endorsed for edexcel EXo(=).(olol ats Yael Ko\ioll PHYSICS 1 PEARSONPublished by Pearson Education Limited 80 Strand, London WC2R ORL. ‘wwnpearsonschoolsandfecolleges co. Copies of official specifications far all Edexcel qualifications may be found on the website: vwrwedexcelcom “Text © Pearson Education Limited 2015, Edited by Susan Gardner and Niatt Deacon Designed by Elizabeth Arnoux for Pearson Education Limited ‘Typeset by Techset Lid. Gateshead (Original ilustrations © Pearson Education Limited 2015, Iusrated by Techset Lid and Peter Bull Cover design by Elizabeth Amoux for Pearson Education Limited Picture research by Ruth Sith Cover photo/illusration © Bridgeman Art Library/Bibioteca Ambrosiana,Wilan, Italy/ De Agostini Piewre Library/G. Cigolni/© Veneranda Biblioteca Ambrosiana ~ Wilano ‘The right of Miles Hudson tobe identified as author of this work has ‘been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988, Fist edtion published 2008 Second edition published 2015, 191817 16 15, 10987654321 ‘British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data ‘A catalogue record for ths book i available from the British Library ISBN 978 1 447 991182 Copyright notice All ights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced ‘nany form or by any means (including photocopying or string it in any mediums by electronic means and whether of not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the waiten [Permission of the copyright ounes exept in accordance with the provisions ofthe Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms ofa licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. 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Raith: ftom Fig 4-18 ofthe second edition ‘Michael M. Raith, Peter Raase and Jirgen Reinhart, 2012. Guide to Thin Section Microscopy, (2nd ection, ISBN 978-3-00-037671-9} 184 Reprinted courtesy of the Central Research Laboratory, Hitachi, Ltd. Japan: Demonstration of single-electron buldup of am interference pattern: Tonomura, A: Endo, J; Matsuda, T: Kawasaki, T: Exava H. American Journal af Physics, Volume 57, Issue 2, pp 117-126 (1989) 197ci. Rex Features: LumiGram 187. Robert Harding World Imagery: Amands Hall 118be, James Emmeren 1165 Science & Society Picture Library: Science Museum 191; Seience Photo Library Ltd: 1191, Ancrew Lambert Photography 157, 1600. 1971, Cordelia Maloy tOab, Edward Kinsman 54 (Bulle), 158, 1610, 161te, {ter 200, Frch Schrempp 164, GIPhotostock 174, 190,196, Jim Amos 135 Peter Aprahamian/Sharples Stress Engincers Lid 18tr, Sheila Terry 1254; Shutterstock. com: Aston Balazh 61-6, Srian Kinney 42, droha Bir gusliem bof 23, LIGHTWORK S0cr naipung 162, Ryan Jergensen| = Jorgo 181, Salvador Tali 69, Sebastian Kaulitz 197% spe 122% Vaclav \Volab 170-171, vectotliscor 50), waniuscka 14-15, Toone Images: ‘12: TSG@MAIT Physics: 10; Veer/Corbis:Joscn Mehl 43br Fleet 43 ‘The equipment on pages 20,44, 43t and 180 was kindly provided by ‘worwphilipharriscouk Allother images © Pearson Education Limited‘We are grate tothe following for permission to reproduce copyright rater Figures gute onpage 20 adaped fiom Accsleraton-time graph of askytive, Exploring Mathemacc th Sag’ by Pau! cas, te /wiwarachnoi com/sape/terminal_ velocity, copyright © 2008, P Lats, Figure cn age 23 adapted fom ‘balanced seesaw: wiwaninaceiciencecouk, ‘oprrignt © 2014 Animated Science. Repredces by ld permission” F gues on page 6 adapted fom htp.//wwwoboconz/theolb, O80. Reproduced by permission: Figure on paze a adeptec fom Wht is an edecticalesstance? Ite wwrrartnai.com/2013/04/ whats an-lectrca-resistance/" Reproduced by permission of Arinaié Figure fon rage 81 Diodes adapted frm hip: /wiwlearrabout lets ‘1p/cdes_01 php, copyright © 2007-2013 Eric Cotes MA BS. (Hons) Al righ reserwe: Figure on paze 8 adaptec fem Current ‘wale age and data table for Leak 1000 9.5242, p/w physio- contol com/uploadediles/Physio85 (Contnts/Emerzenc.- Medical Care Prodits/ Operating nstrctiong/LP1000 011208213 08a, copyight © 2012 Pysio-Conuol Inc Figure on page 134 adapted ftom stress stain gph for an IMPRESS Alo’ itp:/ ar spate sain mpres/text/education/Rechanicals20Propeties/ Guesion_ Mechanicel_Propetes_23 hl copyright © ESA. Figures co page 156 from sai elongation test and al test’ copiht © Pt Schubert, Neville NeMillan and Geo Sojer, 2008 ai new esuatons DDymarnic Mountaineering Ropes, UIAA101, ENA02,worwthewina om copmtight© ULAR Reproduced with permission: Fgues on page 136 adapted rom Meurtaineesng: The Freedom of the Hila th Eton yublshed by Mountaineers Books, Seat and Quiler Publishing, Shrevsbuy 148, copyright © 1997. thusuaon ad table reprinted with permision ofthe publisher Figure an page 148 adapt om “Append Pressure waves vs Dplacerent waves, Piysis 2010, Sound \Woses Experiment 6hep//nrcolor.ed/pysice/py2010/ plys2010L abian200/20labnl/Lab/EXPLABOO na. copyright {© Regents ofthe Universty of Colorado; Figures on aage 148 edapted from Seismic Waves” and” Seismogram recorded inthe UC hi! adbgeacuk/dacoveringGeolog hazards /earUguakes/ copyright © NERC 2015; igure on page 156 adapted fom Physics 3B, Principle oF superposit! hp //wrmgpees ocd a 28su/esouoes/Pay20 SB¥2OWeaOne/content/001 mechanical waves/page_ 15m SCIENCE!194 copyighs © WestOne Services Image courteay oF Dept “Trabing & Werkioce Development WA, Figure on page 155 adapted fom Did he Draupner wave occurin a crossing c07,Procecings A.D: 10.1096 /rpa 011.0069, Figure L(C-A A. Adcock, PH, Tayo 5.Yan, QW Mo, PA EM Jansen. ne 2011, The Royal Soiey, copyright © 2015, The Roya Society, Figures pages 157 are 158 sdapted liom Creating musical sounds. igure 6: Formation of astanding “uve fom to traveling waves aveling in oppeite rections, hep:// roecsliniopenacub/tole/maodle/mod/page/wewghiit=159, nd ‘Creing musical ounds.5 4 VEvatng tring: normal modes of viation Figure (0: The ist four normal modes of oration of sting ied ot cach end lp//projectskemiopen acuk/role/, ROLE, Reproduced by permission of The Open Univeriy: Figure on page 160 adopted fom Fay, November 12,2010, Wave Theory and Princes Interprettes Parl, Source: p/h ke blogspot couk/2010/ 1, mave teary nd principles interpreted 2h: pu on page 164 adoptes fom “Waves Tutorial 7 Interference, 04 hp//wwwantonineeucaton, cou Pages/Physis_2/Weves/WAY_O7/ Wines Page_1 im Reproduced ‘wh permission Figures on page 166 om Turing the Mavi Bar and Resonor thd toonal mode’ ip lft staring avin, ‘copyright © 2007 Jeey La Fae Figure on age 175 adapted from ‘The Digial Camera Snes Window (he view tom a ish eye). 4 Augst 2011 np /fuptreut com/2011/08/04/the-digtak camera sel window te view-fonva-fshsee/,copjright © 2011 Timely Schule: Figure on page 180 adapted from ‘Optical Magnification by David Wi Krght hyo carserasincervatereask/atile/apics/optmag, copympht © Cameras Underwater Lid. 2012 Figure on page 103 adapted fom Refecton can polarise waves in Giore and Poleried Light n Machine Vision Applications bby Chris Waller 08/17/2012, hp: /chriswalkertechbogblogspot ‘couk/2012/08/glare-and-polaized ight.n-machine hm. Reprostuced with ‘kind permission: Figure on page 184 adapted from Guide to Thin Section Microscopy, Second Eaiton by Michael M, Rat, eter Rease and Jorgen Reinhard, Fig. 4-18, 2012, hi.//wwvaransocamomg/msa/openaccess_ Publicatons/"Thin_Scirn_Mcrscny_2-1Get-eng pall copyright © 2012 iy MIM. Rath (University of Bonn) P Raase (Unversity of Ke), J Reinhard (University of KweZulu-Nata Figure on page 190 from ‘Huygens’ [estulate from: Huygens’ Construction, hp /unewa-ievelphysicstitor comn/way-Huygens php, copyright © 2011 A evel Physics Tutor All rights reserve: Figure on page 195 adapied from KE vs frequency’ fom ‘Resource Lesson Famous Discoveries: The Photoelectric Elect, itp-// _devpty sislaborg/ Document aspx?coctype=Jeflename=AtomicNude ar_Photoclectrctiect xml, copyright © 1997-2014, Catharine H. Coll Allnights reserved: Figure on page 202 fom "Amazing Maps Total Solar Panels To Power The United States, December 23,2013, by Ken Jergusin, Ints//modernsurvvablog.com/alternatue-energy /amazing-total-areaot- solar-panels-o-power-te-unted sttes/, map data copyright © Google, ‘Logos [Loge on page 84 from LIFEPAK® 1900 DEFIBRILLATOR brochure, |ntp//www.physio-controlcom/uploadedFles/Physic85/Contents/ Emergency_Medical_Care/Products/Brochures/LP1000_Brochure%20 ‘yeiaDRechargable'é20Battery_4303851_C pa copyright© 2012 Physio- Control, ine ‘Tables ‘Table on page 114 from’Galdance on Rates and allowances: Excise Dury ~ Alechel Dury hnp'//wnwuhmre govuk/rates/aleabo-dury htm, Contains public sector information licensed under the Oper Gocernment Licence (OGL) v2.0. hp /wwesenationalarchives gocuk/ oc/open-government-licence; Table on page 138 rom Mountaineering ‘The Freedom ofthe Hil, 6th Ealtion, pubished by Mountaineers Books, Seattle and Quiles Publishing, Shrewsbury 148, copyright © $997. Iustration and table reprimed with permission ofthe publster ‘Table on page 136 adapted from "The 2013/14 catalogue of DMM, International, www.drwales com. Reproduced with permission for DMM International Lic: Table on page 202 liom ‘Electical Power Annual repo December 2013, The United States Energy Information “Association Source: US. Energy Information Aetministration (Dec 2013}. ‘Text Extract on page 60 from manufacture hockey goalkeeping equipment, 8 Jaly 2014, hitp://wwysobe.cons/the-clab, OBO. Reproduced by permission, Extract on page 84 ftom LIFEPAK® 1000 DEFIBRILLATOR brochure, pp. 56-57, hnp://warwphysio-controlcom/uplondedFiles/ Physio85/Contents/Emergency_ Medical Care/Products/Brochures/ [LP1000_Brochure*s20w’%20Rechargabie%20Battery_3303851_C pd copyright © 2012 Physio-Contel, Ine; Extract on page 106 from Rover "Team Working to Diagrave Electrical Iseue., 2 November 2013 itps// ‘wwijpl nasa gov/news/newsphp earure= 3958, Source: NASA: Extract ‘on page 122 from What isa Plimsoll line”, hp /oceanservice.noaa. ‘gov/facts/plimsol!line uml. Source. NOAA’ National Ocean Service, Extract on page 148 from USCC BAQs,hit://wwusgs goe/faq. Source: US. Geological Survey Department ofthe Interir/USGS, Extract on [page 16 adapted ftom “Tuning the Marimba Bar and Resonator http// lafeyres/tuning-marimba, copyright © 2007 Jefrey La Favre; Extract 535 from Forensic Glass Comparison: Background Information Used in Data Interpretation, publication number 09-04 of the Laboratory Divison of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, VoL11, No 2 (Maureen Bowel) ‘April 2009, Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Quantico, Virginia USA, Every efforchas been made to contact copyright holders of material reproduced in ths book. Any omissions wil be rectified in subsequent [printings if notice is given tothe publishers.Contents How to use this book TOPIC 1 Working as a Physicist 1 Units 2. Bximation TOPIC 2 Mechanics 2.1, Motion 1. Velocity and acceleration Motion graphs Adding forces Moments Kinematics equations Resolving vectars Projectiles ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions 2 3 4 5 Newton's laws of motion 6 7 8 22 Energy 1. Gravitational potential and kinetic energies 2. Work and power ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions 23° Momentum 1 Momentum 2 Conservation of linear mementum, ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions 6 TOPIC 3 Electric circuits 3.1. Electrical quantities 1 Blectric current 10 2 Electrical energy transfer 123 Currentand voltage relationships 4 Resistivity 5. Conduction and resistance 6 Semiconductors 14 Thinking Bigger 16 Exam-style questions 18 21 3.2 Complete electrical circuits 23 1 Series and parallel circuits 26 2 Hlectrical circuit rules 29 3 Potential dividers 32 4 Enf and internal resistance 34 5 Power in electric circuits 36 ‘Thinking Bigger 38 ‘Exam-style questions 40 42 TOPIC 4 Materials 45 AN Fluids 4a 1 Fluids, density and uptirust so Fhid movement 3 Drag act 524 Terminal velocity 54 Thinking Bigger 58 Examstyle questions 60 a2 A2 Sold material properties 1 Hook's aw 2. Stress, strain and the Young modulus 3 Stress-strain graphs Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions 64 66 69. 2 5 7 80 84 86 38, 90 94 96 100 102 106 108 10 2 15: ur 19 122 124 126 128 131 133 136 138= TOPIC 5 Waves and the particle nature of light 54 Quantum physics 188 5.1. Basic waves 140 1 Wave-paticle duality 190 1 Wave basics 142 2. The photoslectrc effect 193 2 Wave types 145 3. Electron difkaction and interference 196 ‘Thinking Bigger 148 4 Atomic electron energies 198 Examstyle questions 150 Thinking Bigger 202 Exam-style questions 204 5.2. The behaviour of waves 152 1. Weave phase and superposition 154 Matha sls 206 2. Stationary waves 157 Preparing for your exams 212 2. Difracton 160 Glossary 27 4 Wave interference 163 Index zat ‘Thinking Bigger 186 Exam-styie questions 158 53. Optics 1170 1. Refraction 172 2 Total internal reflection 174 23 Lenses 176 4: Image formation 1179 5 Polarisation 182 ‘Thinking Bigger 184 Exam-style questions 196How to use this book ‘Weleome to your Edexcel AS/A level Physics course [n this book you will find a number of features designed to support your learning Chapter openers Each chapter starts by setting the context for that chapter learning: «Links to other areos of Physics are shown, including previous knowledge tha is bat on in the chapter fd future lezring that you wil cover later in your +The All the maths you need checklist helps you to snow what maths ils wil be required Main content ‘The main part of each chapter covers all the points fom the specification that you need to learn. The text is supported by diagrams and photos that will help you understand the concepts. Within each section, you will find the following features: + Learning objectives at the beginning of each section, highlighting what you need to know and understand, + Key definitions shown in bold and collated atthe end of each section for easy reference. + Worked examples showing you haw to work through questions, and how your calculations should be ser out + Investigations provide a summary of practical experiments tnat explore key concepts + Learning tips to help you focus your learning and avoid common errors + Did you know? boxes featuring interesting facts help you remember the key concepts + Working as a Physicist icons highlight key sections that develop your skis asa scientist @® and relate to the Working as a Physicist section ofthe specification + Questions to helo you check whether you have understoed what you have just ead, and wether there is anything that you need to Look at againa Thinking Bigger A the end of each chaprer there i an opportunity to read and work with realife research and writing, bout science The ieline at the bottom of the spreads highights whic other chapters the material relates to, These spreads vil help yout: + read reallfe material thas relevant to your course + snalyse how scientist ote + think critically and consider the issues + develop your own writing + understand hovr diferent aspects of your Jeaming piece together Exam-style questions At the end of each chapter there are also ‘exam-style questions to help you to + test how fully you have understood the learning + practise for your exams. Getting the most from your online ActiveBook ‘This book comes with 3 years’ accesso AciveBook" ~an online digital version of your textbook, Follow the insrucions printed on the inside font cover to stat using your ActveBOok Your AciveBook's the perfect way 0 personalise your leering as you progres through your Edexcel AS/A lve Physics couse. You can + access your content online, anytime, anywhere + use the inbuilt highlighting and annotation tools to personalise the content and make it really relevant to you + search the content quictly using the index. Highlight tool Use this to pick out key terms or topics so you are ready and prepared for revision Annotations tool Use this to add your own notes, for example links to your wider reading, such as websites or other files. Or make a note to remind yourself about work that you need to do. “ror new purchases ony IF this access code has already been reveled it may na longer be vali. If you have bousht ‘is ebook secondhand the code may akeady be used by te ist aver ofthe book.Working as a Physicist ‘Working asa Physicists a key feature ofthe Edexcel Physics AS and A level specification. Throughout your study of physics, you vill develop knowledge and understanding of what it means to work scientifically, including the ways in which the scientific community functions and how society as a whole uses scientific ideas. Additionally, you will evelop confidence in key scientific skis, such as manipulating quantities and units and making estimates. ‘These skis have been integrated into the approach ofthis course, so that they will naturally develop as you learn. To help you ‘think about where these skills apply, we have placed a alongside any content which specifically overs the Working as a Physicist sil listed in the specification, Atte end of each chapter in this book. there isa spread entitled Thinking Bigger. These spreads are based broadly on the content ofthe chapter just completed, but they wll also dravy on your prior learning from earlier inthe course or from GCSE and point towards Future learning and less familiar contests. By working through these spreads, you wal: read real: ife scientific writing in a variety of contexts and aimed at different audiences velop an understanding of how the professional scientific community functions learn to think critically about the nature of what you have read and understand the Issues, problems and challeng may be raised fain practice in communicating information and ideas in an appropriate scientific way apply your knowledge and understanding to unfamiliar contexts ‘You will also gain scientific sills through the hands-on practical work that forms an essental part of your course. As wells Understanding the experimental methods of the practical tis important that you develop the skills necessary to plan experiments and analyse and evaluate data. Not only are these very important scientific sil, but they wl be assessed in your examinations. Recognise and make use of appropriate units in calculations (eg. knowing the difference between base and derived units) Estimate results (eg. estimating what change there willbe tothe magnification of lens system as it is moved closer to the abject being viewed) Make order of magnitude calculations (e.g. estimating approximately what an answer should be before you star caleulating, including using standard form) Use algebra to rearrange and selve equations (eg. finding the landing point of a projectile) Recognise the importance ofthe straight line graph as an analysis tool forthe verification and development of physical laws by experimentation (e.g. choosing appropriate variables to plot to generale a straight line graph with experimental data) Determine the slope and intercept of a linear graph (es. finding acceleration frm a velecity-time graph) Calculate the area under the line on a graph (eg, finding the energy stared in a stretched wire) Use geometry and trigonometry (eg finding components of vectors)Pranning and safely carying out experiments to Barner enn ee eee ee nee este Pe eee es Saeed See ere ee eee ern Poser , See en (4 Ce erie anc A eee ee ere tere Prone rere rent Se een er TE ei cea ere eee yr revues at ee ee ened Seen LS elites FEN a See oeenie eee cf Me \ pete ee Hiasey were panei yy Caen enters ead - 4 of © Me cee eee Pe eee ee) Cee eer ese ertes eyBy the end of this section, you should be able to... understand the distinction between base and derived quani ies understand the idea ofa fixed system of units, and explain the SI system fig. The internat onal stands blogram 2 Inzematioral ye Kilogram, fm {miture of platrum and iid um ane i held athe Bureau Intemational des Poids et Mesures in Pars. Al other ‘masses ae defines by compa this metal eyinde Some measurements we hings in the Universe, For hof ape a fundamental property of the object. Compare this with the pencils speed if you drop it. To give a value to the speed, we ‘0 consider a distance moved, and the rate of motion ov ‘o measure time and then perform at there is a fundamental difference ‘we also need You can see en the types of quantity that are Jength and speed, We call length a base unit, whilst the speed is @ derived unit. A ent, the international scientific community use base nd from these all otherunits are derived. Some derived s have their own names, For example, the derived unit of force id be kgms°2, but this has been named the newton (N}, Other units do not get their own name, and we just list the base in deriving the quantity. For example, nt tageths [Lena |e Lum table A. the see unss The choice of which quantities are the base ones is somewhat matter of arbitrary choice. The scientists who meet to determine the standard unit system ha think | hat electric current is nota fundamental property a it is the rate of rm harge. So it could be derived from ‘measuring charge and time. However, scientists had to pick what was fundamental and they chose current. This means ti derived quantity fou iplying current passing fora given time. For each of th 4 meeting held every four or six year (of the Gener -¢ on Weights and Me ander the authority of the Bureau lnternational des Poids et M in Paris either alters the definition, or ratifies continuing with 1 Univer: fundamental cor The current defi below The kilogram is the unit of mass itis equal to the mass of th international prototype of the kilogram, The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the diation corresponding to the transition between U ‘two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the c The mete is the length of the path travel 158° current Tae ampere is that cons nich, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 m apart in vacuum, would produce berween these conductors a force equal 10 2 * 1 neviton per metre of length The kelvin, unt of thermo marie temperature, isthe faetic of the thermodynamic temperature o 1 Wile po+ The mole is the amount of substance of a system which ‘contains as many clementary entities as there are atoms in (0.012 kg of carbon-12, (When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles or specified groups of such particles) + The candela is the luminous intensity in a given direction, of ‘source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 * 10"? hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of i watt per steradian, re, made 1 be exactly he length thas ight ‘Metrology is the study ofthe science of measurement, and metrics refers to ways of standardising measuring techniques. Derived units In table B you will see many of the derived units that we will study inthis book, but this is only a list of those thet have their oe u Efe force newion N Eneray (vem) | __joule 1 ower eat w Frequency ie Charge coulomb C Voltage vale v resistance ohm a table B Some wel cer Power prefixes Sometimes the valves we have to work wit for some quanies mean that the number involved are extremely lage or sal Forexample, the average distance fom the Earth othe Sun, ‘measured in mete, s 150000 000 000m, Scientists have Geveloped a system for abbreviting such large value by adding a pret fo the unt which ells us that las been mulpied by 2 very lage very small amount. nour Earth bt example. the distance is equivalent o 150 lion metres andthe prefix giga ‘means matpyby a bilion. So the Earth-Sanditance becomes 150 sgnmettes, oF 159Gm, [rae To! | deca | da | 10 | de d 1 [recto | h 10? | cent | 1 | kilo k 198 [mil ™ 10% | mega | M 10% | micro | u 10 | gga G 19 | nano. 2 10 [tera T_[ 10? [pico P 10% | peta- P ae ce To [ea - | 0 ato a 10° z 10 | zepto- | z 10% _[ ora ¥_[ 10 | yoete’ ¥ used with Stuns 1. From table B: (@) Pick any quantity that you have studied before and explain how itcan have the base unit equivalent shown, (0 Allfthe derived quantity unis are named ae scents Whats sighiy range about the way the nitrames are witen compared wth ther abrevatons? 2 wt the fotowing in standard orm (a) 926w (0) 8mm (e) €400km_ (ans 3 Witetheotowing usingan appropriate prefix and unit symbok (a) 3600000 joules (0) 31536000 seconds (©) 1Omlonts ofan ampere (@ 105000 her u 1SEL) By the end of this section, you should be able to.. €@ estimate values for physical quantities @ use your estimates to solve problems Order of magnitude lnphysics it can be very helpful tobe able to make approximate estimates of values to within an order of magnitude. This means thatthe power often of your estimate i the same asthe trae value, For example, you are the same height a the ceiling in your classroom, i we consider the order of magninide. The cling ‘may be rrce your height, bu it would need tobe en times bigger toreach the next order of magnitude “This s mace clearer i we express ll valus in standard frm and then compare the power often, You a liely ro be a thousand times cller than en ant, we would say you are three orders of| magnitude large: typical ant height:2mm «2310 m typical human height 2m-=2 102m fig A You se thee sof magnitude aller than an ant In many situations, physicists are not interested in specific answers, as circumstances can vary slightly and then the specific answer is incorrect. An order of magnitude answer will always, be correct, unless you change the initial conditions by more than an order of magnitude. So a physicist could easily answer ‘the question ‘What isthe top speed of a car?" because we don't really want to know the exact rue value, To give an exact answer would depend on knowing the model of car. and the weather and road conditions being considered, and this answer would only be ‘correct for that car on that day. By estimating important quantities, like a typical mass for cars, we can get an approximase ~ order cof magnitude ~ answer The reason for doing so would be that it allows us to develop ideas as possible or impossible, and focus con developing the ideas along lines that will eventually be feasible when we get to developing a specific solution. This reduces time R and money wasted by pursuing ideas that can never be realised. Iris also vital in quickly spotting when we have miscalculated the answer to a question. If we used a sophisticated equation to calculate the answer tothe top speed of a particular car in, particular conditions, and the answer came out as 300000 metres per second, we shauld immediately know that the answer is, Incorrect, and re-cheek the calculation Crepe ry Tx 10m Size of the solar system 10m Size of Earths orbit around the Sun 110m Size of Moons orbit around Earth 0" Diameter of Manchester Tem Human height, DOM ‘Ant height 0m Biological cell diameter Dom ‘Wavelength of ultraviolet light AO m Diameter of an atom Tom Diameter of an atomic nucleus table A, fig trco Fermi vas one ofthe developers ofbeth nuclear rsctors and nuclear bombs, along with otter werk on patie physics, quant physics and statstial macharcs, He vas aarded the 1836 Nobel Prize for Physics for he clscovery af reve ecioactwe elements and induced tadionctvtyEnrico Fermi was an Italian physicist who lived from 1901 to 1954, He was a pioneer in championing the power of estimation, What have become known as Fermi questions are seemingly cific questions, to which only an order of magnitude answer is expected. Itis common for the question to appear improbably dificult, in that we do not have nearly enough information to work ‘out the answer During a nuclear bomb test in 1945, ata distance cof about ten miles, Fermi estimated the strength of the explosion by dropping some pieces of paper as the blast reached him, His answer was about 50% of that later calculated using sophisticated ‘mathematics and detailed measurements. This is typical of the sort of accuracy of answer we are looking for with an estimate ~ he was correct to the nearest order of magnitude. My Observations During the Explosion at Trinity on July 16,1945 - E. Far! ‘About: 40 seconds after the explosion the air blast reached me. | tried to estimate strength by dropping from about six feet small pieces of paper before, during, and after the passage of the bl time, there was no wi wave. Since, could observe very distinctly and actualy measure the displacement: of the pieces of paper that were in the process of f 1g while the blast was passing, The shift: was about 2% meters, which, at the tine, l estimated to comespond tothe blast that would be produced by ter thousand tons of TNT. 1 An impressive et very tle ral daa ation ofthe stength of a mucear bomb, based on "The tick is for you to work out what steps would need to be taken to reach the answer, if any information you asked for could be ‘made available. Then, where we don't have all the data needed, ‘make an educated estimate for the numbers missing. Making sensible assumptions isthe key to solving Fermi questions. 0 i Probably the most famous example of a Fermi question was this challenge to a class "How many piano tuners are there in Chicago?” The only piece of information he provided was thar the population fof Chicago was 2 milion ‘Step 1: Hoey many planes in Chicago? leach household is 4 people, then there are 2 seneee = 750000 households Ione household in ten owns. piano, then there are GSU000 Seay ree 9.000 - 75.000 pi ‘Step 2: How many pianes per piane tuner? ‘Assume each piano needs tuning once annually Further assume a piano tuner werk 200 days a year and can service 4 pianos a day Each tuner can service: 200 4 = 800 pianos, ‘Step 3: How many tuners? Fach piano tuner can deal with 800 pianos, and there are 75000 75000 00 Your answrer to Fermi would be There are 100 piano tuners in (Chicago. Ths i net expected to be the exactly corect answer, But itil be correct to order of magnitude. We would nct expect to find that Chicago has only 10 piano tuners, and it would be very, surprising if there were 1000, 11 Givean order of magnitude estimate forthe following quantties: {a} the height of a giraffe (6) the mass of an apple (€) the reaction time of a human (4) the diameter of planet pianos in total. So there are = 94 piano tuners, (0 the temperature inthis oom 2 answer he lowing Ferm questions showing athe steps andthe cumpliors and extras youre (a) How many tennis balls would fit into Winchester Cathedral? (8) How many toms ae tere in your body? (c)_ How many drops of water are there in the English Channel? (2) In your etme, how much wl you eam ttt () How many Fermi questions could Enrico Fermi have answered “hilt fying from Rome to New York? BIn I How could we calculate how ast planes ying. In what cretion ts ging and how ong fake reach acerain destination? you were sx how woul you ow what force w make re eres an amazing number of ealcultions thal ned tobe done boenablea succes ight Bt te basis on ich alot tis worked utis spe mechanic > can be described and ‘This chapter explains the multiple m recorded, and then moves on to explaining why movement happens. It covers velocity and acceleration, ements of objects It looks at haw mi including how to calelatethesein diferent situations der objects moving at speeds that could be encountered in everyday He At hese speeds han the speed of gS aac Newton sucincly described tee ava of tion, With ee eae ee y We only co knowledge of basic geometry, we Newton’ laws of motion have been constantly under test by scientists ever since he published them in 1687. Within the constraints established by Ein always correctly described the relationships between data collected. You may have a chance to confirm [Newton's laws in experiments of your own, With modern ICT recording of data, the reliability of auch ein in the early twentieth century, Newton's laws have experiments is now much improved over traditional methods. ne maths 7 Units of measurement (eg. the neuron, Nj Using Pythagoras theorem, and the angle sum of trlangle (eg finding a resultant vector) Using sin, cos and tan in physical problems (eg. resolving vectors) Using angles in regular 20 structures (eg interpreting force diagrams ta solve problems) Changing the subject of an equation (eg. re g the SUVAT equations Substituting numerical values into algebraic equations (eg, calculating the acceleration ntal or other data, unde Plotting two variables from experin hat y= mx + crepresents a linear relationship and determining thes experimental Estimating, by graphical methods as appropriate, the area between a curve and the x-axis and realising the physical significance ofthe area that has been determined (eg. using a speed-time graph)ST aU ea Cee eee ee What have | studied before? Interconverting gravitational potential and kinetic perce tenets ry ‘Measuring and calculating the speed of objects eas ni ee ee eel Coytion Peet Soo ey Cale Sa ae eee ee eer Fee a uy ern The meaning and calculation of impulse (A level) Miran cr yaU Ree ccd eee ees Cae eer rer) Newton’ laws of motion foes DeaVelocity and acceleration By the end of this section, you should be able to.. © explain the distinction between scalar and vector quantities @ clistinguish between speed and velocity and define acceleration @ calculate values using equations for velocity and acceleration Learning tip __ Te upper ease symbol forthe Greekletter delta, is used ‘mathematically 0 mean a change in a quantity. For ‘example, As means the change inthe displacement ofan, ibject, to be used here to caleulate is velocity. ® 16 ‘Movernent is fundamental to the functioning of our universe. Whether you are running to catch a bus or want to calculate the speed needed for a rocket to travel to Mars or the kinetic energy of an electron in an X-ray machine, you need to be able to work out how fast things are moving. Rate of movement ‘One of the simplest things we can measure is how fast an abject is moving. You can calculate an object's speed if you know the amount of time taken to move a certain distance: distance (mm) speed (ms) = time ( vd 6 However, the calculation for speed will only tell you how fast an abject is moving, Often its also vitally important to know in what direction this movement is taking the object. When you include the direction in the information about the rate of movement of an object, this is then known as the velocity. So, te velocity isthe rate of change of displacement, where the distance in particular direction is called the ‘displacement aisplacernent en) velocity ims time (5) oR as iy 75m, whist the acu tance this athlete has run 300m nthe cts speed fg The deplacement cue nar So the vlocty dus north such les Scalars and vectors {A quantity for which the direction must be stated is known as a veetor. If direction is not important the measurement is referred to as a scalar quantity. Therefore, velocity isa veetor and speed is a scalar; distance is a scalar and displacement is a vector Scalar and vector quantities are not limited to measurements related to movement. Every measured ‘quantity can be classified as needing to include the direction (vector, eg. force) or as being sufficiently stated by its magnitude only (scalar, eg. mass)Leamingtip Vector notation means that vectors are writen in bold type to distinguish them from scalar variables Average and instantaneous speed ln most journeys. it is unlikely that speed will mein constant throughout. As part of her taining programme, the athiete in fig A wants keep a record of her speed forall aces, From rest, before the starting gun starts the race, she accelerates to a top speed. However the race timing will be made from ster to finish, ‘and so itis most useful to calculate an average speed aver the whole race. Average speed is calculated by dividing the total distance for a journey by the total time for the journey. Thus it averages out the slower and faster parts of the journey, and even includes stops. Instantaneous speed can be an important quantity, and we will Jook at how fo measure it in the next tapic Acceleration Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity. ‘Therefore, it must include the direction in which the speed is changing, and so acceleration isa vector quantity The equation defining acceleration is: acceleration (ns?) = Chane i veloc (ms?) time taken to change the velacty (3) oR av at where w isthe inital velocity and v is the final velocity. ‘The vector nature of acceleration is very important. One of the ‘consequences is that if an object changes only the direction of its velocity, tis accelerating, whilst remaining ata constant speed. Similarly, deceleration represents a negative change in velocity and so could be quoted as a negative acceleration, 0 1 The ate in fig Aas taken 36 seconds rom the stato each he 500m mar ar Shown, leat (a) er average speed during tis 36 seconds (0) ber average veloc due noth during hs 36 seconds (c) ber merage vec dur eas curing ths 36 seconds 2 Adeiver ina cr traveling at about 25 mph (4.2km fr) seta cat tun onto the road ahead (2) Convert 40.2kmr" into aspeedinms (0) Thecartravels 125 m whist the drivers reacting to the danger. Whatishis reaction time? (6) Te cr comes to asopn 25s. Whats deceleration? 3. An electron in an X-ray machine is accelerated from rest to half the y speed of light in 1.7 x 10" s. Calculate (@) the speed the electran reaches in ms"! (6) the acceleration the electron experiences au Whilst accelerations can (very briefy] be extraordinarily high, Ike that forthe electron in question 3(b), no speed or velocity can ever be greater than the speed of ight, which is3 x 10's". IFyou calculate a speed tha s higher than this, check your calculation again ae it must be wrong aa Speeds the rate of change of ditance distance (m) speed ms") wh time () Va Velocity is the rate of change of dsplacement. displacement) velocity ns) = SsPlacement (en) 9 (5) =e) wef on ved i at Displacement i the vector measurement of distance in acetin direction. A vector quantity must have both magnitude and direction ‘scalar quantity has only magnitude Average speed is calculated by ividing the total distance fora [Journey by the total time forthe journey total distance totaltime Instantaneous speed is the speed at any particular instantin time on 2 journey which ean be found from the gradient ofthe tangent to a distance-time graph (see Section 21.2) at that ime. ‘Acceleration isthe vector defined asthe rate of change of velecity change in velocity ms") ‘ime taken to change the velocity () av at average speed (m=! zt OR a= "7Motion graphs By the end of this section, you should be able to.. @ interpret displacement-time graphs, velocity-time graphs and acceleration-time graphs ‘© make calculations from these graphs ‘© understand the graphical representations of accelerated motion ne of the best ways to understand the movements of an object suhist on a journey isto plot a graph of the pasition of the object overtime, Such a graph isknown as a displacement-time ‘graph. A velocity-time graph vil also provide detail about the movements involved. A velocity-time graph can be produced from direct measurements of the velocity or generated from calculations made using the displacement-time graph. ne a boating trip on a river, we could monitor the location of the boat aver the hour that ic has been rented for and plet the displacement-time graph for these movements. Depending on what information we want the graph to offer, it is often simpler to draw a distance-time graph in which the direction of movement is ignored, ‘The graphs shown in fig A are examples of plotting position against time, and show how a distance-time graph cannot decrease with time. A cisplacement-time graph could have parts af itin the negative portions of the y-axis, if the movement went The simplest thing we could find from these graphs is how far ‘an object has maved in a certain time, For example, in fig A, booth the graphs show that inthe frst 15 minutes the boat moved. 150m. Looking at the time from 40 to 48 minutes, both show that the boat travelled 120 m. but the displacement-time graph is in the negative region of the axis, showing the boat was moving, downriver from the starting point — the opposite direction to the places it had been in the first 40 minutes. During the period from 20 to 25 minutes, bh graphs have afl line at a constant value, showing no change in the distance o cisplacement. This means the boat was not moving ~ a fat lie on a distance-time (d+) graph means the object is stationary. From 20 t0 25 minutes on the velocity-time (graph of this journey (Gee fig B) the line would be at a velocity of Oms" Speed and velocity from d-t graphs ‘The gradient of the d-tgraps in ig A wil tell us how fast the boat was moving, Gradients found from the ratio of changes in the axis divided by the corresponding change on the 1, so fora distance-time graph distance (r) time (5) eradient= = speed (ms) ac fora displacement-time graph displacement (ms) a ey welt (ms as inthe opposite direction at some points in ime. x Distance-time graph Displacement-time graph Distance Displacement 1 600 yn 200: 00) , 10 400: S100: 300: 50 200 ° fo ao apa Time Jrinutes 100 —50: = o. = 100: oT 230 40800 Time g minutes S ‘ = 190) fig Acomparson ofthe dsplacement-imegraph of be boating ip upand down avr vith ts coresponding dstnceti 180 For example, the first 15 minutes of the boating trip in fig A represents a time of 900 seconds. In this time, the boat travelled 150m. Is velocity is: As _150 v= 88.1509 167me" upriver Velocity-time graphs A velocty-time graph wll show the velocity of an object over Time. We ealulated thatthe velocity of the boat on the river Was 0.167 ms“ upriver for the first 15 minutes of the journey. Looking atthe graph in fig B, you can see tha che line is constant at 0.157 ms” forte fist 15 minutes [Also notice that the velocity axis includes negative values, so that the difference between traveling upriver (positive paxis values) and downriver (negative y-axis values) can be represented. Velocity/ms™ 02; on Time oo /rminutes fig Velocty-ome graph of the basting mip Acceleration from v-t graphs ‘Acceleration is defined as the rate of change in velocity, In order to calculate the gradient of the line on a v-r graph, ‘we must divide a change in velocity by the corresponding time difference. This exactly matches with the equation for acceleration: Avovew ar gradient acceleration For example, between 15 and 29 minutes on the graphs. the boat slows evenly to a stop. The acceleration here can be calculated as, the gradient: av lv-u ae So the acceleration is: a 0-0167 | -0167 5*60 "300 0.6 x 10? ms~ gradient -0.0006m 7 Distance travelled from v-t graphs Speed is defined as the rate of change in distance: 4 dzvat ‘Aa the axes on the v-t grap represent velocity and time, an area con the graph represents the mulkplication of velocity x time, ‘which gives distance. So to find the distance travelled from a w-t ‘graph, find the area between the ine and the x-axis, Velocity/ms“* anti ou | Time on = /minutes a 02: {fig nthe Fst 15 minutes (200 seconds) the cistance raved bythe boat mering at0 167 me's sven by te area betwaen te ine athe ‘big dv x= 0167 500 = 150m, 1F we are only interested in finding the distance moved, this also ‘works for @ negative velocity. You find the area from the line up to the time axis. This ide wil till work for a changing velocity. Find the area under the fine and you have found the distance travelled For example, from 0 to 20 minutes, the area under the tne all the ‘way down tothe xaxis is «trapezium, so we need to find that area. To calculate the whole distance travelled inthe journey for ‘the first 40 minutes, we would have to find the areas under the four separate stages (0-15 minutes; 15~20 minutes; 20-25, ‘minutes; and 2540 minutes) and then ade these four answers together 19Finding the acceleration due to gravity by multiflash photography Using a multiflash photography technique. or a video recording that can be played back frame by fame, we can observe the falling mation of a small object such asa marble, We need to know the time between Frames. From each image ofthe fling ‘object, messure the distance thas fallen from the scale inthe picture Acarelully drawn distance-time graph will showa curve asthe ‘abject accelerates, From this curve, take regular measurements ofthe iradient by drawing tangents tothe curve. These gradients show the instantaneous speed at each point (on the curve, figD Mutich photeraphy allows ust apa frag movement of gay Plotting these speeds on a velocity-time graph should show a straight line, as the acceleration due to gravity is constant value, The gradient ofthe line on this w-t graph will be the acceleration due to gravity. Acceleration-time graphs “These graphs show how the acceleration of an abject changes ver time In mang instances the acceleration is zro ora constant value, in wich ration-time (a graphs lily to be of relatively lite interest. For example, the objecting cu investigation above wil be aceeereted by gravity throughout Assuring is eave salar esxance wil be neglighe. and the a- graph of ts motion would be a horizontal ine a = -981ms-# Compare iis th your results (0 See ho reais iis to ignore air resistan; For a larger object falling for a long period, such as a skydiver, then the acceleration will change over time as the air resistance increases with speed, The weight of a skydiver is constant, so the resultant force will be decreasing throughout, meaning that the acceleration will also reduce (see Seetion 1.1.5). The curve ‘would look lke that in fig E. o 25 as fig Acceieason-tine graph fora syd See Section 4.1.4 for more details on falling ebjects and terminal velocity. 20 1 Describe in as much deta as you can, including calculated values, what happens inthe bicycle journey shown on the d-t graph infige 60) Time/s 2 Deven in as much det yuan including cat vale ‘tat happersin ter journey shown on thet ph nig 2 10 cp °S ib ae a0 a Time/s figG Veiodty-ime graph of aca 3 From ig calculate te distance wae by te boat rom ‘Ove cd mira are Remember that the gradient of distance-time graph represents speed or velocity, soithe line is curved, the changing gradient indicates a changing speed, which you can describe asthe same as, the changes in gradient. 6 ‘A displacement-time graph isa graph showing the postions visited con a journey, wth displacement on the y-axis and time on the x-ays. A velocity-time graph is graph showing the velocities on a journey, with velocity on the y-axis and! time on the x-axis.Adding forces By the end of this section, you should be able to... (@ add two or more vectors by drawing © add two perpendicular vectors by calculation Forces are vectors. This means that measuring their magnitude is ‘important, but equally important is knowing the direction in which they act. In order to calculate the overall effect of multiple forces acting on the same object, we ean use veetor addition to work ou ‘the resultant force. This resultant force can be considered as a single force thar has the same effect as all the individual fo combined. Adding forces in the same line If to or more forces are acting along the same line, then combining them is simply a case of adding or subtracting their ‘magnitudes depending on their directions ——__o in = TNs san esta » LN —> 7h <—$ ngs se esutant fgh Adding rcs te ame Ine ques corde a tl Adding perpendicular forces ‘The elect onan object of two forces that are acting at ight angles (perpendicular to each other willbe the vector sum Of teirindvidua eects We need to ade the ies with onsieration forthe directions in order o find the resutnt. figB Thexe two ugh players a forces are at ig angles #9 th rd direction, hs wor opponent. The Magnitude of the resultant force “To calculate the resultant magnitude of two perpendicular forces, ‘we can draw them, one after the other, as the two sides of 2 right-angled triangle and use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate the size of the hypotenuse sultant = 134 Resultant = 130N, aM fig The resutant io = (70° 110") = here ecala 20N, Direction of the resultant force ‘As forces are vectors, when we find a resultant force it must have ‘both magnitude and direction. For perpendicular forces (vectors), trigonometry will determine the direction Resultant = 130N, 6 TON ere at an angle up from the hoz ‘Always take care to state where the angle fora vectors direction is ‘measured. For example, in fg D, the angle should bestated as 32° up {rom the horizontal. This is most easily expressed on a diagram of the situation, where you draw in the angle Adding two non-perpendicular forces “The geometry of perpenticular vectors makes the caution of the sultant simple. We can ind the resutant of any two vectors by drawing one afer the other and then the resent wil be the thi side othe tnange fom the start ofthe fst one fo the ena of the second one. scale drawing ofthe vector tangle il allow measurement of the size and direction ofthe resutan @ 450N fig santo by scale drawing ofthe Wo lant on the drawing using ale and aTON 22 rmarkec on as for The parallelogram rule ‘There is ancther method for finding the resultant of two non-perpendicular forces (or vectors) by scale drawing, which can be easier to use, This is called the parallelogram rule. Draw the two vectors to scale ~ at the correct angle and scaled so their length represents the magnitude ~ starting from the same point. Then draw the same wo vectors again parallel to the original ones, so that they form a parallelogram, as shown in fig F. The resultant force (or vector) will be the diagonal across the parallelogram from the starting point. Hypotenuse TON fig F Finding the recutan vector using the paralelogsam rue The vector addition rules shown on these pages work forall vectors, not just forces. They are useful only {forcorplanar vectors, which means vectors that are in the same plane. If we have more than two vectors that are in more than one plane, add two vectors together fist, ther plane, and then add the resultant to the next force using these rulesagain. Keep doing this unt all the vectors have been added in. Free-body force diagrams I ye clit what forces are acting on an object can be simpler tocalulate how it wl move. To do thn, we usualy aw a free-body free diagram, which has he jet slated nd ll the forces that act on it dravm nat the pois where they act Forces acing on other obec, and those oer cbects axe not dravm, For example fig G could be sad tobe a fee body force diagram of the rugby payer being tele in fg Bane ths woul leads to cr fig Cand fig D to make our esutent alclaors 1 Work outtheresutant fore on toy aft has the fllng ores actingon «ber band motor diving forwards 84N 1 drvesitrce OS 2 faionsaN + childs hand pushing foward 108 ‘Asa small plane takes off, the lift force on its 6000N vertically upwards, whist the thrustis2800N horizontally forwards. What i the resultant of these forces on the plane? Draw a free-body force diagram of yourself siting on your chat. RwWON (@) Draw the scale diagram of fig €, and work out what the resuitant force would be. (0) Use the parallelogram rule asin ig, to check your answer to part 5 inorder tory and recover aca stick in a muddy fil tw tacos pllon i The estas aan ange of 20" el of tne formards vector wth afore 2250, Thesecond als 15 to the ight fe onwards Girecton wih a force of 20008. Draw stale dagram ofthe suston and fd the eaten fore onthe sucka Key definitions Resultant force isthe foal force (recor sum) acing on a body when all the frees acing ae added together accounting for their directions {Afree-body force diagram of an objecthasthe object isolated, and ll the forces that acton tare drawn inat the points where they at using arrows to represent the forcesMoments By the end ofthis section, you should be able to. © calculate the moment of force ‘© apply the principle of moments © find the centre of gravity ofan abject Forces on an object could act so that the object does not start to ‘move along, but instead rotates about a fixed pivot. If the object is fixed so that it cannot rotate, it will bend. Moment of a force distance, x fig A & force cts ona beam Sued ata paint The moment ofa force rotation or in this ese, bending. ‘The tendency to cause rotation is called the moment of a force, leis calculated from: ‘moment (Ne) = force (N) x perpendicular distance from the pivot tothe ine of action ofthe force (m) moment = Fr centre centre of mass axis of of mass ‘lation weight F = weight F fg The calcula ment only stance between the ine of soon ofthe hem of rotation through tepivot pon. von 4y wll ur in thedrecion of Principle of moments © fig Balanced moments create an equ If we add up all the forces acting on an object and the resultant force, accounting for their directions, is zero, then the object will bbe in equilibrium, Therefore it will remain stationary or if it is already moving. it will carry on moving at the same velocity. ‘The object could keep a constant velocity, but if the moments, on it are not also balanced, it could be made to start rotating. ‘The principle of moments tells us that if the total of all the ‘moments trying to tuta an object elockwie is equal to the total of all moments trying to turn an object anticlockwise, then it ‘willbe in rotational equiliorium, This means it will either remain stationary, orf itis already rotating it will continue at the same ‘speed in the same direction, fig As the meve-long beam isbalance he sum ofall momen’ mus equal the sum of alte anclockse 2B24 aS Infig D, we can work out the weight ofthe beam ifwe know all the other weights and distances. The beam is uniform, so its weight wil act from ts cent. The length ofthe beam is 100m. Soifx, = 20cm, then x, must be 30cm, and x, = 80cm, The dinesaur (W/) weighs SEN and the toy cars weight (W.) § 0.95 N. In equilibrium, principle of moments: sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments Waxy = Wott Woks 58020 = W,x 0.30 +095 x 080 116 - (076) Wo In order ta calculate the sum of the moments in either direction, each individual moment must be 'b. What is the purpose of this mathematical analysis, for its inclusion in this essay? ne | author suggests hi weince tells the StOOs/ Now we will ook at the physics in detail. You may need to combine concepts from different areas of physics to work out the answers. Use the timeline at the bottom of the page to help you put this work. in context with the areas of your course. 2. Complete the calculation steps, in reverse as suggested, in order to find out the answer, H: a. the acceleration caused by the sling bb. overall velocity that the boulder is projected from the sling «. horizontal and vertical components of the velocity dd. time of fight found from the horizontal travel €. time to reach maximum height using vertical motion f. remaining flight time from maximum height g. height fallen from the maximum in the remaining flight time hh final answer H, 3, State two assumptions that have been made in these calculations, Command word cd “calealate needs to Be id show your W 4, Calculate what difference there would be in the answer if the catapult was loaded with different boulders of masses 10 kg and 14 kg. Note from fig B that the castle walls are 24m high, Comment on these answers, 5. If the available supply of boulders offered very variable masses, how might the Scots be able to overcome the problems shown in question 4 Give understand Cotnematice, and 1 sty ineligent Pho could have \pysic® Activity Imagine aus Therm a frend of yous. and he has come o you for help wth the calculations 3s hes rita stong certs is section Steps to the anone was taken rm a esearch source about a eent asl under siege Write an ema Gas explain the calviations required in each step. ides (© 8) Clas Thenmad fiom an erly daft his dssenation for 4 Masters depres in Medieval History 37ya 1. The unit of force is the Newton. One Newton is equivalent to: (a) O.L kg, (b) tkgms"* (c) tkgms-? (@) ims? oy (Total: 1] 2. Abballis thrown vertically upwards at a speed of 11.0 ms. What isthe maximum height it reaches? (2) 061m (o) 112m (617m (@) 123m ty (Total: 1] 3 Calculate the moment exerted on the nut by the spanner shown, inthe diagram, (@) 24Nm (b) 42Nm {c) 48Nm (o) 420Nm a (Total: 1} 4 (a) What is meant by a vector quantity? ti (0) Acaris driven around a bend at « constant speed. Explain what happens to its velocity. al (Total: 3} 5. The Saturn V rocket used in NASAs space programme had a ‘mass of 3.04 x 10*kg, It took off vertically with a thrust force of 340 10°N. (2) Show that the resultant force on the rocket is around: 4x 10°N, {31 (b) Calculate the initial acceleration, ia} (c) After 150s the rocket reached a speed of 2390ms-2 Calculate ts average acceleration, py (q) Suggest why the initial acceleration and average acceleration are different. ay (Total: 8] Exam-style questions 6 A srudentis required to measure the speed ofa trolley roling doum a slop. This could be done using a ruler anda stopwetch but the student prefers « method using ICT. {a} The sudent uses a lighe gate as shown in the diagram. Deserbe how the stent obras the measurements needed to caleulate speed. 2) light gate () The student thinks that the stopwatch method is less reliable than the ICT method. Discuss what makes using a stopwatch less reliable, [2] (Total: 4} 7 Youare asked to determine the acceleration of free fall at the surface of the Earth, g. using a free fall method in the laboratory (2) Describe the apparatus you would use, the measurements ‘you would take and explain how you would use ther to determine g. (6) (0) Give one precaution you would take to ensure the accuracy of your measurements tt) (Total: 7} 8 ‘The graph shows how displacement varies with time for an object that starts from rest with constant acceleration. Distance/m (a) Use the Gistance-time graph to determine the speed of the object at a time of 4.0 s, (3) (b) Calculate the acceleration. py) [Total: 5]es 9 The photograph shows a sequence of images of a bouncing 11. During @ lesson on Newton's laws of motion, student says, tennis bi We dont really need to bother with Newron’s first law because is included in his second law’ State Newton's frst two laws of motion and explain how Newton's second law 5} (Total: 5] 12 The diagram shows an arrangement used to launch a ight foam rocket ata school seience competition. A student plots the following graph and claims that it shows c the vertical motion af the ballin the photogra i \ o 4 The rocket is launched at the level of one end of a long table 6, and lands at the other end at the same level. The students measure the horizontal distance traveled by the rocket and the Time/s ime of fight (@) Without carrying out any calculations, describe how the (a) The rocket travels 188m in a time of O.86s. raph (@) Show that the horizontal component of the initial following can be found from the (the vertical cistance travelled by the bell between velocity of the rocket is about 2 05s and 10s (i) Shows that the vertical component of the initial (i) the acceleration at ¥. velocity of the rocket is about 4 ms 2] (6) The graph contains several errors in its representation of (ii) Calculate the inital velocity of the rocket 4] the motion of the ball (b) The students obtained their data by filming the flight. Explain two of these errors. 4) When they checked the maximum height reached by th (Total: 6] rocket they found it was les than the height predicted using this velocity 10 ‘There has been a proposal to build @ tran tunnel underneath (@ Suggest why the maximum height reached was less than predict (i) Give two advantages of filming the flight to obtar om England to America, The 3 5000km could take the Atlantic Ocet hatin che future the trip SStune tata he ine spent accent unm and (ota 1 (© Calculate the resultant force required ta decelerate the tain x 10g 24 [Total: 6] 3duction he ust capt ihed wlth dcuson ef the motion of peace boulrs ght An ae seca ca mea er nee A ee a eat rea ah ec ie See a eete ee oo nee eevee aoe ra crt ere ace ease Ie eye ea ele ete ai ‘The effect of gravity on the movement of an object leads into consideration ofthe energy a body may possessor transfer. There are equations for calculating kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy, and the transfer of energy when a force is used to cause the transfer. These formulae and Newtor's laws canbe used together to work out everything we might wish to know about the movement of any everyday object in any everyday situation. ‘Whilst itis difficult for scientists to describe or identify the exact nature of energy, the equations that scribe energy relationships have also consistently held up to experimental scrutiny. All the maths you need Units of measurement (eg the joule. J) Changing the subject ofan equation ( ing the velocity of falling obj Substituting numerical values into algebraic equations (calculating he power used) Plotting two variables from experimental or other data, understanding thaty = mx + ¢ represents a linear relationship and determining the slope ofa linear graph (e4. finding the acceleration duet experimentally) Using angles in regular 20 and 3D structures (eg. finding the angle with which to caleulate work done) Using sin, cos and tan in physical problems (eg. calculating the work done by a force acting at an angle)Gravitational potential and kinetic Ng By the end of this section, you should be able to.. @ calculate transfers of gravitational potential energy near the Earth’ surface @ calculate the kinetic energy of a body @ calculate exchanges between gravitational potential and. conservation fig The energy transfered inta kinetic energy fra fling coconut Did you know? “The strength of the Earths gravitational field atthe top of, the Eiffel Tower less than a hundredth of a per cent smaller than at the foot of the Eifel Tower a jumbo jet plane has ala ‘netic enciy. a2 etic energies, based on energy Gravitational potential energy (E,) i the energy an object has by virtue of its postion in @ sravitational fel. Kinetic energy (8) i the energy an object has by vie of its movement. As ‘objects rise or fll gravitational potential energy can be corwerted to kinetic energy and kinetic energy can be comwverted to gravitational potential energy Gravitational potential energy Gravitational potential energy (gpe) can be calculated using the equation: pe) = mas ig) gravitational field strength (Nk) height) E-mgh Usually the gpe is considered as a change caused by a change in height, fr example the change in sgne when you lift an object onto a shelf ‘This ates the equation sightyto consider transfers 0 or ftom spe A, - mga Abrick of mass 22g sited vertically through a height of 1.24m, The gpe gained i calculated as flows Ag, = mg Ag, = 22981 «124 Ag, =268) \Witing the formula this way suggests that the gravitational field strength isa fixed value, The ‘gravitational field strength is a measure of the pull of gravity by a planet at a distance from its centr, ‘This is not actually constant, as the strength of the gravitational field experienced by a mass is, inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the planet's centre. However, close to the Earth's surface, aver small scales, such as the heights that humans deal with in everyday lif, its an acceptably close approximation to say g is fixed at 9.81 N kg Kinetic energy Kinetic energy can be calculated using the equation kinetic energy (J) = 4» mass (kg) x (speed)? (m?s) &ebemay For example, large jumbo jt plane might havea cruising speed of 900kanh-" anda fight mass of 400 tonnes What would its Kinetic energy be? First convert into SI units: oxo 3210 some" y= 900 ken fr! = 900 000 nF? = m= 400% 1000-4 10% Relemey? Bd 105« 250? B= 125%10%J= 1256)CO EE Conversion between E, and E, The principle of conservation of energy tells us that we can never lose any energy or gain energy out of nowhere. [n any energy transfer, we must have the same total energy before and afer the transfer Gravitational potential energy can be corwerted inta kinetic energy if an object falls to a lower height. Alternatively an object thrown up w down as its Kinetic energy is transformed into gpe. In either case Ae, =mgal m=, Depending on the situation, it can often be useful to divide cut the mass that appears on both sides Of this equation. This allows a convenient calculation of how fast an object will be travelling after falling a certain distance from rest v= y2gah or how high an object could rise if projected upwards at a certain speed: Ahoy Learning tip ana te vCal oa a ng RENO Y SP ce cm] ne ‘objects wl al fll to the ground at the same rate regardless ofthe mass. However, remember that all ofthe relationships shown in this section assume that no energy is lost through fiction or air resistance, and that this can be an important factor when some objects fal, be fig ¢ A penny false Neoxs Col For example, how fast would a penny hit the ground if it were dropped from the top of Nelson's Column, which is 52m tall? v= y2gih v= 298152) v=31.9ms Another example: how high would water from a fountain rise if it were ejected vertically fom a spout at 13.5 ms"? 7] Tas? _ 19225 “2y981)* 19.62 fig D Fountain designer to Ah=929m oa Ll = Bfige a4 ts to fird th strength, an objec ws alows Investigation ____________(@) Finding from energy conservation There ata number of diferent experimental methods for ining the gravitational field stength (One example ofthese relies on the conversion of gravtational potential energy into kinetic energy inthis experiment. we measure the elocty that has been reached byafaling objet afer thas fallen under gravity roma certain height, and then aller the height and measure the velocity again, ifwe vary the height from which the object fal, the gravitational potential energy is different at each height. This gpe wil al be converted into kinetic energy gab}? ‘As we saw previously, this equation canbe simplified to give: 7 =244h ‘Compare this equation withthe equation fora straight-line graphy = mx + € ifwe plota graph of th onthe xaxésand v? onthe y-ans, we will eta staight best fi line. The gradient ‘ofthe line on this graph will be twice the gravitational fel strength, 2g, from which we can find g. ‘We could finda value for g by taking asingle measurement from this experiment and using the equation to calculate it 5” aah However, 3s mentioned in Section 2.15, asngle measurement in any experiment is prone to uncertainty from bath random and systematic errors. The reliability of the conclusions is signcantly improved with multiple readings and graphical analysis Estimate the speed at which the coconut in fig A would hit the sand, How fast would a fountain need to squirtits water upwards ta reach a height of 15m? How fast would a snowboarder be moving if she slid down a slope dropping ata vertical height of 45 m? How high will a 48 kg trampolinist rise i he leaves the trampoline at aspeed of 6 1ms"? aRwWwna Key definitions Gravitational potential energy (Eis the energy an object has by virue ofits position ina gravitational fed _gpe (J) = mass (ke «gravitational field strength (N kg’) « height (m) F,=mghORAE, = mgAh Kinetic energy (Ey) isthe energy an object has by vite of is movement kinetic energy J) =} x mass kg) (speed (més BahamaWork and power By the end of this section, you should be able to... © calculate energy transferred as work done, including when the force is not along the line of motion @ calculate the power of an energy transfer © explain efficiency and make calculations of it We often make assumptions that allow simplification of calculations in physics. In general these assumptions make litle diference as they are chosen to ignare effects which have a very small {impact on the actual real world answers. An example of this is with the conversion of gravitational potential energy inta kinetic energy, where the effects of air resistance are ignored [cis important to remember that the principle of conservation of energy insisis that no energy can be lost in any scenario, Even if we were to consider the loss of kinetic energy to heating of the air through air resistance, the total amount of energy would be constant; it would simply have spread. into more different forms, Work In physics. the phrase ‘doing work’ has a specific meaning to do with energy use. The amount of ‘work done means the amount of energy transferred, so work is measured in joules. In general terms, we can express any energy transfer as work done, For example, a 15W light bulb ‘working for 10 seconds transfers 150 J of electrical energy as heat and light ~it does 150] of work, Im any situation where we know how to calculate the energy before and after, we can calculate the ‘energy transferred and thus the work done. Forcing work If energy is transferred mechanically by means of @ force, then the amount of work done can be caleulated simply: work done ()) = force [N) distance moved in the direction ofthe force (m) ‘= Fas MA Dargo saserng Sie, Sn Inthe example of fig B, a brick of mass 2.2 kg is lifted vertically against its weight through a height of 124m. The work done is AW= Fas AW= mgs as fig Vior’ on abulcing ate We 22981124 We 26.8 Note that this isthe same amount of energy as we calculated for the gravitational potential energy of this same brick undergoing the same it in Section 2.2.1 45Leamingtip ______ Learning tip Beware of confusing AW for work with W/for weight. weight fig The weigt force ste reutant of ts components slong the and perpendicular 46 ‘An object tat gain gravitational potental energy is having work done on it against its weight force ‘weight = mass x gravitational field strength W=ig work = force x distance = weight x height = mgh Work done by forces at an angle Inthe brickaying example onthe previous page, the direction of movement xs exact in ne with the force lifting the brick Thi is an unusual situation, and usual the force doing work wl be tan angle othe dection of movement. In fg. gravity pul the child down te sie batt must wor agaist fiction. The weight acs erally downwards butte friction acts up the sige. Fiction abvays acs in the exact opposite econ to movernent. Asauing thatthe child sides at constant velocity, Newtons first aw of motion tlisus that ths tmeans te fictions exactly balanced by the component of gravity paling the chid down the slope Soo find the component ofthe weight force that's acting down te slope we wil nee to resove i inthe drectos of down the slope and perpendicular tot “The weight component working down the slope equals the fiction F Fmgcoso ‘The work done is force multiplied by the tance travelled along te line ofthe force, so her: work As « ngcoso “This example shows us the general formal for calculating the work done when there is an ange berveen te force andthe dstane along vtich we ae measuring AW= Fascose Power Power's defined as the rate of energy transfer This may be done wih reference to work done energy tanterted ) £ ower (W)~ = forthe energy wars G] 7p ___ werk done aw Power) forthe work to be dane) 7 Remember: werk) force (Ni) distance moved inthe ietion ofthe force) AW=FAs So force(N) x atance moved (m power gw =e) ia time for the force to move (5) For example, the power of a forklift tuck lifting a 120 kg crate vertically up 5.0m in 4.0 seconds would be calculated as Fas mote Coot 209815 ~ 40 Pevavow = 147kW “ Kaloweat (Kv) = 1000 watts (0) = 1 = TW 1 megawatt (MW) = 1000 kW = 1 10"W 1 plgawart (GW) = 1000 MW =1 x 10°KWW =1 «10° W. “terawatt (TW) = 1000 GW =1 «106 MWY =1 = 10°kW= 1 x 10".TE Efficiency From the equations above, we can cleat the workand power generate in diferent situations It most ofthe energy i na ctalyransfrre into a form thats usefl tus then the activity may bea weste of energy The ably of « machine to comer enetay useful is called efficiency, Efficiency is defined mathematically as: useful work done efficiong total energy input useful energy output efficiency = tal energy input If we remember that power is energy divided by time, then ‘measuring the energy flows in a machine for a fixed amount of time means that we can write a power version of the efficiency equation: Useful energy output ficiency = — at energy input time useful power output ‘otal power input The answer willbe a decimal between zero and one, Its ‘common to convert this to a percentage value (multiply the decimal by 100). oaxep ae the fori tuck referred to above lied the crate when supplied with electrical energy from its battery at rate of 3000 joules per second, whats ts eficency? {ful power output total power input efficiency 1470 3000 efficiency = efficiency 1 tnhese two stuationg who does ore work. and by how much? (9) Alloness cares a2 igeub 460m p atree (b) Area its a1 abi 225m up to ernest 2 Calculate the work done by the tension in the kite string in fig E (ver the distance shown, om fig Wow angle tothe force doi 3 (a) whatisthe pone ofan elec moto nwa iis 5005 throug em n20secondst (0) Whats the motors eficncy ithe mains electricity supped it vata foal of 12} to make tit 4 intoainga delivery van, Ue diver pused a 15g crater Srneer pari’ he hadto push wa force ot 32H and the Serial eg gained wos 13. What was eieney of pushing thseateup the ramp ona the back he vant Key definitions ee eee er ees ae the force (m) tier een eee ne ree as efficiency = efficiency 47f e THE MECHANICS OF HOCKEY © GOALSCORING In this section, we will look at some of the science behind shots on A goal only counts if the ball is hit from inside the shooting cisele. ‘gol. ‘This means the ball must be no more than about 14 metres from the goal, Assuming zero drag forces, we ean calculate the longest time the goalkeeper has to reat to this shot after it leaves the stick ‘We know the start velocity and the distance, so this is a straightforward question. fig A. Georgie Twigg of England takes on mia New Zeal defenders If we want to ealeulate how fasta stationary hockey ball would ‘be moving after a hard hit at goal, we need to think about its acceleration by using Newton’s second law. A standard hockey ball ‘haga mass of 0.16kg. Ifthe stick applies a force of I40N fora _If the goalkeeper renets quickly enough to get a leg pad in the way, ‘twentieth of a second, we can work out the answer: how deeply wil this shot squash into the foam padding which is ‘no more than 10cm thick? The maximum decelerating force the ‘foam can provide to slow the ball is 2000 newtons. Here we should consider the removal af all the ball’s kinetic energy as work being done. 1553 =u atthe ball stats stationary, Oms,a=875ms,1=005s V=0+4875 (0.05) am Binal ‘So the pad depresses by just under Sem, The goulkeeper is likely to feel this bat it should not be painful. According to Newton's third law, when the pad exerts a force of 2000 N on the ball, the ball exerts a force of 2000N on the pad. Ifthe goalkeeper’s leg ‘were not protected. this force could cause serious injury. 7.7% 102m fig Nick Catin of England stacked by an Ausvalan defences where else will encounter these themes?ae Let us start by considering the nature of the writing in the booklet 1, The extract opposite is from a book to teach hockey coaches the theory behind the sport, especially for reference in A level PE lessons, which have a significant theory irk about how th clement in various areas. Consider the extract and comment on the type of writing that _. | / compieity 274 is used, Try and answer the following questions: iy ot a, How has the author maintained the relevance of the calculations forthe reader? Calesations comaree b. Discuss the level of difficulty of the calculations done, with reference to the target vith thom ths audience and the purpose of the text nett No | cconeider that Now we wil look at the physics in detail Some ofthese questions wil link to topics eater in aumibers this book, so you may need to combine concepts fom diferent areas of physics to work out the evample ‘answers. Use the timeline at the bottom of the page to help you put this work in context with what players ong aay arnjeat eee ayer we ese | aches Wi 2. Identify, and comment on the validity of, the assumptions that have been made in these calculations. 3. A penalty stroke is flicked from a distance of 6.40 m from the goal line. The striker scoops itso that the ball leaves the ground at a 45° angle and a speed of 8m". How long does the goalkeeper have to make a save before the ball crosses the goal line? 4. The study of mechanics in sport is a popular and often profitable new area of scientific Eommand word Ih you are aoked to Weerive someting: YOU ‘a. Describe how a sports scientist could use ICT to collect data to study the movement <—| | account of of players and equipment over time ce impart | b. Explain why technological developments have made the data collected more valid | pieces of intormat and reliable than with traditional methods of studying mechanics. a starting Point Activity Indoor hockey rules de net permit iting the bllit may only be ‘pushed, flicked or scooped. This Increases the time thatthe sticks in contact with he ballots mich a5 012s) but reduces the force applied (to at most $5). However, the pitch is smaller indoors and theshooting cre isonly90m {ram the goa. Writea similar section for anew version of this coaching manual which saimed at indoor nackey coaches nit used “he equipment vee is identical im both reigns of the SPO" 2, goalkeeping (© From Hockey bs Mad Easy, booklet aimed at uew couches, particu eucere who may alo ose avioment etc to teach A level PE 491 50 ‘The definition of the watt comes from witich equation? (@ P=Est wP (c) AW= Fas xt a) (Total: 1] ‘A308 g ball is thrown vertically upwards to reach a height of 555m, How much potential energy has it gained at that height? (2) 1665 (b) 166i (c) 16803 (a) 16600 i [Total: 1] Abhotse pulls a carriage of weight 5600 N with a force of 80N fora distance of 1.2km around New York's Central Park. How much work is done by the horse? (@) 67s (b) 964s (c) 538k (a) 6720K0 ty (Total: 1] ‘The photograph shows a wind turbine. Kinetic energy of the ‘wind is transferred to electrical energy as the turbine blades rotate. (2) Explain why we can say that the wind is doing work on the blades, E () The area swept out by one blade, asit turns through 360 is 600m? Wind at a speed of 9ms passes the turbine, (@) Show that the volume of air passing through this area sn 5 seconds is about 300 000m Q) (i) Calculate the mass of this alt Density of air = 1.2 kg rv p] (ii) Calculate the kinetic energy of this mass of ait [2] (iv) Betz’ law states thet a turbine cannot usefully transfer ‘more than 59% of the kinetic energy of the wind. Use this law to find the maximum output of the wind ‘turbine, e () Suggest a reason wy itis not possible to usefully transfer 100% of the kinetic energy of the wind. a (@) Suggest the limitations of using wind turbines to provide power. (2) [Total: 13} ‘Champagne bottles are often opener by ‘fring’ the cork out of the bottle. The world record for the horizontal distance travelled by a fired cork is 53 m, The high pressure inside the bottle produces an average force of 150N on the cork as it leaves the bottle, This force acts on the cork over a distance of 25 10m. (a) Show that te work done on the cork is about 4. pe) (©) Calculate the maximum speed at which the cork could leave the bottle mass of cork = 7.5 x 107kg e {c} The cork is fied fiom ground level at an angle of 40° to the horizontal with a speed of 32m"! (i) Show thar the vertical component of the velocity is about 20ms“} a) (@ Calculate the horizontal distance travelled by the cork through the air (5) (@) Suggest an explanation forthe difference between your calculated value and the world record distance, (2) (Total: 12}6 One account of the origin of the term forsepoweris as follows, 8 ‘The photograph shows a lawnmawer being used to cut grass. Inthe eighteenth century, James Watt manufactured steam engines. He needed a way to demonstrate the benefits o these compared to the horses they replaced. He did some calculations based on horses walking in circles to turn a mil wheel Watt observed that a horse could turn the wheel 144 times in ‘one hour The horse travelled ina cirle of radius 3.7 m and exerted a force of 800N. {@) Show that the work done by the horse in turning the wheel {rough one revolution was about 20000. 3) {b) Calculate the average power of the horse in Stunits. [3] 7 [Total:6] —(@) () Inorder te 650 N must be applied to the hancle of the lawnmower atan angle of 42° to the horizontal, Show that the horizontal component of the force is Ina demonstration of energy transfer a large pendulum is Mate speng 0005 ing bal one gp of Sion tat a I denise kth ball it ee (9 Telewest 8 pf gm ah her nose and then to release it and stand perfecty still while wating forthe ball to eur, Calculate the work done by the person pushing the lawnmower ra (b) This photograph shows a lawnmower with the top section of the handle horizontal. ain how this changes the minimum force required to ‘The following instructions are given: push the lawamower (2) (Total: 6] Do not push the ball— just release it Do not mave your face before the ball returns. © Metrology is the science of measurement and World Metrology Day is May 20th. In 2010, the day was used to celebrate the Explain this demonstration and the need for these instructions. _50ch anniversary of the SI system. {61 4 metrologist from the National Physical Laboratory said on a (Total: 6] fadio programme that the SI system uses units that everyone ean understand, He stated the following example. If you hold an apple in your hand it's about a newton. if you raise it through one metre tha’s about a joule and if you do it in fone second that’s about a we ‘Assuming that the apple has a mass of 100. explain and justify the statements made about the three words in italics. [6] (Total: 6]Momentum Collisions can be devastating. Vehicle safety isa very important area for technological research, and much of the science is founded on the concept of momentum and momentum transfer. Momentum isa property of a moving objec. tis larger if the mass is greater and i the objec ‘moves faster To change the momentum of an object requires a force, and this is how car crashes can be so damaging, Larger forces cause more damage, whether tothe vehicle or its passengers. Minimising the forces involved in transfering momentum will require knawledge of how momentum transfersand how to calculate the forces in ight ofthe momentum transfer needed Not all momentum changes are dangerous. Racket science is generally based on maximising the forces imparted due toa transfer of momentum, by maximising that momentum transfer. This wil create ‘maximum acceleration in order to propel the rocket fast enough to gain enough gravitational potential energy to leave the Earth This chapter will sh ‘momentum, and how t Ww you how the properties of a moving object can tell us its fculate the transfer of momentum and thus the forces involved in changing the movement of an abject. weasurement (eg. the unit for momentum, kgms Changing the subject ofan equation (eg. finding the locity of an object after col Substituting numerical values into algebraic equations (e.g calculating the momentum) Plotting two variables from experimental data (eg. observing changes in mos Using sin, cos and tan in physical problems, and making calculations using them (eg, momentum vector) FO43050Z0MaMa LCieg ry etree eres pena eee eee ee etter Se eee Se etn) Cet ee ee eo) Se ee ee eS ee eo) Se ees Een a) eens Ree eres Cd eee Peeters Se at ety po rarer aU Ree ied anne erect + What wre mean by collisions and explosions and poeaeantteee Teen Seeds ueasenineerinmee veers pisieroriperrinsiveor airs ter ead coMomentum By the end of this section, you should be able to.. @ calculate the momentum of an object. @ explain how momentum is gained or lost 54 Momentum Momentum is a measure of an object's motion. Iris quite difficult ro define momentum in words, bout it gives an idea of what will he required to stop the object moving. The best definition is ‘mathematical: ‘momentum (kgm) = mass (kg) « velocity (m 5") p=mev ‘As momentum isthe product of mass (a scalar) and velocity (a vector). momentum is a vector This means its direction is very important and must be kept in mind, The direction willbe the same as that of its velocity. fig A vyhich bj moves with de gatos momentuar? be released at speeds ‘An athletics hammer has a mass of7.26 kg (mers competition standar of 25ms". is momentum at 250s" would be: 26250 p=182kgms" ‘Aballet can have a mass of 4.50 grams and can be fired ata speed of 925 ms"! The momentum of this example bullet would be: paA5~107 «925 16kgms" From these examples, it would be significantly more dificult to stop a well thrown athletics hammer than a bullet. So what exactly do we mean by ‘more dificulé?Newton's second law of motion If we consider trying to bring an abject to rest or to accelerate itup to a certain velocity the requirements will be different for different situations. A golf ball is accelerated in a very different ‘way to a ferry. Think oF the forces needed and the time for ‘hich they act. This brings us to another way of considering ‘momentum, Its a measure of the accelerating force, and the time itis applied for, that is needed to bring an object up to the speed itis moving et. Alternatively its the force required, and for how Jong, to bring @ moving object to rest. figB Newton’ awe of moxion as hecxginaly wrote them. Newton's second law can be written mathematically as F= ma, [n fact, that formula only holds true if the mass remains constant. When Newton originally wrote his second law in the 1687 book. Philosophiae naturaisprincipia mathematica, he actually wrote it as: The rate of change of momentum of a body i direct proportional ‘to the resultant jorce applied to the body, and is in the same direction as the force. ‘This can be written mathematically as ap _ ans) a ap Here, Fis the applied force, and $s the rate of change of ‘momentum in the direction of ths force. ‘The ate) the permis a mathematical expression meaning te rate of change of x or how quickly x changes. However if the quantities are not being measured over avery short timescale, we can ‘express this using average changes: ap Fe re Investigating momentum change © ‘motion sensor datalogger fig Nezsuringhow a force changes the momentum ofa well. You can investigate the rate of change of momentum in the school laboratory. I you record the movement ofthe volley overtime as a Force makesit move from rest, you can find its velocity each second. Ifyou then calculate the momentum each second, you willbe able toplota graph of momentum against time. It should be a straight line. As p= Ft, the gradient of this ine wll be equal to the accelerating force. ‘Momentum Time {fig Accelerating rom et, momentum val be proportional to tine Calculate the momentum in each ofthese examples: (a) an ice skater with a mass of 64 kg glides at 3.75 ms" (b) a rugby player of mass 120g runsata speed of 49ms" (¢) anantof mass § milligrams moves ata speed of S centimetres per second, 2. Estimate the momentum of the motorcyclist and the skateboarder shown in fig A. 3. Usingteidensof Newtons second law expan why iting an airbag will cause less injury than ifa passenger hits the dashboard. 4 estimate the force applied bya pein throwing shee Keydefinition ___ Momentum (kgs) = mass (kg » velocity ms") p-mev 55De ) , a By the end of this section, you should be able to.. @ explain the principle of conservation of linear momentum ‘@ make calculations based on the conservation of linear momentum fig Newors re bal col 56 Collisions When objects collide, we can use the laws of physics to caleulate where the objects will go after th collision, We can use the principle of conservation of linear momentum to predict the motion of abjects after a collision. This principle tells us that if we calculate the momentum of each abject before they collide, the sum total of these momenta (accounting for their direction) will be the same as the sum total afterwards, Learningtip ‘The word Tinear appears here to remind us that this all about abjects moving in straight ines. There are similar physics principles about rotating objects, but they use different equations forthe calculations. In this book we wl only consider linear momentum This principle is dependent on the coneition that no external force acts on the objects in questior An external force would provide an additional acceleration, and the motion of the abjeets would nat be dependent on the collision alone. As we saw in the previous section, a resultant force will cause a ‘change in momentum, so it makes sense that momentum is only conserved if no external force acts, Imagine if 2 jugale's upward moving ball collided with one coming down. Momentum conservation ‘would suggest thatthe one falling down would bounce back with an upward velocity after the collision. Common sense tes us that all balls will sil end up back on the ground, The external force of gravity means thatthe principle af conservation of momentum alone eannot be used to predict the motions after the collision, fg 8 David Porter ofthe TOY Horned Frogs eas the ul orc ofthe consonation ef mermenunCO Ivan American football match, the stationary quarterback is tackled by a defender who dives through the air at 4m and, in mid-air grabs the quarterback and the two fly backwards together. Ignoring any friction effect, calculate how fast the two wil ly back f the tacHer has a mass of 140kg and the stationary player has a mass of 95kg, Consider the enti situation to be happening horizontally. Before: (Quarterback stationary so zero momentum. Peas =v = 140 x 4 = 560, ‘momentum before = S60 kg ms" ter ‘momentum after = momentum before = 560 kgm” Pear = Men * Veen Pi 560560, Mace” (140 + 95) 735 ams? Math Moth Learning tip Inacollsion in which two abjects join together to become one and mave off together, they are often said t0‘coalescet Explosions fig these wapeno arts ar staonary If thay lec goof each eter thy wil explode’ - they wl hy apart wth equal ane eppese mame If a stationary object explodes. then the total momentum of all the shrapnel parts added up (taking account of the direction of their movements) must be zero, The object had zero momentum atthe start, so the law af conservation of linear momenturn tells us this must be the same total after the explosion. In physics terms, any such event is termed an explosion, although it may not be very dramatic. For example, if the two trapeze artists in fig C simply let go their hands and swing apart, they have zero total momentum before and will have equal and opposite momenta afterwards, waich when added together will total zero again. 37th Ifthe boy has a mass of 55 kg and steps forward ata speed cf 1.5ms", what wll happen to the boat which has a mass cof 36 kg? [Ignore friction effects) This situation is an explosion, so: So when the two are added up, the total momentum is sill 200 Prox” “(85> 15)=-8254gms" Mage * Vous * “825 gms" {ig D Caution: explosions may make you net fig Veriying the principle of conservation of near momertum, You can investigate the transfer of momentum in collisions in the school laboratory using trolleys, or sliders on an airtrack. 8y recording the movement of ane trolley crashing into anather, you can find the momentum of each one before and after the calision. The calculation of summing the total momenta before and after colision will alow you to verity the principle of conservation of linear momentum. Try dliflerent types of collision and trolleys with different masses. You could also try an explosion in which the trolleys spring apart from a stationary postion Inexperiments using trolleys, we often find that momentum is actually not conserved in the measurements we make. With ar track collisions, the measurements match very closely or exactly with the conservation ‘of momentum theory. What might be the reasons for this difference between the two types of experiment? figF Avoley explosionEE Newton's third law Conservation of momentum is directly responsible for Newton's third law: Remember, this told us hat for every foree, there i an equal and apposite force. If we think of a force as'a means to change @ ar by an equal and opposite one to ensure that overall momentum is conserved, Ror example, ifthe gravitational pull ofthe Earth causes an apple to fll ror a tree, che apple gains momentum towards the Earth, To conserve overall momentum, the Earth must gain an equal anc opposite momentum, This is then caused by an equal and opposite gravitational force onthe Earth from the apple ‘The immense mass of the Earth means that its acceleration is imperceptible to us. 1 Amowe stuntman wth amass of 90g sands on a statonay Ig slateboard An actor shoots the stuntman tha mm pst Te bullet leaves the pt 2356 ms and embeds complet n the momentum (F= e direction must be countered a force changing momentum in on momentum dom Stntarsbullproot vest Hw tas alte stantnan away? fig Conaraion of omer 2 Agitinastaionary boat on asi pond has lst he asin the water morro getthe boat moving oem Newton eb tin she os er ude horcontalyoutele bal wha sped lms i oa ‘Mass of boat = 60 kg: mass of girl = 40 ke: mass of rucksack = Sky, (a) How fast wil his acton make the bost move? (b) If she throws the rucksack by exerting a force on it for 0.2, how much force does she exer? 3> How can Newton's third law explain the problem suffered by the boy stepping out of the boat in fig D? 4. Inastuntfor an action movie, the 100 kg actor jumps from a train that is crossing a river bridge. On the river below, the heroine tied to a raft is drifting towards a waterfall at 3 ms". The raft and heroine have a total mass of 200 kg. (a) Ifthe hero times his jumps perfectly so as to land on the rat, and his velocity is 12 ms” at an angle of 80° to the river current, what will be the velocity of the raft immediately after his landing? Draw a ‘vector diagram to show the momentum addition. (Ignore any vertical mation.) (b) Ifthe waterfall is 100 m downstream, and the hero landed when the raft was 16m from the bank, ‘would they plummet over the fall? (Assume the velocity remains constant after the hero has landed ) (The raft and the waterfall are on the same side of the bridge as he jumps) ‘Key definitions Conservation of linear momentum means the vector sum of the momenta of all objects in a system isthe same before and after any interaction (collision) between the abjects {An explosion is situation in which a stationary abject (r system of joined abjecs) separates into ‘component pars, which move off t diferent velocities. Momentum must be conserved in explosions. 59)SAVING HOCKEY GOALKEEPERS © ‘OBO is a New Zealand based company that manufacture hockey goalkeeping. following extracts from their website explain some of their testing lab's capabilities, and report on a potential new material for use in leg guards ipment. The A PEEK INSIDE THE O LAB If we are to design and build the world's most protective and best performing goa! keeper equipment we need the facts. The O Lab is packed fuller the world’s most advanced impact test equipment. and afew very clever dudes to test and help evaluate the results > fig A Sostemealy dummy head ‘age (an cour whee: ‘etal sorted by a small group of smart commited people Video capture at speeds upto 2000 frames per second, skin contact analysis, and aecurate concussion measurements \ {fig Bal cannon capable of speeds in excess of 120 mph 200 ken WHY OBO CHOSE NOT TO USE D30 Awhile ago, a radical ew protcetion polymer called D30 was offered © OBO. Because we ate always trying to improve our products we were ‘excited by the poweatial of D30 so our designer made a special tip from [New Zealand to England to mcet with the D30 creators. He returned home with ot of information and some simples which We tested inthe purpose-built OBO impact lb... The O lab. ‘Out impact lab testing showed that while D30 weighed more than wo aid half times the OBO polyethylene und EVA fours, it provided significantly less protection witen dealing withthe high speed and highly Tocalised impact encountered with a hockey bal Have a Took a the resus on the impact graph below (che horizontal axis is speed. te vertical axis i uansferred force ~ the higher the transferred force, the les the protection) Protection comparison of D30 vs OBO foam for hockey bell impact August 2006 (mbH 370720rm FE 3/Sme| OHO fea PE 130/20. PE 7 75 80 5 90 Ball speed (km) 3 160 105 to fig Protection comparison of D30 vs OBO foam for hackey tll pac wher ‘else willl encounter these themes? Wel pA! 60ae Let us start by considering the nature of the writing in the article 1. The website opposite was written to support the business activities of a sports supply Gommend word company. Consider the article and comment on the type of writing being used. Think When you are aaked tO about for example how the physics involved is explained, and the degree of detail ‘comment on SOME included. Try and answer the following questions: younecd tink soot ‘a. What range of people do you expect might read the OBO website? What would be several varable® the likely scientific background of their customers? b. On the actual OBO webpage. there are many more pictures, including brief videos, that we could not fit in this book. How has the ratio of text to images been chosen for the intended audience, and the website as a medium? ‘c. Where units have been included, comment on the actual units chosen to measure the quantities invalved, ota or information YoU tre qiven and fe ‘own judgements Scientific source { ns you read the articles, they have Now we will look atthe physics in, or connected to, these website extracts. Some of these questions will ink to topics in much earlier sections of this book, so you may need to combine concepts from different areas of physics 10 work out the answers. Use the timeline at the bottom of the page to help you put this work in context with what you have already leamed in your course. vam and whom they Were | on for Estabiched ic puolicat 2. For the testing of the polymer D3O, calculate the range of momenta for the test balls \ fired from the cannon. (A standard hockey ball has a mass of 160 grams) 3. Explain, with reference to Newton's laws, a. why the transferred force’ i.e. the force felt through the foam by a goalkeeper wearing it, would be the same as the force needed to decelerate the ball . wiy the lines on the graph show a linear relationship with a positive gradient. 4. In light ofthe principle of conservation of inear momentum, how can a goalkeeper remain stationary, whilst the ball’s momentum is completely removed in collision with the leg pads? 2 sources of reliable good soure \ a number of re “a what makes 9 lo not need to You do ne present ati" prepare the Fr Imagine you work for OBO as their UK representative and you have to prepare a presentation to delegates ata tade show in England. Your presentation will need to explain in much greater scientific detail the testing that the equipment has undergone in The O Lab. Prepare a questionnaire for OBO head office in New Zealand, of questions that wil give you the detals you need to prepare your presentation. 080 Wr a able to prepare 20° presentation. (080 use one unusual testing procedure they cll the DTH test This involves areal goalkeeper wearing the Hem under test. balls fired atthe test subject and the lab researchers ask the question, id That Hurt? (© From the website af OBO, wwrwaboceavihe-lah 62.3 1 Whieh of the following isthe correct unit for momentuan? (0) kas (b) kgens* (¢) kgms (@ kgarts 0) (Total: 1] 2 A hockey ball of mass 158 i hit with a force of 2000 N so tha it wavels at 28.1 msl, What isthe ball’ momentura? (@) Adkgms* (b) 624kgms? (6) 4440kgme's* (d) 8880kgms (1) (Total: 1] 3. Anice dance couple begin their routine stationary and push ‘apart from each other witha force of 75N on the other The Female skater has a mass of 64 kg, whilst the male skater weighs 804 N If the fernale moves off to te left with a speed of 3.6ms, ‘what is the velocity of the male skater? (2) 0.022 ms" to the right (0) 28me* to the right (c) 3.Lms~ to the left (4) 3.1ms* to the right a (Total: 1] 4 How tiny bacteria move is of interest in nanotechnology. Mycebacteria move by ejecting slime ftom nozzes in their bodies. Explain the pics principles behind this form of propulsion (a [Total: 4] Exam-style questions 5A student is using a ‘Newton's Cradle’. This consists of a set of ‘identical solid metal balls hanging by threads from a frame so that they are in contact with each other. ‘She intially pulls one ball to the side as shown. She releases the ball, it collides withthe nearest stationary ball ‘and stops. The ball furthest to the right immediately moves ‘away. The middle three balls remain stationary. (2) Explain what measurements the student would take and describe how she would use them to investigate whether momentum had been conserved in this event. 4 (0) The student rnakes the following observations: + the ball on the right returns and collides with a similar tesult this repeats itself a number of times * alter a while, the middle balls are also moving + shorly afterwards, the balls all come to rest Discuss these observations in terms of energy. 8) [Total: 7]6 Astudent used a motion sensor and a datalogging computer {o investigate the momentum changes when a trolley is accelerated by a falling weight connected to it. Assume the trolley suffers no fiction on the desk, and there is also no fiction in the pulley wheel. ‘mation sensor datalogger {a) Explain how Newton's second law of motion predicts the ‘momentum of this rlley will change when the weight is allowed to fall freely (2) {b) When the weight is released, trolley experiences a resultant accelerating force of 2.85 N and has a mass of 350 ¢ Calculate the rate of change of velocity ofthe trolley. (3) (6) Thetroley reaches a velocity of 11.1 ms”, calculae its momentum at this velocity, inchuding the correct unit. [2] Explain what is meant by the principle of conservation of momentu, a) ‘The student changes the experiment so that she can cole a moving wolley wit an identical stationary one. (©) Explain the momentum and speed changes for each trlley if the moving tolley stops on collision, and the stationary cone moves away: ic (9 Explain the momentum and speed changes involved if the trolleys join together on collision, and both move away together (4 (8) Explain how this experiment could be changed 10 investigate the momentum and speed changes in an explosion (3) (Total: 20] 7 Explain how the principle of conservation of momentum in collisions is a consequence of Newton's third law of motion (5) (Total: 6] 8 A hockey ball is travelling horizontally with a momentum of 0.8 kgm" just before it hits a goalkeeper’ leg pad. It rebounds horizontally from the leg pad with a momentum of =1.2 kgs" The graph shows the variation in the momentum of the ball during this process. oa 06 oa: 02 Time/ms Momentum/kgms* (2) Describe how the balls momentum changes overtime from Oto 10s ial (6) Explain in terms of Newton's laws why the momentum changes from positive to negative during the bll’scolision with the leg pad. ial {c) What is the resultant force on the ball during the following, time periods? {) 0-dms (i) <8ms (a) @12ms (4) (4) Draw a new version of the graph fora colsion in which the ball is intily traveling at half the speed, and for which the impact time is also halved, but the force provided by the leg pads isthe sare 3] (Total: 12]TOPIC 3 <4 Electric circuits Pea al f-foidd (ot: Me ler Uaaii(-1) al quantities that can be measured and how structir Ete ar cies eee re een Cone et et nerd ieee) How the conservation of charge, and the Se eee etre i tc rs 2 £ B ‘currents and voltages around circuits dl i eee eer ee Heclbssia ante eee reer) S Petite i GR Pe EI) How to calculate the transfer of electrical energy, Ra Ree ae power, and the efficiency of an electrical device retire) Goon OcUK ey . Renee ete ete eel ere See ee eee ee : pastes {+The variation in current with changing potenti ern eee Rae aeentameaninaceety - eee) ‘eet entre terra woe oot Nee ee aes Decanter eee ricd curents Pee eer (Ohms aw in general and when itis, and is not rs Ree eee een) Peon ec anet! erent Ree Cue et) Se ae ees eer AE BhElectric current By the end of this section, you should be able to.. @ describe electric current asthe rate of flow of charged particles © make calculations of electric current fig. 66 srent of 100 Electric charge & Some particles have an electric charge. For example the electron has a negative charge. ea In Sl uns, electric charge is measured in coulombs (C) and the amount of charge ona single electron in these units is —1 8 10°C. extext0%¢ ‘This means that you would have one coulomb of negative charge you clleted together 66.25 « 10 electrons, as shown n ths calculation: total charge, 25 10! 1.64 10"=1C The charges on fundamental particles such as electrons are fixed properties ofthese particles Itis impossible ro create or destoy charge ~ the total change rmast anys be conserved Electric current If electric charge moves, this is referred to as an electric current, and the strict definition of current is the rate of movement of charge. As its usually a physical movement of billions of tiny charged. particles, such charge movernents are often said to flow. Thinking of the flow of charge like the current Ina river can be useful, and ve will see later how current splits and recombines at circuit junctions in a manner that is analogous to water flow. Moreover, as the total amount of water in a river ata given time does not change, even ifthe iver splits, this again iustrates the conservation of charge lg We can mace electic curren dvough a component using an ammeter connected in sees. Electric current occurs when a charged particle, which is free to move, experiences an electric force, If it can move it willbe accelerated by the force. This movement of charge forms the electric current. Mos electric circuits are made from metal wiring in which there are electrons that are free to move. These conduetion electrons then form the current. [Any source of electrical energy can create an electric force in order to produce a current. In fg C, the cell causes the electric force experienced by the negative conduction electrons so they move through the metal - they are attracted to the positive anode of the cell, pte conventional current fig € Concentonal extent ows Irom postive to negative, Negative electrons would move inthe oppose direction,