.

[3] G. Peng et al., “Nanoindentation Hardness Distribution and Strain Field and Fracture Evolution in
Dissimilar Friction Stir-Welded AA 6061-AA 5A06 Aluminum Alloy Joints,” Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng., vol.
2018, p. 11, 2018, doi: 10.1155/2018/4873571.
[4] T. Dai and J. Lippold, “Characterization of the Interface of an Alloy 625 Overlay on Steels Using
Nanoindentation,” J. Mater. Eng. Perform., vol. 27, no. 7, pp. 3411–3418, 2018, doi: 10.1007/s11665-
018-3444-1.

ALW and LHW: autogenous laser welding (ALW) and laser-MIG hybrid welding (LHW), SAW: submerged
arc welding

[1] M. Aqeel, S. M. Shariff, J. P. Gautam, and G. Padmanabham, “Liquation cracking in Inconel 617
alloy by Laser and Laser-Arc Hybrid welding,” Mater. Manuf. Process., pp. 1–12, 2021, doi:
10.1080/10426914.2020.1866200.

A microhardness measurement of the welded sample was performed using Vickers indenter with a
load of 0.2 kg and dwell time of 10 s.

Hardness, as previously mentioned, is the mean pressure that a material bears under load. This
parameter is only “nominally” an intrinsic constant factor and it is experimentally affected by several
geometrical uncertainties, such as penetration depth, size and shape of the indenter [19–22].

Much of the early work on indentation was reviewed by Mott [23]. Afterwards Ashby [24] proposed that
geometrically necessary dislocations [25] would lead to an increase in hardness measured by a flat
punch. The problem of a conical indenter has been thoroughly investigated by Nix et al. [20], showing a
consistent agreement with micro-indentation experiments. However, recent results that cover a greater
range of depths show only partial [21, 26] or no agreement [27] with this model [20]. Thus, the model
initially proposed by Nix et al. was extended by Swadener et al. [21] in order to cover a greater range of
depth (Fig. 6.6, [21]) and also to treat indenters with different sizes and shapes. The results were
compared with micro-indentation exper- iments, but limitations for small depths of indentation were
observed, as pointed out by the same authors.

In comparison with the fcc superalloys, titanium alloys have two distinct fields of application of
comparable importance-as components in the gas turbine where oxidation, hot corrosion resistance,
fatigue and creep properties approaching those of the superalloys are increasingly required, and as
structural airframe components to operate at modest temperatures where tensile properties, fracture
toughness and low-cycle fatigue properties are the chief requirements. As would be expected the
microstructural developments in Ti alloys have tended to reflect these two distinct sets of requirements.
Alloys for hightemperature applications are made up pred

C. Hammond & J. Nutting (1977) The physical metallurgy of superalloys and titanium alloys, Metal

Science, 11:10, 474-490, DOI: 10.1179/msc.1977.11.10.474

 Nucleation is the process by which clusters of a stable phase form in a metastable phase. Because it is
the first step in many phase transformations—for example, condensation of gases or solidification of
melts