Professional Documents
Culture Documents
79
A R C H A E OL O G Y F R O M THE WETLANDS: RECENT PERSPECTIVES
BO
P L A C E S , P E R C E P T I O N S ,B O U N D A R I E S A N D T A S K S
B1
ARCHAEOLOGY FROM THE WETLANDS: RECENT PERSPECTIVES
is strikingly different from that attributable to the dried reeds, fished and hunted from long canoes
minerogenicwetlands. (mashuf), and grew rice and kept water buffaloes in
However, such perceptions of specific types of the marshes(Maxw el l 1957; Thesi ger 19 59, 7964;
wetlands do not translateacrosscultural boundaries. Young 1977). However, the Marsh Arabs were
A contrasting perception of peatlands is shown in regardedwith distrust by the Iraqi government,who
the study of the lowlands of North Holland. Jan saw the marshes as a refuge for bandits, smugglers
Besteman(1990) considersthe early medieval socio- and rebelsdisdainful of externalcontrol, and as bases
political context of patrons and clients. The king, for Shi'ite resistancegroups (Lamb 2003). After the
occupying the top of the feudal pyramid, would have unsuccessfulShi'ite rebellionsimmediately following
.War,
been perceivedas the landowner of any wilderness the First Gulf the Iraqi governmentconstructed
such as the peatlands of North Holland. However, canalsand drains acrossthe marshes,while the marsh
with the declining control of the Carolingian villageswere bombed and their peoplesexpelled.
kings over their vassals after the middle of the An historical example of such contradictory
ninth century, the latter usurped the peat bogs for perspectives of wetlandscomesfrom the Humberhead
themselves.Continuing erosion of political structures Levelsregion in the seventeenthcentury.The drainage
and increasing geographical distance between the of the Hatfield Chaseby the Dutch engineerCornelius
seatsof the local elitesand the areasof reclamationin Vermuyden was financed by external monies, and
the subsequentcenturiesgave rise to groups of 'free under royal authority. The Chase was describedin
farmers'. These 'free farmers' were no longer bound 1608 as 'utterly wasted' as it produced little or no
by oath, obligation or tax to their patrons, and these revenuefor the crown or the big landowners,but the
apparently marginal wetland landscapeshad become commonersenjoyedthe myriad resourcesprovided by
fundamentallyattractive placesto live. the various wetlands:the higher, free-drainingislands
The landscapeas understood by the people living were used as arable land, typically; the minerogenic
within the wetlands would include a differentiation floodplains were used for grazing stock and as hay
of the many landscape features, producing native land, the meadowsand ings provided the main source
ecologies,,which would have included a detailed of food for livestock and plough animals; the lowest
knowledge of where to fish, where to build houses terrestrial areas, the carrs, moors and wastes, were
and to obtain building material from,, where to take extensively exploited as seasonal pastures and as
cattle for grazine in the spring months, and where the such formed an essentialpart of the rural economy,
spirits, gods or ancestorslived. Particular streams, enabling the use of some of the higher ings as hay
hummocks, trees and fields would have been known lands.Furthermore,historicalsourcesshow that peat-
by their individual names (eg Summerfield;Fishlake), cutting, for fuel and as building materials ('turves'),
with distinct connotations and memoriesattachedto was an important activity by the thirteenth and
t hes ef eat ur e sa n d n a me s(e gN e l s o n 1 9 8 3 ) . fourteenth centuries.The wet parts of the landscape
were also valuable for seasonalgrazing throughout
the Middle Ages and the post-medievalperiod; for
PERCEPTION
providing reeds for building, thatching and basket
Third, we should approach the significance of making, but even more importantly for fishing and
specificlandscapesfrom the perspectiveof the people fowling. Unsurprisingly,the commonerssided during
'We
we study. cannot hope to start to understand the EnglishCivil War with the anti-royalists.This was
the significance and meaning of trackways, bog not predicatedin socio-politicalterms, but represents
bodies, lake settlementsand so on if we approach a choice that expressedtheir social identity. As part
wetlands from a modern, functionalist perspective. of their reformed social identities, the commoners
Furthermore, we must also recognize that the sabotaged much of the smaller drainage works,
perceptionof wetlands,and other typesof landscapes, culminating in their attack on the drainageengineers'
differs betweeninsidersand outsiders. village at Sandtoft (Van de Noort 2004).
The most 'extreme'exampleof wetland occupation
is probably provided by the Marsh Arabs of Iraq and
ENCULTURATION
Iran. These are best known to western observers
through the writings of travellers such as \Tilfrid Fourth, we should recognize that all through the
Thesiger. He described in the 1950s a people who human past, and indeed in the present, the natural
lived on reed islands, who built architecturally- environment has been perceived as dynamic and
spectacularcommunal meeting houses (mudhif) of sometimes even alive. and often as imbued with
B2
P L A C E S . P E R C E P T I O N S .B O U N D A R I E S A N D T A S K S
supernaturalpowers (eg Nelson 1983; Ingold 1995). as was the case for the second century sc Corlea I
Enculturing nature - and the spirits within them trackway in the Irish Midlands (Raftery 1990).
- forms a key theme of human behaviour, which can These contextual observations suggest that the
be favourably studied in wetland landscapeswith function of these, invariably long, trackways was
its high-resolutiondating and close associationwith not simply linking two areas of relative dry land
palaeoenvironmentalsourcematerial. acrossa wetland. Rather, we would argue that these
Christopher Tilley (1994) has argued that tracks trackways were often constructed with the objective
and paths are primary human artefacts. They were to enculture the wilderness landscapesin between,
one of the first modifications people made to their or to make a statementabout the prowess of culture
environment, forming a medium through which over nature. On a number of occasions,this idea was
the environment could be integrated with the restated,through additional depositions or through
psyche and transformed into a landscape,that is, extensionsof a track that in fact led nowhere.
an environment which reflects and is interpreted
by human beings. The environment thus becomes
'encultured'into landscape(Tilley BOUNDARIES AND EDGES
1.994,206-7). The
concepts of paths and roads, and the journeys that Fifth, specialattention should begivento the boundaries
they enable, are powerful metaphors (Tilley 1999, and edgesof the landscapesor native ecologies.From
178), recognized by the Romans and even by us in our observationsof the perceived dynamic nature of
our modern, so-calledrational culture (egexpressions the natural environment,it follows that the boundaries
such as 'taking the high road' and 'road to success' and edgesof theselandscapesare often given particular
use paths as metaphors).Thus the path is not just a significance,for example as 'natural places'in the sense
route from one place to another; more importantly, usedby Richard Bradley(2000).
it transforms a wilderness full of unknowns into a Stockerand Everson'sstudy (2003) of the $Titham
cultured landscape,a known place. valley in Lincolnshire, England, offers an outstanding
'Wetland
archaeology is particularly well-placed example of the longevity of the significanceof some
to study enculturation, for example, though the natural places in wetlands. In the Middle Ages, the
contextualized research of trackways. Prehistoric River Witham was the boundary of the independent
trackways in mires' from the Neolithic Sweet state of Lindsey. Researchfound that the medieval
Track through to medieval toghers in Ireland, monasterieswere located at strategic points along
were the principal cultural elements in otherwise the valley where causewaysprovided accessacross
un-encultured landscapes. The contexts of many the river and its extensiveriparian wetlands. In the
prehistorictrackways include specificobjectsthat can Middle Ages, the causewayswere already of great
be understood as votive or ritual deposits,suggesting age, and excavationsof one of them, at Fiskerton,
that the locales where these depositions had been showed a predecessorof Iron Age and Roman date
placedwere viewed as beingconnectedwith ancestors, (Field & Parker Pearson2003). The causewayswere
ghosts or gods (Cosgrove 7993). Objects include the also associatedwith votive depositions,which occur
unused jade axe found adjacent the Neolithic Sweet in this area only at the terminals of the causeways.
Track (B 6. J Coles 1986), the wooden disc wheels In turn, thesevotive depositionswere found to be in
beneaththe Neolithic Nieuw-Dordrecht trackway in the vicinity of Bronze Age barrow cemeteries.Stocker
the BourtangerMoor in the easternNetherlands(Van and Everson thus argue that specific locales within
d e r Sanden2001, 1, 4 1 -2 ), th e ma n y b ro n z ew e a p ons, the \Titham valley were perceived as places where
artefactsand skeletal remains alongsidethe Fag Fen one could cross this boundary for a period in excess
stake alignment, now reinterpreted as a series of of two millennia, despitethe evolving nature of this
trackways (Pryor 2001), the bog bodiesalongsidethe wetland landscape.Bronze Age perceptionsendured,
first century AD Valtherbrug in the Bourtanger Moor. in one way or another, into the Middle Ages,with the
Furthermore, many excavators have commented on medievalmonasterieseffectivelyChristianizingpagan
the limited functionality of trackways, for example, practicesand beliefs.
because it did not connect two complementary
regions (eg the Nieuw-Dordrecht trackway), it was
MARGINALITY AND LIMINALITY
only in use for a very short period (eg the Sweet
Track)'' it was periodically extended (eg the Nieuw- Sixth, we should distinguish clearly between
Dordrecht trackway) or becausethe trackways had marginality and liminality. The concept of liminality
been partially destroyedsoon after their construction, is frequently invoked where wetlands are traversed.
83
F
Liminality is a notoriously fluid concept. Originally from eels,fish and shellfish,to peat for fuel, reedsfor
proposedby Van Gennep(1908)',the conceptis linked roofing, to summer pastures and hay lands. Raised
to 'rites of passage'to describethe formalized rituals bogs can also be used intermittently for short-term
and practices that accompany one's transition from seasonal grazing by burning the top layer of the
one particular state into another, especiallythe rites bog, for the preservationof butter, the seasoningof
associatedwith birth, reaching adulthood, marriage 'We
wood and the curing of leather. should recognize
and death. As part of these rituals, symbolic or real that these activities, though seemingly economic
'thresholds'needed
to be crossed,with the thresholds practices,are things that people do every day, albeit
constituting liminal zones. As economic and ritual in specificcultural and social conditions.
activities are not, on a landscape level, mutually It is thereforenot surprisingthat the overwhelming
exclusive,the recurrenr equation of liminality with majority of trackways excavated from wetlands
marginality is often mistaken.Although some liminal are not the long tracks described previously as
zones were to be found in what were considered playing part in enculturation processes, but are
marginal landscapes,others (eg the threshold passed short tracks, often little more than 10m in length.
by newlyweds in the modern world) are located In contrast to the long, over-designedand possible
within settlementsor within areasin economicuse.In ceremonial tracks, these short trackways were
other words we must be very specificwhen identifying usually simple narrow pathways, platforms or
placesthat were liminal. bundles of brushwood used to crearepassing places
The lake-dwellings in the Holderness region in at especiallywet and boggy placesalongsideexisting
East Yorkshire provide an example of liminality that 'We
routes through the landscape. recognize that
is unconnectedfrom marginality. A reappraisalof the large linear causewaysthat traverse a bog from one
'Sfest
Furze 'lake-dwelling'showedthat the sitewas in edge to another represent a very small proportion
effect a Late Neolithic or Early Bronze Age trackway of the total number of known sites (MacDermott
across a sinuous wetland that had developedin the 1998, 7; S tanl ey 2003, 65). The absenceof exot ic
Bail and Low Mere complex (Van de Noort 1995; objects and bog bodies at these locations reinforces
seealso Fletcher& Van de Noort this volume). These the concept that the short trackways were used
elongated mires may have been seen as a boundary functionally in everyday lives and had, in the eyesof
between the world of the living and the world of the the people that used them, little in common with the
dead, with evidenceof two burial mounds to the east large trackways that were constructed for specific
of the former meres, and somewhat tentatively, a occasi ons.
settlementon their west bank. The trackway at West
Furze that crossed these wetlands included several
features that could have symbolized this liminal RETHOUGHT \TETLAND LANDSCAPES:
space, most notably the wicket or doorway at the A CASE STUDY INTO THE EARLY
easternterminal of the short trackway. The symbolic RECLAMATION OF'INCLESMOOR'
function of this boundary was further reinforced with
a number of human skulls. In this case study, into the early reclamation of
Inclesmooror Thorne Moors, we want to show how
a rethought landscapearchaeology of wetlands can
TASKSCAPES
be undertaken. Long-standing research interests,
Seventh'we should not underplay the importance of into the history of reclamation and the exploitation
many wetland landscapesas taskscapes,areaswhere of these wetlands, are neither forgotten nor
the rhythm of daily life determines the significance ignored, but new, deeper, information is uncovered
of how these wetland landscapesare perceived.The through contextualization: consideration of the
p hr as e' t as k s c ap ew
'
a s c o i n e d b y T i m In g o l d ( 1993) appropriatenessof the wetland concept,comparisons
to focus on the concept that the manner in which between insiders' and outsiders' perceptions,,the
landscapesare experiencedand perceived is closely introduction of the enculturation concept, special
related to the activities or tasks that are undertaken attention to boundaries and understanding the
'With
in particular landscapesat particular times. wetland landscapesas taskscapes.
this, Ingold has effectively returned to the original 'Inglesmoor'
is the medieval name for the Thorne
concept of landscape, as in the Dutch landschap. Moors, in the Yorkshire Humberhead Levels. These
As we have argued akeady, the insiders' view of Levels were formed by the pro-glacial Lake Humber,
wetlands is one that offers myriad resources,ranging a meltwater lake that expanded and retracted with the
B4
PLACES, PERCEPTIONS, BOUNDARIES AND TASKS
ffiffi
k
1"ffi:i.
1$-x
FIGURE1
The Inclesmoor Map, c 7407 (PRO MPC 56).
seasonsand the glaciers.The lake ceasedto exist not Hatfield Moors (Gearey & Chapman this volume),
later than c 11000 cal nc, when the icesheetblocking and it seemslikely that similar activity would have
the Humber Gap betweenthe Yorkshire \7olds and the taken place at Thorne Moors. To date, however, only
Lincolnshire \folds retreated, or possibly somewhat a very short Bronze Age brushwood trackway has
earlier through silting of the lake itself (Bateman et been identified (Buckland 1979), alongsidea number
al 2000). The Lake Humber deposits were subject to of isolated finds of stone axes, and it is unlikely that
aeolian reworking during the Loch Lomond Stadial new archaeologicalsites will be discovered,as this
of the Devensian,c 11500 to 10500 cal ec,, and this former milled peatland has been converted into a
reworking resulted in the formation of sandy dunes nature conservation reserve(eg Van de Noort 2001).
or 'islands', resulting in extensiveundulated flatland. The time-transgressive nature of the development
Holocene sea-level rise initiated the development of the mire would have initially involved a number of
of expansive wetlands in the Humberhead Levels. smaller, mesothrophic, mires developing in the lowest
Initially, the impact of sea-levelrise was restricted to areas, with deciduous woodland surviving on the
the Late-glacialriver channels,but from c 3200 cal rc, higher grounds. The local impact of continued sea-
the impeded arterial drainage resulted in widespread level rise and impeded drainage was the evolvement
paludifcation, and the onset of mire formation at of a single, continuous ombrothrophic raised mire,
Thorne Moors (Buckland & Dinnin 1997). which drowned the forest (Dinnin 1997). This
Recent archaeological research has shown the raised mire appears to have survived more or less
construction of a Neolithic trackway on nearby undisturbed to the first half of the second millennium
85
V
AD' when Sphagnwmimbricatum,having formed the in the field (ibid., 159). The latter provided the basis
b ulk peat up t o t h e n , d i s a p p e a re d(S m i th 1 9 8 5 ). for the pictorial elaborations of the map, from the
Medieval Thorne Moors was probably significantly miniature villagesto the marshland vegetationon the
greater than the remnants surviving today, and the as yet unenclosedand unexploited Moor.
Moor and its lagg areaswould almost certainly have The reasonsfor the drainage of Inclesmoor were
been explored and utilized by the local population, for its exploitation for economic benefits,and there is
living on the hills on the edges of the wetlands. A little doubt that from the point of view of the formal
charter from early in the fourteenth century gives the landowners, this benefit lay in the turves that were
picture as one of extensivelyusedpeatlandsfor turves, sold in towns as fuel. For example, Thornton Abbey
both for fuel and as building materials, as hunting paid Henry the Lacey 16,000 turves annually for the
and fishing grounds, for retting of hemp rent of its turbary in Inclesmoor (ibid.,
and for seasonal grazing and hay making 154-5). The regional palynologicalrecord
(Thirsk 1953). The open waters were used (eg Smith 1985) indicates that woodland
extensivelyas fisheries,especiallyfor eels. had become scarce aound this time, and
By the early seventeenthcentury, Thorne the peat turves must have provided for an
and Hatfield Moors were consideredfrom eager market. This external perception of
the point of view of outsidersas wastes,but the value of the Moor contrasts somewhat
to the commoners, the wetlands provided with the insiders' perception, who valued
invaluable resourceswhich enabled them the natural diversity of the Moor.
to live self-sufficientlives. Following the Dutch philosopher Hub
However,, the formal ownership of Zwart (2003), we would argue that
FIGURE,2
Thorne Moors had passed to Norman The InclesmoorMap, there is another layer of perception to be
barons and institutions, even though the c 1 4 0 7 ( P R OM P C 5 6 ) : discernedhere,and that is the moral stance
rights of accessand use given to freemen detailof 'StoneCros'. of the religious houses to the uselessness
was occasionally recorded in charters. of the Moor. The wildernessof Inclesmoor
Selby Abbey, founded in 1069 and one was an affront to the ora et labora ('pray
of the earliest ecclesiasticalbuildings in Norman and work') principle of the medievalmonasticorders,
northern England, had extensive landholdings, and the reclamation of unproductive, ungodly land
including \Thitgift in the north of Thorne Moors, and would have been seen as an act of conversion: the
was gifted the easternpart of the Moors by John de Christian izationof the pagan wilderness.The Ch ristian
Mowbray, Lord of Axholme,, in the early fourteenth enculturation of wildernesses throughout Europe
century, albeit he retained the rights of free chase. was organized and undertaken by monasteriesand
Other owners of strips of land, from the River Ouse ecclesiasticalinstitutions who had the organizatronal
'regardedthemselvesas stewards
in the north 'as far as the moor goes towards the ability to do so, and
south'. included the canons of Newhouse. St Peter's appointed by God, as co-creators,taking active part
Hospital of York and the Abbey of in the management and restitution of
T hor ont on ( Din n i n 1 9 9 7 , 2 2 -3 ). fallen nature' (ibid.,,1 1 1 ).
By the early fifteenth century, the In terms of the landscapearchaeology
religious houses,possibly led by Selby of these wetlands, we can discern a
Abbey, had commenced with the cultivated or encultured taskscape
full-scale drainage of Thorne Moors with an ordered system of fields,
(Metcalfe 1960). The Inclesmoor roads, canals and villages; the latter
M" p ( P RO M P C 5 6 ), d a te d to c 1 4 0 7 often placed on the inside of the dike
(Beresford 7986), shows a (hand-dug) alongside the Rivers Ouse and Trent.
drain encircling the Moor, and in FIGURE 3 The village churchesare located at the
The InclesmoorMap, c 1407
the northern third of Thorne Moors, junctions of the dike with the roads
(PRO MPC 56): detailof
roads, drains, bridges, a sluice, several w e t l a n dv e g e t a t i o n . encroachingonto the Moor, and would
roadside crossesand settlementswith have been visible from deep inside
churches have appeared. The map Thorne Moors as is, for example, the
itself is thought to have been produced as part of caseof the church of St Mary Magdalene at\Jfhitgift
the ongoing disputes of rights and ownership over (Van de Noort 2004, 135-7). The Inclesmoor Mup
the Moor, and was based on documentsheld at the reinforcesthis reading of the landscape.The northern
manor court at Snaith,supplementedby observations part shows a landscapeunder cultivation, with roads,
B6
PLACES, PERCEPTIONS, BOUNDARIES AND TASKS
CONCLUSION
87
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