Journal of Building Engineering 23 (2019) 155–171

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Sustainability of nanomaterials based self-healing concrete: An all-inclusive T

insight
⁎ ⁎
Ghasan Fahim Huseiena, , Kwok Wei Shahb, , Abdul Rahman Mohd Sama
a
UTM Construction Research Centre, Institute for Smart Infrastructure and Innovative Construction, School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Skudai, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
b
Department of Building, School of Design and Environment, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117566, Singapore

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Presently, the construction industries worldwide are looking for materials with low carbon footprint and en-
Sustainability vironment friendliness. Yet, ordinary Portland cements (OPC) based materials are widely used in building sectors
Nanomaterials and remain majorly responsible for carbon pollution. The deterioration that happens in such concretes from the
Self-healing concrete very beginning of the service not only life reduces their lifespan but also demands more OPC. Furthermore, the
Environment pollution
continuation and repairing are mostly laboured intensive and too expensive. Thus, self-recovery of the damaged
High performance
concretes is significant concerning environmental mitigation and energy saving. Lately, nanomaterials based
concretes have been exploited diversely in the construction engineering owing to their enhanced mechanical and
durable attributes. The design as well as production of self-healing and sustainable concrete is an intensely
research topic in nanotechnology. In this view, this article provides a comprehensive assessment on nanoma-
terials based self-healing concretes. The past development, recent trends, environmental impact, sustainability,
merits and demerits of several methods of self-healing concrete production are discussed.

1. Introduction
Cement industries that produce the main constituent of concrete
remain the foremost concern to the world in terms of contributor for
climate change and hindrance towards sustainability. Apart from USA,
the fast-developing nations such as China, Indonesia, India, and Turkey
are also causing major environmental pollution. According to Robert
Hutchinson (2016), above 4 billion metric tons of OPC that is produced
annually from numerous cement industries worldwide as basic con-
stituent of concrete are primarily responsible for the major CO2 foot-
print [1–4]. Identification satisfactory and realistic alternatives are
challenging task. In the civil engineering sector, OPC is broadly used as
efficient binder in concrete and other construction materials. Mean-
while, OPC manufacturing is commonly accepted as the main provider
of emitted greenhouse gases in the atmosphere [5–8]. International
Energy Agency (IEA) reports suggest that it amounts to 6–7% of total
CO2 emissions [8–11]. By the year 2050, the worldwide demand of OPC
is expected boost to nearly 200% [8]. Mitigation of CO2 emissions from
OPC related activities requires new types of sustainable, smart and
environmental affable self-healing materials [12,13].
It is known that cement materials have very low resistance to ag-
gressive environment and that is one of the most severe problems
affecting the durability and service life of concrete structures in the
natural climate. The effect of aggressive environment can manifest in
the form of expansion and cracking of concrete. Sometimes the cracking
of concrete may cause serious structural problems [14,15]. In this
sense, the continuous increase in the durability requirements of the
concrete structures led to the development of smart concretes (using
self-healing technology) where excellent durability is mandatory [16].
Generally, self-healing is beneficial for the materials’ durability.
Particularly, it is advantageous when human interference is difficult
such as in construction purposes in the midst of harsh physical and
chemical environments. Self-healing is also required to protect material
characteristics especially in kinetic and thermodynamic conditions that
support large defects density like nanostructures. Nanomaterials in-
variably reveal excellent functional attributes. Compared to ordinary
materials, nanomaterials degrade faster due to the presence of nu-
merous interfacial atoms. Many functional nanostructures can be
combined to fabricate diverse nanosystems, wherein some components
can also be incorporated to offer self-healing actions. In fact, this
strategy is simplistic compared to the design of a more robust nano-
system [17]. Of late, due to the rapid advancement of nanoscience and
nanotechnology the design and fabrication of self-healing materials has
taken new frontiers, wherein materials with particle size below 500 nm

⁎
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: fhghasan@utm.my (G.F. Huseien), bdgskw@nus.edu.sg (K.W. Shah).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.01.032
Received 18 September 2018; Received in revised form 25 January 2019; Accepted 25 January 2019
Available online 26 January 2019
2352-7102/ © 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
G.F. Huseien et al.
is termed as nanomaterials. Self-healing materials can recover from the
damages autonomously. In many circumstances, the self-healing action
can also be prompted via temperature as external stimuli, systems with
this capacity are called non-autonomic self-healing materials [18].
Looking at the future prospects self-healing concrete, this commu-
nication revisits the ongoing research activities on nanomaterials based
self-healing concrete beneficial for future sustainable developments.
Present paper is organized in three main sections. Section 1 discusses
the importance of self-healing concrete towards more sustainable and
smarter growth in the building sectors than the existing traditional
concretes in terms of enhanced environmental friendliness and pollu-
tion reduction. Second section highlights some undertaken strategies of
self-healing processes that disclosed repairing mechanisms with so-
phistication, elegancy and efficiency. Various mechanisms of self-
healing, benefits and drawbacks of every strategy are emphasized and
compared. Section 3 deals with based self-healing systems as feasible
solution of self-recovery mechanisms when active concretes are ex-
posed to corrosion, deterioration, degradation and cracking.
2. Sustainability of Traditional OPC based concrete
2.1. Cement generated environmental problems
Universally, OPC has been continually exploited as concrete binder
and different building substances. It is known that production of OPC
based concretes needs huge amount of fuel and raw ingredients that are
acquired via resource mining and energy exhaustive processing [9].
This in turn causes great quantities of greenhouse gases (essentially CO2
and NOX) emission into the atmosphere. Per ton of OPC manufacturing,
almost one ton of CO2 is created by consuming 2.5 t of raw materials
and fuel [19–22]. Some estimates revealed that approximately 1.35
billion tons of CO2 is emitted per annum from the OPC production in-
dustries alone, accounting nearly 7% of the total greenhouse gases re-
leased to the environment [8,23]. Compared to CO2 levels in 2010, the
CO2 emissions from OPC industries on the earth's atmosphere is going
to be a major environmental concern because the global demand of OPC
is predicted to grow nearly to 200% by 2050 [8]. Over the years, nu-
merous strategies were adopted to reduce OPC manufacturing including
the durability enhancement of concrete and elongation of service life-
span. In this standpoint, self-healing concrete is emerged as one of the
gifted solutions to mitigate the OPC generated environmental pollution.
2.2. Concrete durability
Characteristically, the serviceability of construction materials has
considerable economic significance, particularly with modern infra-
structures and components. For urbanization, concrete materials that
are greatly exploited must meet the standard codes of practices re-
quisites’ related to strength and durability [24]. For instance, poor plan,
low capacity or over-load, faulty material design and structures, wrong
construction practices or unsatisfactory maintenance, and lack of en-
gineering knowledge can often diminish the service life span of con-
crete under operation [25]. In the construction industries fast declina-
tion of concrete structures being a major setback necessitates additional
improvement. Varieties of physical, chemical, thermal and biological
processes are responsible for the progressive deterioration concrete
structures during their service [7,26]. Several studies [27–29] revealed
that the concrete performance is greatly affected by improper usage,
physical and chemical conditions of environments. It is verified that
both external and internal factors involving physical, chemical, or
mechanical actions are often responsible for the deterioration of the
concrete structures.
Mechanical damage of concrete structure occurs due to different
reasons such as impact, abrasion, cracking, erosion, cavitation, or
contraction. Chemical actions that cause the declination of concretes
are carbonation, reaction associated with alkali and silica, alkali and
156
Journal of Building Engineering 23 (2019) 155–171
carbonate as well as efflorescence. Moreover, outside attacks of che-
micals happen primarily due to CO2, Cl2, SO4 as well as several other
liquids and gases generated by the industries. Physical causes of dete-
rioration include the effects of high temperature or differences in the
thermal expansion of aggregate and of the hardened cement paste.
Other reason of deterioration is the occurrence of alternating freezing
and thawing of concrete and the associated action of the de-icing salts.
Physical and chemical processes of deterioration often act in a sy-
nergistic way including the influence of sea water on concrete. Poor
durability performance of OPC in aggressive acidic or sulphate (espe-
cially in marine) environment is caused due the existence of calcium
complexes. These calcium complexes are very easily dissolved in acidic
atmosphere, leading to enhanced porosity and thus fast deterioration
[30].
In many places worldwide, OPC structures that are existing for
many decades are facing rapid deterioration [31]. Definitely, the per-
manence of OPC is linked with the nature of concretes’ constituents,
where CaO of 60–65% and the hydration product of Ca(OH)2 nearly
25% is responsible for fast structural decay. Several studies indicated
that occurrence of fast reaction of Ca(OH)2 in the acidic surroundings
allows OPC to be deprived of water, leading to acid fusion and weak-
ening of resistance against aggressive attacks. On the top, the intense
reaction of evolved CO2 with Ca(OH)2 contribute to rapid corrosion of
the concretes containing OPC [31]. The safety, service life, permanence,
and life span of the mix design of concretes are considerably influenced
by the cracks development and subsequent erosion. These distinguished
drawbacks of OPC based concretes drove researchers to enhance
properties of conventional OPC by adding pozolanic materials, polymer
and nanomaterials so that it becomes more sustainable and endurable.
The immediate consequence for affected concrete structures is the an-
ticipated need of maintenance and execution of repairing [32]. Thus,
there is a renewed interest for the development of sustainable concrete
to solve all these existing shortcomings involving harsh environmental
conditioning and durability.
2.3. Energy problems in cement industries
Nowadays, cement is the primary workhorse in the construction
sectors worldwide. Cement is processed at high temperature
(≈1450 °C) in a rotary kiln by mixing limestone or chalks with clay.
Next, the yielded hard nodules of clinker are crushed with low amount
of gypsum using ball milling technique. Firing of such cement con-
stituents at higher temperature needs substantial amounts of energy to
be consumed (burning of coal or petroleum coke). Rapid decay of land
setting, generation of dust during transport, creation of noise all over
quarrying and processing of raw materials are regarded as major en-
vironmental concerns in OPC production. According to previous pub-
lications [28,33], OPC manufacturing devoid of considerable amounts
of CO2 release is impossible. Actually, the CO2 emission occurs in two
phases including fuel burning (to achieve very high temperatures of
klin) and calcining (a chemical reaction occurs during limestone firing).
Until now, even the most efficient cement production plant emits 60%
or more of CO2 from various inevitable chemical pathways. The con-
sumption of a considerable quantity of energy during crushing of ce-
mentitious raw materials in the clinker phase remains the foremost
ecological distress in the OPC industries [34,35]. Undeniably, devel-
oping autonomic self-healing cement-based materials must be realized
as a practical solution to the existing problems.
3. Self-healing concrete
3.1. Sustainability of smart concrete
Low carbon emission and energy saving building material in-
corporated with smart material (in self-healing technology) is a well-
known candidate energy technology in enhancing energy efficiency and
G.F. Huseien et al.
sustainability of building. The major aim of sustainable development is
to keep livelihood on earth in the predictable future with absolute
support or care so that ecological balance is not disturbed [36]. Sus-
tainability is founded on three basic elements such as the economic
security, environmental safety and societal benefits. Sustainable ad-
vancement must preserve these factors to protect the biodiversity with
balanced ecosystem. In the present industrial uprising era, engineers,
scientists, policymakers and architects are attempting to use resource-
fully the sustainable model to reduce the negative impact on our eco-
system. Therefore, in the perspective of building materials the phrase
sustainability used synonymously with robust or friendly and green
environment [37,38]. In this viewpoint, self-healing materials have
attracted increasing interest due to their potential to lessen the de-
gradation, prolong the functional lifespan, and suppress the main-
tenance costs of materials [39,40]. However, the self-healing tech-
nology contributions directly to enhance the environment and
reduction the pollution from increasing concrete life-span and reduc-
tion the demand and consumed of OPC as well ‘as affecting to saving
energy and increase the sustainability of concrete.
3.2. Life cycle analysis of self-healing concrete
During the past decade, the self-healing technique extensively stu-
died and introduce as an innovative technique for concrete crack self-
repair. However, several innovative strategies to self-healing for ce-
mentitious materials have been proposed and developed. Nowadays, it
is known as the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology which has
been standardized in ISO 14040–14044. Thus far, it has been used for
assessing the environmental impact of all kinds of products and services
preferably from the cradle to the grave. The goal of this LCA was a
quantification of the environmental impact reduction that could be
achieved by using the proposed self-healing concrete instead of a more
traditional concrete. Some direct benefits of concrete self-healing in-
clude the reduction of the rate of deterioration, extension of service life,
and reduction of repair frequency and cost over the life cycle of a
concrete infrastructure. These direct benefits may be expected to lead to
enhanced environmental sustainability since fewer repairs implies
lower rate of material resource usage and reduction in energy con-
sumption and pollutant emission in material production and transport,
as well as that associated with traffic alterations in transportation in-
frastructure during repair/reconstruction events [41]. Van Belleghem
et al. [42] has reported the Self-healing of cracks with encapsulated
polyurethane precursor formed a partial barrier against immediate in-
gress of chlorides through the cracks. Application of self-healing con-
crete was able to reduce the chloride concentration in a cracked zone by
75% or more. Service life of self-healing concrete in marine environ-
ments could amount to 60–94 years as opposed to only 7 years for
ordinary (cracked) concrete. However, life cycle assessment calcula-
tions indicated important environmental benefits (56–75%) and mainly
induced by the achievable service life extension.
3.3. Mechanism of self-healing in cementitious materials
In human body, injured surfaces (skins) and tissues are self-re-
covered due to the assimilation of nutrients that creates new substitutes
to repair the injured parts. Likewise, in the self-healing of cements
based materials essential products (acts as nutrients) are supplied to
heal the cracks in damaged concretes. In the past few decades, intensive
investigations have been performed to explore novel strategies for ef-
ficient self-healing with durability. Fig. 1 provides a schematic pre-
sentation involving the developed self-healing strategies for cementious
materials.
3.3.1. Hollow fibres
Fig. 2 schematically displays the hollow fibres enabled self-healing
processes. Hollow fibres store some functional materials’ components
157
Journal of Building Engineering 23 (2019) 155–171
(acts as healing agent) inside of the empty spaces that form a composite
network matrix [43,44]. When concrete structure is damaged and de-
velops cracks under certain external stress or stimuli these functional
elements so called healing agents flow out of these hollow spaces to
repair the cracks instantly. Analogous to the arteries in living system,
self-healing processes use hollow fibres implanted with the engineering
materials of varying length scales depending on the damaged structures
to be repaired [44,45]. For instance bulk polymers used in polymeric
composites for self-healing purposes [46–49]. It has been shown that
these hollow fibres or tubular structures are greatly effective for dis-
charging the healing agents upon encapsulation [50,51]. To identify
easily and speedily the internal damages in composite structures, Pang
and Bond proposed a method called damage visual enhancement [49].
It was demonstrated that (Fig. 3) fibres packed with engineered healing
materials and tagged with fluorescent dye can easily monitor the re-
pairing progression.
The idea of biological self-healing mechanism such as bleeding can
now be applied to repair the cracks of cementitious materials [52,53]
appropriate. Using this concept, the functional components (healing
elements) can be packed inside the fragile fibrous vessels dispersed
inside the concretes network. Upon sustained damages these fragile
fibres are broken and functional repair materials are released to initiate
the self-repairing. Liquid methyl methacrylate in short MMA (is a me-
thyl ester of methacrylic acid and a reactive resin) was embedded
within hollow polypropylene fibres and then encapsulated inside the
concrete [53], which could release MMA and reduced the concrete
porosity. Some studies were conducted on the release of crack holding
cementitious glue from hollow pipettes of glass inside the concrete
immediately following the flexural test. Such concrete structures
packed with glue/adhesive components were found to display about
20% more load carrying capacity than the one without glue following
the flexural testing.
Several researchers [52,54,55] independently clarified the buoyant
process involving self-healing. To get a basic insight of the self-healing
processes, hollow fibres (pipettes) were positioned within cementitious
network matrix, where one terminal was connected to the self-healing
mediator and another end was fastened. In this study, concrete mixes
were designed [54] and glass tubes with respective external and in-
ternal diameter of 2 mm and 0.8 mm was positioned within the speci-
mens. Both dilute (27%) non-dilute alkali-silicate mixture and 2 com-
ponents combined epoxy resin of low viscosity were utilized for self-
healing component. Subsequently, this complex solution was loaded
until the Crack Mouth Opening Displacement (CMOD) reached to
0.03–2 mm after the elimination of the load. Next, these cracked sam-
ples were again cured to examine the improvement of self-healing
ability. Compared to normal specimens (without healing agent) speci-
mens that contained the dilute and non-dilute alkaline silica solution as
the healing component correspondingly revealed a mean ratio of the
strength recovery of 1.1 and 1.5. Conversely, specimens in the presence
of epoxy resin displayed little improvement in the strength recovery
ratio, which was much below the value that was obtained by direct
mixing of resin and manual injection into the cracked regions (about
three times better recovery). This observation was majorly ascribed to
the inadequate blending and stirring of the two constituents, which
produced the low healing ratio due to less hardening of resin. It could
also be due to the presence of some residual epoxy that remained inside
the pipes because of the sealing of one end.
According Joseph [55], the testing regime was analogous except
some insignificant distinctions. Bent plastic tubes with respective ex-
ternal and internal diameter of 4 mm and 3 mm were employed as the
vehicle of healing mediator (Ethylcyanoacrylate). It was concluded that
supply of such healing component externally could achieve self-healing
successfully. After healing of the damaged area the stiffness after crack,
the peak load and the ductility were enhanced considerably. Results
during and after test revealed that, ethyl cyanoacrylate as adhesive
could penetrate a large area of the fractured surfaces due to the
G.F. Huseien et al. Journal of Building Engineering 23 (2019) 155–171

Fig. 1. Developed strategies for self-healing in cement based materials.

capillary suction and gravitational effects.
3.3.2. Microencapsulation
With the time, the man-made materials for encapsulation were de-
veloped from natural examples spanning from macro- to nano- scale.
Birds’ egg or seeds are the simplest illustration of natural encapsulation
on a macroscopic scale and a cell within it is an example on microscopic
scale [57–59]. The growth of microencapsulation started with the
synthesis of capsules comprised of dyes, which was then included in
paper for the copying and replacing the carbon-paper [60]. Over the
passage of time, several novel technologies have been developed in
diverse areas. Microencapsulation is not considered as disconnected
product or part of it, which is rather defined as the development of
including micrometer size solid granules or liquid drops or gases within
the inert shell, isolating and protecting them from unnecessary reac-
tions in the outside surroundings [61,62]. The implementations of mi-
croencapsulation with self-healing products were established [61,63].
Fig. 3a explains the self-healing idea, where the crack ruptures the
implanted microcapsules, resulting in the release of healing agent into
the crack surfaces via capillary action. Thereafter, the healing agent
comes in contact with the embedded catalyst, inducing polymerization
and thus closing of the surrounding cracks. Fig. 3b displays a typical
cracked microcapsule image.
Nishiwaki [64] reported the filling of microcapsules using epoxy
resin as healing material where the shell of urea–formaldehyde for-
malin in the size range of 20–70 µm was incorporated. These micro-
capsules plus acrylic-resin (an hardener in the form of gelatin shell of
size range of 125–297 µm) were employed. It was shown that

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of self-healing processes using hollow fibres [56].

158
G.F. Huseien et al. Journal of Building Engineering 23 (2019) 155–171

Fig. 3. (a) The microcapsulation approach and (b) typical ESEM micrograph of a cracked microcapsule [61].

microcapsules incorporated with sodium silicate were effective for self-

healing [65]. In this work, concrete was first stacked to almost the
breaking point before the load was removed and then cured for 1 week.
Results revealed the concrete with 2% sodium silicate micro-
encapsulation could recover as much as 26% of its actual strength
compared to the reference sample (recovery of 10% only). It was con-
cluded that by growing the healing material's amount even upper
strength recovery ratio could be attained. Jianying Yu et. al [66] in-
spected the one-component microcapsules were prepared with toluene-
di-isocyanate (TDI) as the healing agent and paraffin as the shell. The
results indicted d that the TDI was successfully encapsulated in the
paraffin shell and The mortars with the microcapsules showed more
favorable self-healing capacity.

3.3.3. Expansive agents and mineral admixtures

Kishi et al. [67] reported the creation of cementitious materials such
as Al2O3–Fe2O3-tri (AFt), Al2O3–Fe2O3-mono (AFm) and calcium car-
bonate (CaCO3) in the cracked concrete and air voids of Ca(OH)2
crystals. It was assumed that such hydration yields could leached out
and re-crystallize in the flown water through the fractures. According to
this idea, Kishi and co-workers [67–69] evaluated the self-healing
concrete performance with different healing agents. Expansive agent,
geo-materials and chemical mixtures together with their blends were
included in the investigation of agents [69,70]. A comparison of the
reference specimen was made with the specimen containing 10% ce-
ment substituted by expansive materials comprised of C4A3S, CaSO4
and CaO (lime) was conducted. It was revealed that for concrete beams
containing expansive agents could almost heal the presence of an early
crack of 0.22 mm later than 1 month, in which rehydration yield among
cracks was identified. Nevertheless, for the ordinary concrete structure
these cracks were partially healed during the the same time period.
Therefore, re-crystallization of expansive agents in air voids for self-
recovery was extra efficient compared to normal concrete [67]. Tanvir
Qureshi et. al [29] reported that the expansive minerals improved the
self-healing capacity of concrete mixes. The autogenous self-healing
performance of any particular cement mix could be numerically pre-
dicted based on their hydration degree which is an indicator of cement
mix state at any particular age.
It was also demonstrated that a geo-material containing SiO2
(71.3%) and Al2O3 (15.4%) when added to the expansive material
could form a geo-polymer via polymerization of aluminate and silicate
compleaxes individually [68]. Subsequently, these were dissolved at
high pH due to the existence of alkali metals. Thorough investigation
revealed that the size geo-polymer gel particles were below 2 µm and
the cracked interfacial phases of the original ruptured zone generated
numerous hydro-garnet or AFt phases (Fig. 5). Thus presence of ex-
pansive agent played a decisive role to bridge those cracks.
Fig. 4. Typical crack-healing processes via immobilized bacteria in concretes
[71].
Furthermore, EDX spectra displayed that majority of the modified geo-
polymer gel was existed in dense phase than the hydro-garnet one.
Further study on chemical additives [68] indicated that the inclusion of
NaHCO3, Na2CO3 and Li2CO3 to the standard concrete could enhance
by cementitious re-crystallization and precipitation of particles in
concrete. It was concluded that using proper amounts of carbonates and
expansive agents, the self-healing attributes of cracks could con-
siderably be improved.
3.3.4. Bacteria as self-healing agent
In recent years, the utilization of biological techniques for repairing
were proposed by introducing bacteria inside the concrete [71–75]. In
the mid-1990s Gollapudi et al. [76] conducted a study and introduced
an environmental friendly approach to repair concrete cracks, where
ureolytic bacteria was incorporated to accelerate the precipitation of
CaCO3 in the micro-crack areas in concrete. The microbes assisted
precipitation of CaCO3 was characterized using several parameters such
as the dissolved inorganic carbon contents, materials pH, calcium ions
concentration, and accessibility of nucleation sites (accessible localized
areas of reaction). The bacterial cell walls acted as nucleation sites and
bacterial metabolism controlled the other factors [72].
Tittelboom and coworkers [72] used bacteria in concrete to gen-
erate an enzyme called urease that could catalyze urea (CO(NH2)2) into
ammonium ions (NH4+) and carbonate radicals (CO3−2). In the che-
mical reactions 1 mol of urea underwent intracellular hydrolyses to

159
G.F. Huseien et al.
1 mol of carbonate and 1 mol of ammonia following Path I. Then, car-
bamate was hydrolysed spontaneously to form one extra mole of am-
monia and carbonic acid via path II. These products later formed 1 mol
of bi-carbonate (HCO−3) and 2 mol of ammonium (NH+4) and hydro-
xide (OH−1) ions (Path III and IV). Path IV and V was responsible for
the enhancement of pH, drifting the bicarbonate equilibrium to form
carbonate ions.
CO(NH2)2+H2O → NH2COOH+NH3 Path I
NH2COOH + H2O → NH3 + H2CO3 Path II
H2CO3 + H2O → HCO−3 + H+1 Path III
2NH3 + 2H2O → 2NH+4 + 2OH−1 Path IV
HCO−3 + H+1+ 2NH+4 + 2OH−1 → CO3−2 + 2NH+4 + 2H2O Path
V a shrinking potential of about 34 MPa at controlled situations with
The bacteria could accept cations (with Ca+2 deposited on the
surface of cell-wall) from the surroundings because of their negatively
charged cell walls. Then, the Ca+2 could react with the CO3−2 and led
to precipitate CaCO3 at the cell wall surfaces which offer the active
nucleation site (Path VI and VII). Using this approach of localized
precipitation of CaCO3 via bacteria, the cracked surfaces could be re-
paired. Fig. 4 depicts the crack-healing mechanism using bacteria as-
sisted concrete immobilization.
Ca+2 + Cell → Cell-Ca+2 Path VI
Cell-Ca+2 + CO3−2 → Cell-CaCO3 Path VII
3.3.5. Shape memory materials as self-healer
Several researchers [77–80] revealed the usefulness of functional
materials incorporation in cementitious concrete structures to achieve
efficient self-healing. These candidates include shape memory alloys
(SMAs) or shape memory polymers. The fundamental idea is that when
cracks are formed then such materials with short predefined memory
shape could shrink in a controlled condition, thereby generating a
contraction to optimally act as cracks closure agent. Chang and Read
(1932) identified a reversible phase change in gold–cadmium (Au-Cd)
alloy which was referred as first observation on shape memory effect
[80]. Over the years, several SMAs have been realized with excellent
thermo-mechanical and thermo-electrical features [81]. For instance,
Nitinol reveals super-elasticity together with shape memory effect re-
fers by returning back to their predetermined shapes under heat
treatment. In super-elasticity it undergoes an exceedingly large inelastic
deformation and recovers the shape soon after unloading [82]. Wires of
SMAs was used by Song and Mo [83] to get intelligent reinforced
concrete (IRC). The post-tension effects in IRC were achieved by uti-
lizing stranded martensite wires of SMA. The alteration in the electrical
resistance of SMA wires was monitored to get the strain distribution
within the concrete. Any cracks development due to explosions or
earthquakes could be identified, wherein electrical heating of the SMA
wires could reveal contraction and reduce the cracks, there could
handle macro-cracks via self-rehabilitation. The concrete structure was
intelligent enough to detect the self-rehabilitation and thus the name
was coined.
Sakai et al. [77] examined the self-restoration process in concrete
160
Journal of Building Engineering 23 (2019) 155–171
Fig. 5. Applications of nanomaterials in concrete.
beam by super-elastic wires made of SMAs. Results showed that the
mortar beam containing SMA wires could recover about totally after
sustaining a very huge crack. Likewise, shape memory polymers (SMPs)
have been developed by Jefferson et al. to incorporate into cementitious
materials [79]. When crack arises in the cementitious matrix because of
early age shrinkage, thermal influences and/or mechanical loading then
the shrinking process in the included SMA tendons can be stimulated by
heating. This in turn can repair the cracks by developing a measurable
compressive stresses across the closed crack surfaces. Such cracks
closing mechanism can improve the natural self-healing processes and
the durability performance of the structural elements in concrete. It was
concluded that post-tensioned mortar beams via aligned shrinked
polymer tendons could be effective for crack closing and weak pre-
stressing. Results from several screening tests revealed that the most
efficient tendons were polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Shrinktite with
90 °C heating and subsequent cooling down to room temperature. The
influence of heating together with extra curing could enhance the
mortar's strength around 25%.
3.3.6. Coating
Recent developments in materials’ technology provide extra func-
tionalities leading to the term of “intelligent material” which are
characterized via desired response to some external stimuli such as
temperature, light, humidity, etc. Innovative materials for buildings
(coatings) have been developed and tested successfully [84,85].
Amongst these materials we may find coatings for self-healing concrete
with specific durability properties. The technical of self-healing coating
used with reinforcement concrete for steel bar self-healing and reduc-
tion the corrosion damaged. Self-healing coatings are a recent avenue of
research that could provide a way to fight the deterioration of modern
infrastructure. Conventional anti-corrosive coatings have limited ef-
fectiveness if even a small portion of the coating is damaged [86]. Self-
healing coatings, however, can continue to function due to their ability
to heal after fracture [87]. In effect, this self-repair is anticipated to be
able to greatly prolong the life of steel rebar structures. Initial in-
vestigation into application on steel rebar was conducted by Chen et al.
[88]. This technology could be applied to rebar structures that are ty-
pically coated with epoxy coatings in the highly corrosive areas of the
Northeast to combat rapid corrosion rates.
In the past, many studies have been conducted [12,13,26] to de-
termine the mechanism of protecting the concrete roads, bridges and
other structures against tiny cracks development. Yet, no conclusive
remark has been made and thus remained as major issue. Cracks allow
water, salt used for deicing and air to enter the concrete. During winter
season, frozen water inside the cracks expands and made them bigger,
speeding up concrete's deterioration in the presence of road salt. Many
investigations have been conducted on self-healing anticorrosive coat-
ings for protection of metals but no work is performed on self-healing
protective coating for concrete. Self-healing coatings that initiate self-
healing through external cracking or damaging has seen substantial
research. These coatings often have micro containers mixed in that can
rupture easily when acted upon. The containers hold healing agents
that then seal the crack and prolong the functionality of the coating.
Containers that hold these healing agents can vary from polyurethane
microcapsules to microfilament tubes and often have little effect on the
G.F. Huseien et al.
mechanical properties of the coating. Research in this area has provided
good results and application in real world environments can be further
investigated [87,89,90].
Many types of organic and inorganic materials used for this purpose.
Epoxy coatings are widely used to prevent corrosive agents such as
water and salts from coming in contact with rebar. The development of
polymer coatings that react to environmental stimuli such as heat or pH
changes to initiate crack healing has also been investigated [91,92].
Coatings that react to heat have achieved success, with some retaining
all of their mechanical properties after multiple healing cycles [93]. As
polyelectrolyte nanocontainer coatings, changes in the pH of the solu-
tion have been able to set a response within seconds [94]. Full recovery
of the mechanical properties of the coatings were also achieved, making
it a promising option for research in the future [94]. Drying oils such as
tung oil and linseed oil have received significant investigation re-
garding their healing properties and encapsulation [95–97]. When ex-
posed to air, tung oil will polymerize into a tough, glossy, waterproof
coating. These characteristics have made drying oils a valuable com-
ponent in paints, varnishes, and printing inks. Tung oil encapsulation
was first achieved by Samadzadeh et al. [98]. These urea-formaldehyde
microcapsules displayed good adhesion to the epoxy matrix, compared
to industry standards, by testing the microcapsules pull-off strength
following ASTM D4541-09. Testing of damaged samples to measure
service life through immersion in sodium chloride solutions was con-
ducted. Results were promising, as the tung oil microcapsules extended
service life up to nine times that of epoxy coatings after damage.
3.3.7. Engineered cementitious composite
In the early 1990s, the special class of concrete called ultra-ductile
fibre reinforced cementitious composites was designed. Originally, it is
known as Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC) [99], which is
constantly improved over the last two decade [16,99]. This material
possesses high ductility (3–7%), tight crack size (about 60 µm) and
comparatively low fibre content (roughly 2% or lesser by volume)
[100]. Actually, metal-like feature is the significant mechanical char-
acter of ECC. It can sustain elevated loads after initial crack during
auxiliary distortions. Li et al. [101] examined the self-repairing idea of
Dry [52] related to bleeding which was used to discharge chemicals
that could close the tensile cracks with subsequent air curing. This
mechanism led to regain the mechanical properties of the un-cracked
composites. It was acknowledged that the self-healing process was in-
effective for usual concrete, cement or concrete reinforced with fibre. It
is due the difficulty in controlling the size of the tensile cracks in these
materials. Local breakages could multiply continuously inside the crack
width under declining tensile load and exhaust quickly the accessible
chemicals responsible for crack closure and re-healing. Therefore, ef-
fective self-recovery requires the control of the tensile crack width
which must be restricted within tens of micros. Else, very large glass
pipes are needed to modify the mechanical characteristics of compo-
sites. This argument was consistent with several other reports, that
emphasized the role of cracks width [102–104].
The tightly controlled crack size being one inherent characteristics
of ECC can offer advantages for applying the self-healing idea to ECC.
Later, two different experiments were conducted [30] to examine the
viability of the proposed bleeding notion. In the first experiment, the
ECC materials with a single empty glass fibre free of any healing che-
mical were tested in situ at a loading stage under an FESEM. The idea
was to confirm the sensing and actuation properties of ECC. The other
experiment was performed to measure the flexural strength of ECC
containing the glass fibres packed with sealing material (ethyl cya-
noacrylate). Both studies were performed under MTS load-frames to
ascertain the re-healing effectiveness of the sealing mediator after
sustaining damage (fracture) in the load-cycles. The sensing and ac-
tuation processes were authenticated using FESEM images and the in-
fluences of revitalization were authenticated via flexural stiffness re-
gain. It was also acknowledged that several other issues need further
161
Journal of Building Engineering 23 (2019) 155–171
investigation before practical applications could be made. Li et al.
[50,105,106] also examined the self-healing phenomena of cementi-
tious materials in addition to the inclusion of external chemical as
healing glue in concrete. The concrete matrix and its interaction with
the exposed surroundings were examined. The ECC specimens were pre-
cracked and exposed to various environments such as water permeation
and submersion, cycles related to wetting and drying, and chloride ions
attack. Results revealed that the mechanical and transport character-
istics was principally recovered, particularly for ECC preloaded with
tensile strain below 1%. Apart from the tiny cracks, the small water/
binder ratio and the presence of great quantity of FA in the mixture
could support the self-recovery action through hydration and pozzo-
lanic mechanisms.
The ECC materials was locally developed from waste matters and/or
by-products [107]. Several mixtures were designed using powders of
blast furnace slag (BFS) as well as limestone (LS) and subsequently
analyzed by measuring the tensile strain (2–3%) as well stiff cracks
(with typical size < 60 µm). It was found that [108] the mixes designed
by Zhou et al. [107] were dissimilar from the one casted by Li et al. [50]
in terms of basic constituents (high proportion of BFS and LS instead of
FA) and very high water to binder ratio in the range of 0.45–0.60
against 0.23. This indicated that the quantity of un-hydrated cementi-
tious materials cured later than 28 days was much below the one used
by Li et al. [101]. It was shown that ECC specimens made from great
quantity of BFS, LP and reasonably high ratio of water to binder that
could restore comparable self-repairing properties than ECC materials
analyzed by high proportion of FA and low water to binder ratio. This
observation was ascribed to the presence of tight crack width, wherein
the self-healing of ECC was decided by the availability of un-hydrated
cement and other complementary products including BFS. Therefore,
low ratio of water to cementitious material ratio and high fraction of
cementitious specimen were useful to support the self-recovery process.
The significance of crack size was underscored in the context of con-
stant hydration dependent self-recovery because it consumed very low
amount of healing materials to close the cracks and was easy for the
healing specimens to develop from both faces of the cracks for joining.
Commonly, the micro-crack behaviour and the cracking chance of
ECC in the presence of micro-encapsulated modules were found to
improve, wherein healing materials were released. This assured the
efficiency of the sensing and actuation processesthrough micro-en-
capsulation. The tight crack size in ECC is greatly significant because it
needs low quantities of healing products for cracks filling and efficient
for the healing products to develop from both facades for connecting
these cracks. In short, ECC possesses higher fraction of cementitious
materials and lesser water to binder ratio than conventional cements,
thus more effective self-healer. Table 1 enlists the benefits and draw-
backs of various self-healing concrete strategies developed in the past.
4. Nanomaterials
4.1. Production of nanomaterials
It is well known that nanoparticles produce superior effect on filler
than micron-sized materials. Guterrez [123] acknowledged that all
materials can be converted into nanoparticles via crushing or chemical
treatment. The production accuracy of nanoparticle is decided by the
purity and the chemical constituents of the parent materials. Two
routes are followed for the large scale production of nanomaterials
including the top-down approach [124] and bottom-up approach [125].
These approaches are chosen based on the appropriateness, price and
knowledge of the nanoscale properties of the material under con-
sideration [126]. Milling technique fall in the category of top-down
approach, wherein the selection of milling machine is favoured due to
its accessibility, inexpensiveness and feasibility of easy modification
without requiring any chemical reagents or complex electronic equip-
ments. In the top-down approach, big structures (bulk) are transformed
 G.F. Huseien et al.

Table 1
Comparison of various self-healing concrete strategies.
Ref. Strategy Mechanism Merits and Demerits

Precursors Products

[48,49,53] [109,110] Internal encapsulation and Epoxy/ polymer Resin hardened Healing systems are discharged when needed. Complexity in casting.
Hollow fibre hardened Intermediate quantity of healing materials. Negative influence on the mechanical characteristics of the cement matrix in
the presence of large number of hollow fibers.
Efficient under multiple damages. Probable intricacy in the release of healing materials.
[111] External supply system Epoxy/ polymer Resin hardened Healing materials are discharged when needed. Low recovery ratio, which was much below than direct mixing of resin and
hardened Adaptable high quantity of healing material. manual injection into the cracks. Later one revealed three times better healing.
[39,69] Microcapsule SiO2 C-S-H gel calcium Healing materials are discharged when needed. Complexity for capsules making and casting
Al2O3 nitrate
TiO2
Fe2O3 Response for multiple damages simultaneously. Inadequate healing system.
Possible effectiveness under multiple damage The bonding among capsules and matrix is uncertain
events. Negative influence on the mechanical characteristics of the cement matrix in
the presence of several capsules.

162
[112–114] Expansive agent and mineral CSH2, CH, C4A3S C-(A)-S-H gels Superior efficiency in healing Unwanted growth under ill-treatment
admixtures Excellent compatibility of the produced healing Formation of healing products is uncertain.
products with the cementitious matrix Not very useful in the presence of several damages.
[72,111,115,116] Bacteria CO2, Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 Good biological effectiveness, a free of pollution Need several prerequisites.
and natural Measures must be taken to shield bacteria in concrete
Mechanical features recovery and efficacy for many damages may be a
concern.
[117–119] Shape memory materials Enhanced the ettringite C-S-H gel Macro-cracks can be tackled. Expensive
formation Strong recovery in the mechanical behaviour Induction of healing via heat treatment leads to uncertainties.
Effectiveness towards many damages events
[120] Coating Method Polymer Reduction the Easy Maintenance Many prerequisites to be met.
Epoxy porosity Cheap
Decrease the corrosion problems Efficiency towards numerous damages may be a setback
For external healing.
[121,122] Nanomaterials SiO2, Al2O3 C-(A)-S-H gels Strong recovery in the mechanical behaviour High safety requirements.
TiO2, Fe2O3 Effectiveness towards many damages For internal
and external application
Cheap and saving energy.
Excellent healing efficacy.
Journal of Building Engineering 23 (2019) 155–171
G.F. Huseien et al.
to small one (nanodimension) while keeping their actual physical or
chemical behaviour intact via atomic level control [127], which has
been applied at industrial level. Using milling technique, high volume
of nanoparticles can be produced. Though top-down approach is con-
temporary for nanofabrication, the consistency and superiority of the
yields are often unpredictable. To overcome such drawbacks, the mil-
ling techniques (a top-down approach) can further be improved by
increasing the number of balls, ball types, milling speed, and nature of
the jar, where the quality of nanoparticles become better [128].
High energy ball milling technique has been widely used to fabri-
cate diverse nanomaterials such as nanoparticles, nanograins, na-
noalloy, nanocomposites and nano quasicrystals. John Benjamin in-
troduced this technique to produce oxide particles inside the matrix of
nickel superalloys (1970). Utilizing milling technique the properties of
alloy component effective for high thermal structure was altered and
mechanical strengths were improved. Factors including fractures,
plastic distortions/deformations, and cold welds during the milling
process affect the materials conversion into the desired morphology.
Milling not only crushes the material into tinier fragments but also
blends numerous particles or materials to transform into new phases
with different compositions. Usually, the final yields of milling tech-
nique are in the form of flakes where refinements are performed based
on the selected ball and milling standard. Most of the nanomaterials
(nanosilica, nano alumina, nanoclay) utilized in concrete can be ob-
tained via bottom-up approach, which is adopted for materials en-
gineering at atomic or molecular levels via the self-assembling process
so called molecular- nanotechnology or molecular-level processing. It is
applied indirectly in nanomaterials and chemical production [32].
Varied morphology of nanoparticles obtained via bottom-up strategy is
often customized through chemical synthesis technique. In comparison
to top-down strategy, the bottom-up strategy can generate nanomor-
phology with more uniformity and reproducibility. Besides, using
bottom-up approach one can produce novel nanocrystals with perfect
atomic or molecular ordering. Bottom-up approach based production of
nanomaterials are useful for achieving high electronic conductivity,
optical absorption and chemical reactivity [129]. Through bottom-up
strategy, one can get tinier size and formation of consistent surface
atoms with modified surface energies and morphologies. Usually,
bottom-up technique is exploited to prepare self-healing and self-
cleaning nanomaterials with improved catalytic properties, sensing
capacity and novel pigments characteristics. Moreover, the main
drawbacks of bottom-up scheme is related to high running cost, need of
experts for chemical synthesis and limitation to laboratory orientation
only [130]. The nanoparticles produced using bottom-up approach is
excellent for advance applications including electronic components and
biotechnology.
4.2. Nanomaterials based concretes
In recent years, the growth in nanotechnology and the accessibility
of nanomaterials suited for construction usage including nanosilica,
nanoalumina, Polycarboxylates and nanokaolin have improved the
concrete properties remarkably [126,131,132]. Intensive researches
revealed that the mechanical properties such as compressive strength,
splitting tensile and flexural strength of cement pastes [133,134],
mortars [131,135], and concretes [136] can be improved via a tiny
quantity of nanomaterials. Early strengths of pastes, mortars [131,135]
and concrete [136] in the presence of nanomaterials were reported to
be much higher than those formulated with conventional OPC. Devel-
opment of such higher strengths were ascribed to the faster cement
hydration process and pozzolanic reaction, reduction of pores density,
and enhanced interfacial bonding amid hardened cement paste and
constituents (aggregates). Nanomaterials were also exploited to reduce
the porosity and enhance the durability properties of concrete
[137,138]. With developing the concrete technology, the nanomaterials
were used in many applications (Fig. 5) and the self-healing technology
163
Journal of Building Engineering 23 (2019) 155–171
one of the important application to produce sustainable and smart
concrete.
4.3. Production of nanoconcrete
Using materials with a particle size less than 500 nm in concrete
production as admixture or part cement replacement called nanocon-
crete. It was shown that the strength of normal concrete tend to en-
hance with the inclusion of nanoparticles. The bulk properties and
packing model structure of concrete can remarkably be improved via
the incorporation of nanoparticle. Nanoparticles act as excellent filling
agents through the refinement of intersection zones in cementitious
materials and production of high density concrete. The manipulation or
modification of these nanoparticles in the cement matrix can render a
new-fangled nanostructures [139–141]. General deficiencies in the
microstructures of concretes including voids, micro-porosity and cor-
rosion originated from the reaction of alkaline silica can be discarded.
The advancement of nanomaterials occurred due to their characteristics
as new binding agent with particles sizes much tinier than traditional
OPC. This property enhances the hydration gel product by imparting a
neat and solid structure. Besides, using a blend of filler and extra che-
mical reaction in the hydration scheme, high performing novel nano-
concrete with enhanced durability can be achieved.
The application of nanotechnology in concrete is still in its infancy.
Ever-growing demand for ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) and
recurring environmental pollution caused by OPC enforced the en-
gineers to exploit nanotechnology in construction materials. Classical
blends of UHPC with incorporated silica fumes can achieve enhanced
strength and high durability. However, limited accessibility and high-
pricing of nanomaterials not only slowed down the growth of UHPC
technology but also made it less demanding compared to conventional
high strength concrete (HSC). To overcome these limitations, nano-
technology enrouted production of UHPC emerged in its own right
wherein an alternative to silica fume has been developed. Exploiting the
nanoproduction idea, a typical nanomaterial mimicking the attributes
of silica fume was designed. Nanosilica is certainly the newest material
in nanotechnology based processing that has been used as substitute to
silica fume [142]. Using this celebrated nanosilica component, several
types of nanoparticles have been synthesized which are effective for
concrete production [143], Nanoalumina [144],titanium oxide nano-
particles [145], carbon nanotube [146] and nanopolycarboxylates
[147] are the emergent nanomaterials in the new nanoconcrete era. It is
now customary to discuss about the production and possible applica-
tions of nanomaterials.
4.4. Significance of nanomaterials as self-healer
The contribution of nanomaterials in enhancing the workability,
strength and durability of building materials can affect the hydration
kinetics of cement. Furthermore, the addition of nanomaterials can
improve the performance of cement appreciably. The high performance
of nanomaterials attracted the researchers to apply nanomaterials to
create sustainable concrete by self-healing technology. The demerits of
preceding methods are used for self-healing such as tricky to harden the
bi-components healing system. The amount of healing materials packed
inside the microcapsules was little. Strength of bonds amid the micro-
capsules and the cement network required to be stronger than that of
the former. It led the researchers to resolve these problems and find
another way to produce sustainable concrete with performance. In
order to solve these problems, the merits of nanomaterials are pre-
sented in a nowadays, make the researchers in this field believe to these
materials will be the best way for sustainable concrete.
5. Nanomaterials based self-healing concrete
Advancement of self-healing materials in concrete industries is an
G.F. Huseien et al.
emerging trend. The generic term self-healing concrete is used for ce-
ment-based materials that repair themselves after the material or
structure gets damaged via diverse deterioration mechanism.
Nowadays, using nanomaterials for sustainable concrete also gets a lot
of attention around the world. Compound the two technologies (self-
healing and nanomaterials) together contributed to enhancing the
durability of concrete and successfully led to producing sustainable
concrete [148,149]. Most application of nanomaterials in self-healing
has been used to control the corrosion of steel bars in reinforcement
concrete. Koleva [148] have been reported the ability to Improving
reinforced concrete performance by incorporating nanoscale materials
with tailored properties i.e. core-shell polymer vesicles or micelles in
the cement-based system. Few researches have been conducted to using
nanomaterials for self-healing concrete.
Qian et al. [150] studied the curing situations in the presence of air,
CO2, and water in the wet-state as well as dry-state. Furthermore, the
effects of nanoclay with water (used as inner water furnishing agent for
hydration) on the micro-cracks were determined. Results revealed that
the healing extent could be considerably superior with the inclusion of
nanoclay and better cementitious materials concentration for mixes. It
was stated that for all studied air cured mixtures, the final crack did not
occur at the new location, indicating good healing. Despite the interior
water supply from nanoclay it revealed comparatively weak strength-
ening, enabling it hard to relocate the final crack-sites from pre-existing
one to another positions. This unproductive recovery with air curing
was also reported by Hua [63]. It was shown that the self-healing be-
haviour of ECC with Super Absorbent Polymer (SAP) capsules with
water as the interior pool for extra hydration was effective. Meanwhile,
various repairing products were recognized across the cracked facades.
However, noticeable healed cracks were absent completely. It was ac-
knowledged that the cracks could very likely undergo via the self-re-
covery mechanism without much effectiveness. The significance of
enough water or moisture accessibility was highlighted that acted as the
reactant for additional hydration as well as the ions transportation
media.
5.1. Nanosilica
In sustainable concrete development, nanosilica (SiO2) is a gifted
nanomaterials broadly utilized in ultra-high performance concrete
(UHPC). In general, nanosilica (Fig. 6) was manufactured from micron
sized silica. Strong reactions produced by nanosilica in UHPC are
comparable to silica fume or micro-silica involving their strength,
performance and durability improvement [151–153]. Qing and Zenan
[152] demonstrated that concrete with nanosilica can gain early
strength than that of silica-fume. It was shown that the incorporation of
nanosilica in concrete could enhance its workability when the inclusion
of super-plasticizers amount was lowest. Besides, nanosilica particles
Fig. 6. FSSEM nanosilica image [160].
164
Journal of Building Engineering 23 (2019) 155–171
size could act as ultra-filler inside the concrete, leading to dense and
refined micro-voids to impart smart microstructures [154]. Other
benefits involving nanosilica is the better control of water to cement
ratio, wherein the strength can be customized easily. Quercia. et al.
[155] reported the incorporation of nanosilica at certain dosage im-
proved the strength of concrete and performed as cement substitution
component. Nearly 20–30% of cement could be lowered via the im-
plementation of nanosilica, thereby it can be a good substitute to ce-
ment. In self-healing application, the capacity of nanosilica to react
with available Ca(OH)2 in concrete and formulate (CSH gel) was ex-
amined [156–159]. Using nanosilica the self-healing concrete tech-
nology as additional mineral admixtures or in nanoencapsulation
method has been studied. However, the disadvantage of nanosilica is
the cost and availability in certain nations where nanosilica need to be
imported for usage in the concrete industries [32].
5.2. Nanoalumina
In the cement hydration, it is known that the silica and alumina are
two main components involved to formulate C-(A)-S-H gels with cal-
cium. The role of silica inside cement was to alter strength whereas
alumina controlled the setting-time. Nanoalumina is produced from
alumina, where the use of nanoalumina in concrete is seldom reported.
The inclusion of nanoalumina in concrete particularly high perfor-
mance concrete can enormously affect concrete characteristics because
it regulates the setting-time of cement [161,162]. Presence of nanoa-
lumina within cement can accelerate the early setting-time for high
performance concrete, which in turn diminishes the segregation and
flocculation. In high performance concrete mixes, any disturbance in
the cement creates inhomogeneity and affects the working perfor-
mance. Nanoalumina in high performance concrete functions as dis-
persive mediator in cement particulates [163,164]. Besides, nanoalu-
mina can refine the porosity of hydration-gel product as nanofiller
because the cement proportion in high performing concrete is high.
Therefore, grains size distribution in such concrete is essential si-
multaneously with silica mediated hydration. Without nanoalumina
mediated refinement, the hydration mechanism is weaker since the si-
lica component cannot penetrate the interior structure of the gel. In-
corporation of nanoalumina can create a path for easy injection of the
silica or binding materials into the interior microstructures of the hy-
dration gel to start the refinement [165,166]. All these merits are
mentioned above make the nanoalumina one of the important materials
can use in future to produce smart and sustainable concrete by using
self-healing and nanotechnology.
5.3. Carbon nanotube
Carbon nanotube (CNT) is a carbon allotrope having cylinder
G.F. Huseien et al.
shaped nanostructure. NTs can be produced with length to diameter
(aspect) ratio of up to 132,000,000:1, considerably above any other
material. They possess atypical properties, which are precious for ap-
plications in diverse fields of materials science and nanotechnology
[32,123]. Particularly, due to their unusual thermal conductivity, me-
chanical and electrical characteristics CNTs can be used as additives for
diverse structural applications. NTs are affiliated to the fullerene fa-
mily, in which the long and hollow construction with the walls created
by one-atom-thick sheets of carbon so called grapheme makes them
different. Such sheets can be rolled at definite orientations, where the
revolving angle and radius together determines the attributes of CNTs
[146]. Nanotubes are divided into single-walled NT (SWNT) and multi-
walled NT (MWNT). Individual NTs are aligned in the form of ‘‘ropes”
that holds them mutually by van der Waals forces or via pi-stacking
[167,168]. These ropes make chemical bonds in the CNT structure,
where the bonds of NTs are comprised alike the graphite. These bonds
are much stronger than the one formed in alkanes and diamond,
making CNTs exceptionally strong.
Flexibility is one of the significant merits of CNT to produce sus-
tainable concrete. Using CNT, the sustainable concrete design may be
changed into distinctive or rigid type. Flexible nature of CNT is ad-
vantageous for enhancing the sustainable concrete strength. Compared
to other nanomaterials, CNT is superior in terms of flexibility im-
provement and strength enhancement of sustainable concrete [146].
Predominantly, the dimension of CNT is tinier than other nanomater-
ials. The major function of CNT in sustainable concrete is to advance
the stress and compressive strength [69]. CNT can use in self-healing
concrete technical using Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC)
method and that will contributed to produce sustainable and smart
concrete for future construction industry. Nevertheless, deficiency of
CNT resources may trim down the attention towards potential concrete
application of this material.
5.4. Polycarboxylates
In the past, polycarboxylates (PCE) nanomaterials has been utilized
in concrete [169]. PCE is a polymer based compound that is obtained
from methoxy-polyethylene glycol co-polymer. It functions in the sec-
ondary or side reactions which are reinforced to methacrylic acid co-
polymer as the major element. Usually, the carboxylate group is com-
prised of water molecule, rendering a negative charge alongside the
backbone of PCE. The polyethylene oxide group provides a non-uniform
electron cloud distribution and chemical polarities to the secondary or
side reactions. The number and the length of secondary or side groups
are can easily be changed. In case the secondary or side reactions
possess numerous electrons it lowers the large molar mass and alters the
polymer density, resulting in reduced performance of cement suspen-
sions [32,170]. For both chains to combine and paired simultaneously,
longer side groups and strong charge density from one to other reaction
end must form. Usually, polycarboxylate is used in concrete as high
range water reducer (HRWR). Inclusion of PCE allows in controlling the
concrete workability better at lower water to cement ratios.
The characteristics of PCE in concrete rely on its amount, where
elevated amount may cause in false setting without any hydration in-
cidence in the concrete [171]. Aside, addition of PCE at required level
can create Self Compacting Concrete (SCC) which enhances the work-
ability of concrete. It also cxreates a flow concrete with enormous ef-
fects at small and elevated intensity region. Other benefit of PCE in-
clusion in UHPC or concrete is related to its capacity to be applied in
marine atmosphere. Pores or voids in UHPC can remarkably be reduced
to get more compact structure in the presence of PCE because it can
eliminate air bubble and improves the concrete density. Furthermore,
refinement of UHPC microstructure can avoid or reduce the perme-
ability rate under marine condition, lowering the attack from sea-water
containing sulphate and chloride ions. On top, the usage of poly-
carboxylate is regarded as relatively green strategy than the use of silica
165
Journal of Building Engineering 23 (2019) 155–171
fume and other stabilizers in the UHPC microstructures refinement.
Birgisson et al. [172] used PCE in HSC instead of silica fume to
improve the workability and performance of UHPC. Additionally, ap-
proximately 70% of constituent materials in UHPC including silica
fume, superplasticizer and fibre were reduced. Ultimately, it was shown
that the incorporation of PCE within UHPC could improve the overall
performance compared to pure UHPC or HSC. It was acknowledged that
PCE addition of 2.5% of cement weight in HSC could rapidly enhance
the early age strength. Consequently, on the first day the HSC strength
was enhanced from 40 to 80 MPa. Meanwhile, at 28 days, obtained
strength was about 70–100 MPa at low PCE level, which proved that
PCE can act as a good substitute to improve the concrete performance.
In short, simple management with least parameters or protocols of PCE
makes it celebrated nanomaterials to be incorporated in UHPC.
5.5. Titanium oxide
Titania or titanium oxide (TiO2) has widely been used as pigment in
foods colouring, paints, photocatalyses, implants, solar cells, and many
other applications. Normally, it is resourced from ilmenite, rutile and
anatase phases and exists in nature as minerals’ phases such as rutile,
anatase and brookite. At high pressure, TiO2 is transformed to mono-
clinic baddeleyite and an orthorhombic structures, recently discovered
at the Ries crater in Bavaria [167,173]. Ilmenite and rutile form are the
most abundant form of titanium dioxide-containing ore worldwide
(98%). Heating above temperatures 600° to 800 °C one achieves the
metastable anatase and brookite phases [174].
Incorporation of TiO2 into UHPC and other concretes revealed re-
markable influence on self-cleaning capability and contributed as green
material implementation in engineering construction [173]. Jubilee
Church in Rome (Italy) exploited this self-cleaning attribute of TiO2 in
buildings, materials’ paving and product finishing [126]. TiO2 provides
accelerated strength of concrete at early age, wherein the concretes
performance and abrasion resistance both are enhanced [175]. TiO2
acting as glassy layer (extreme porosity) or pigment in the exterior of
the particles in UHPC and concrete modifies their microstructure and
thus the performance. Moreover, such layers can react with the hy-
dration gel products in mixing by producing protective layers, thereby
imparts self-cleaning capacity to the surface of concrete. This self-
cleaning action of titania in the exterior and coated concrete surface
make them extremely durable with permeability. This enhanced ac-
tivity of titania incorporated concrete is regarded as fibre reinforced
system that mimics the glassy fibre effect. It is realized that refinement
and tailoring of the hydration gel via such fibres can be useful for the
production of concrete with improved strength and prolonged dur-
ability [176]. Yet, health safety is a major concern related to the usage
of TiO2 because of its dusty nature where small dosage can result in
notable environmental impact especially to workers during packaging
and manufacturing. Some reports exhibited that TiO2 generates in-
flammation and causes cancer to factory workers [175]. Consequently,
it must be handled with care, particularly during mixing and process of
TiO2.
5.6. Nanokaolin
Nanokaolin is a by-product of kaolin also called kaolinite, a very
important industrial clay mineral with the chemical formula of
Al2Si2O5(OH)4 [177,178]. This is a silicate mineral with many layers,
where one tetrahedral layer is connected via oxygen atoms to another
octahedral layer of alumina [179]. Kaolinite enriched rocks are gen-
erally called kaolin or china clay [180]. This clay encloses white mi-
neral that called dioctahedral phyllosilicate that is formed by chemical
changes of aluminium silicate minerals including feldspar [181]. For
ceramic applications, kaolin is heat treated and altered into
Al2O3.2SiO2·2H2O. After treatment or endothermic dehydration crys-
talline phase of kaolin is transformed to amorphous structures [182],
G.F. Huseien et al.
where the new phase is known as metakaolin. IT contains amorphous
silica and alumina with some hexagonal layering [183], which is very
reactive pozzolan and reveals comparable reaction as silica fume.
Furthermore, by refining the microstructure of metakaolin both
strength can durability can be improved, thereby allows consistent
water penetration. This properties make kaolin strong and cost effective
than silica fume [32,184].
Nanokaolin is generated following either top-down or bottom-up
approach, where the final product is influence by the processing con-
ditions. Usually, the generation of nanokaolin comprised of layering or
stacking flakes. Apparently, the kaolin particles are identical to the
nanokaolin, where the morphologies after the size conversion from
microparticles to nanoparticles offer wider surface area. In the con-
crete, nanokaolin is treated to form extra reactive or stable product
called nanometakaolin. Being a newly used supplementary ingredient
in concrete, presence of nanometakaolin improves the concrete prop-
erties unexpectedly [32]. The positive effects of metakaolin in UHPC
and other kinds of concretes are demonstrated [138]. Morsy et al. [185]
showed that nanometakaolin inclusion in concrete could improve the
mortars’ compressive strength by about 8–10%. Interestingly, the ten-
sile and flexural strength enhancement of mortar containing nanome-
takaolin was discerned to be nearly 10–15% compared to plain OPC
[185,186]. Despite the advantages of nanometakaolin incorporation
into mortars to improving the performance some shortcomings on the
application of in UHPC were identified. Actually, lacking of raw kaolin
in certain nations makes nanometakaolin unpopular than celebrated
silica fume. Thus, standard guidelines and commercial protocols must
be developed for large scale production of nanokaolin and nanometa-
kaolin as useful nanomaterial alternative to concrete for serving the
construction industries.
5.7. Nanoclay
Nanoparticles of layered mineral silicates are called nanoclay. Based
on these nanoparticles chemical compositions and morphologies, na-
noclays are categorized into many classes including montmorillonite,
bentonite, kaolinite, hectorite, and halloysite. It is one of the most in-
expensive materials with beneficial outcomes in polymers. It is pre-
pared from deposits of montmorillonite mineral having platelet struc-
tures of average thickness of 1 nm thick and width of 70–150 nm. It
possesses many good qualities and an outstanding base material for
nanotechnology manoeuvring. These notable attributes are the stabi-
lity, interlayer spacing, elevated hydration and swelling capacity as
well as strong chemical reactivity. Clays and their improved organic
products can be analyzed via simple and modern instruments that can
evaluate the chemical compositions. These tools include gravimetric
analyser, inductively coupled plasma (ICP) or X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
spectroscopy, cation exchange capacity (CEC) using standard ammo-
nium acetate technique, surface area determination, Fourier transform
infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), powdered X-ray diffraction (PXRD) and
so on [58,88–90]. These clays are also distinguished via cation ex-
change capacity that can differ broadly based on the source and nature
of clay. The clay purity can influence the nanocomposite behaviours.
Therefore, it is significant to obtain montmorillonite with minimal
impurities such as crystalline silica (quartz), amorphous silica, calcite
and kaolin [187]. For the clays purification, several techniques have
been developed such as hydrocyclone, centrifugation, sedimentation
technique and chemical treatment [183].
Clays are regarded as economical and easily accessible materials.
Despite their abundance worldwide, the guideline and methods for
transforming clay to nanomaterials is not well documented yet. It is
thus important to explore the constructional benefits and disadvantages
of nanoclay as potential materials, although it has been diversely em-
ployed in the polymeric system. Nonetheless, the proof on the im-
provement in the material hardness, thermal stability, barrier coating,
and solvents together with the enhancement in the electronic and novel
166
Journal of Building Engineering 23 (2019) 155–171
types of materials are required. In the construction process, nanoclay is
used as an additive to improve the mechanical and binding concrete
characteristics. Morsy et al. [185] acknowledged that the enhancement
in the compressive and tensile strength of mortar cement in the pre-
sence of nanoclay as additive. Furthermore, the thermal properties of
concretes can be enhanced via the inclusion of nanoclay as cement
additive in the paste [188,189]. Qian et al. [150] studied the inclusion
of nanoclay with water (worked as the inner water provider to promote
hydration alongside the microcracks). It was shown that the recovery
level could be considerably improved with the incorporation of nano-
clay in the mixtures. The mechanism of healing depended on the re-
action between calcium hydroxide and nanoclay to formulate CSH gel
led to healing the crack.
5.8. Nanoiron
Copper, cobalt and nickel are ferromagnetic materials with very
limited applications due to their toxicity and susceptibility to oxidation.
Unlike these, iron oxide nanoparticles are attractive owing to their
super paramagnetic properties and their potential applications in many
fields. They have many applications in construction industry, but of
particular interest is as a colouring and as a anti-corrosion agent in
construction materials and coatings. Iron oxide nanoparticles have very
good UV blocking capabilities making these nanoparticles ideal for
glass applications ranging from glass coatings to cunglasses. They also
allow for better dispersion in paints and coatings, especially in high
gloss and automotive applications [190,191]. The possibility and quick
reaction between Ca(OH)2 and Fe2O3 nanoparticles led to high amounts
of reaction products are formed and close the cracks.
5.9. Nanosilver
The nanosilver is now well known for anti- bacterial, viruses and
fungal efficancy as well as forcellular metabolism in inhibiting cells
growth. The nanosilver can slow down growth multiplication of bac-
terial and fungal infections that causes bad odour, itching and sores.
Using nanotechnology tools it is possible now to produce silver nano-
particles of accurate morphology (size and shape) with very uniform
distribution. Surface coating of nanoparticles from diverse material can
enhance the surface area by several orders of magnitude than their bulk
counterpart. Particularly, silver is attractive metal because of its ex-
traordinary size and shape dependent optical characteristics, efficient
plasmon excitation, and high electrical and thermal conductivity in the
bulk among all metals. These unique features allow silver nanoparticles
(Ag NPs) for potential applications in catalysis, selective oxidation of
styrene, antimicrobial coatings, optical sensing, printed electronics and
photonics. Ag NPs of dimension in the range of 1–100 nm find several
applications in the field of catalytic processes, photonic devices, elec-
tronics, optoelectronic, etc due to their distinct physical, structural,
morphological, chemical, electrical, optical, and magnetic attributes.
On top, Ag NPs have widely been used as antibacterial and antifungal
agents in biomedical field, in textile engineering, for water treatment,
and several other consumer products [190,191].
6. Sustainability of nanomaterials based self-healing concrete
Presently, nanotechnology is one of the most significant scientific
and industrial breakthroughs of the twenty-first century. Nanomaterials
offer great advantages towards concrete sustainability in construction
fields such as energy storing, high performance, corrosion resistance,
environmental remediation, and self-healing applications.
Sustainability is a celebrated topic nowadays, as nanomaterials become
incorporated into concrete products in rising amounts it may help to
develop an understanding of their interaction with the environment.
Nanotechnology has the potential to dramatically change the strength,
sustainability, and whole properties of concrete. Hamers [192] have
G.F. Huseien et al.
Fig. 7. The C-S-H clusters (a) TEM image and (b) molecular model generated
[175].
reported the broad range of complex nanomaterials required to un-
derstand the molecular-level design rules. Eventually, it is challenging
to exploit the power of chemistry to guarantee that nanosystems in-
corporated technologies can make better environmentally friendly
products.
7. Merits and demerits of nanomaterials for self-healing concrete
In general, sustainable energy and the environment are one of the
central priorities for researchers; triggering a massive capital invest-
ment on research to define new trajectories in construction materials
sustainability and consequent pollution abatement. The attempt re-
searchers to solve self-healing problems by using nanomaterials as the
healing agent contributed to achieving many advantages. Moreover,
deployment of nanomaterials in the self-healing concrete is an emer-
gent concept. High performance of nanomaterials affects positively
towards the enhancement and development the self-healing concrete.
The applied nanotechnology led to develop a molecular model for the
hydration products (C-S-H gels) of OPC [175] as shown in Fig. 7. As
well as enhance of strength and sustainability of self-healing concrete
using nanomaterials the controlled self-healing be better and the price
of the material is considerably below epoxy-based materials.
The cost of self-healing concrete compared to conventional concrete
still high even with using nanomaterials. Thus, self-healing concrete is a
probable product for several civil engineering structures where the
concrete cost is much higher due to better quality. For instance, in
tunnel linings and marine structures wherein the security is a major
issue or in structures in which there is limited accessibility for repairing
and maintaining. In such special circumstances, even if the self-healing
167
Journal of Building Engineering 23 (2019) 155–171
agents incorporated concretes cost higher it should not be too bur-
densome looking at the safety and future benefits.
8. Economy of nanomaterials based self-healing concretes
Generally, concrete is the distinct construction material exploited
worldwide. It has been documented that over 2.6 billion tons of OPC
was manufactured in the year 2007 [156] worldwide, amounting to
above 17 billion tons. OPC was used in varieties of products such as
building basement, walls, footpaths, lamp posts, bridges, dams, tall
towers, skyscrapers, etc. to cite a few. Usually, concrete goods are
proposed to achieve long lifetime and tolerant against local aggressive
atmospheric conditions. Eventually, these concrete structures are
mostly demolished and recycled at occasions upon reaching the final
stage of their service life. Besides, in the building sector is such it is easy
to apply process innovations instead of modernizations of disruptive
goods. Manufacturing combines the products from varieties of supplies
and skilfulness in a broad array of trading into a solitary completed
structure. An alteration in the built structure can be evaluated by the
construction corporation itself. Moreover, a considerably novel product
produced by the supplier needs understanding and approval by the
architects, engineers and the client before being applied by the skilled
and trained on-site workers.
Several factors must be accounted to develop nanotechnology
enrouted concretes. Firstly, concrete and related products must be
manufactured at large scale. Even if the cost of expensive concrete
structures becomes lower it must be capable of handling massive ma-
terial in a safer and environmental friendly way. Secondly, innovations
required to be methodically developed with field testing to achieve the
understanding and assurance in the construction sector. Lastly, struc-
tures of concrete are hard to destroy and need explosives or high-en-
ergies for breaking up. Thus, nanotechnology based concrete produc-
tion should be compatible to these conventional practices. With these
constrictions, the early nanomaterials implementations in self-healing
purposes must render notable benefits in terms of extra functions with
comparatively low quantities of nanomaterials. This low amount can be
offered via standard construction practices and must not influence the
the materials’ performance. Innovative products (smart self-healing
concrete) must be able to advance the delivery of the traditional ma-
terials including the control of released admixtures in order to likely
penetrating the marketplace.
9. Environmental suitability and safety features of nanomaterials
based concretes
Commonly, gaseous CO2 is released from OPC concrete during the
cement clinker's de-carbonation of lime and calcination reactions. Using
nanomaterials based self-healing technology emission of CO2 can re-
markably be reduced. Currently, world's development exclusive of
concrete is beyond imagination [193]. History tells us that without
concrete the wonderful structures like Sydney Opera House, the
Chrysler Building, or Taj Mahal could not have existed. Furthermore,
the skyscrapers in metropolis all over the world would have reached to
such striking altitudes without the usage of celebrated concretes. In
every aspect, durability of concrete played a remarkable role to erect
those historic buildings centuries ago without modern technology and
qualified engineers. Definitely, concrete in its own right is an integrated
part of everyday life. Briefly, the manufacturing of smart and new
concrete demands much money where billions tons of raw materials are
wasted annually because inefficient production processes of concrete.
Moreover, the production of OPC (primary concrete binder) adds to
over 5% of the totally released greenhouse gases annually worldwide. It
enforces threat to our environment where world development is
striving for sustainable and green building deployment [194]. There-
fore, the future aim is targeted to build cleaner, safer, efficient, reliable,
and stronger smart materials alternative to concrete than the
G.F. Huseien et al.
conventional OPC based concretes. In this spirit, the notion of nano-
materials based smart concrete and self-healing technology has been
coined.
10. Summary
In recent times, production of sustainable concrete via self-healing
technology became useful in the construction industries worldwide.
Exponential increase in the usage of OPC caused severe environmental
damages. The immense benefits and usefulness of self-healing concrete
technology were demonstrated in terms of its sustainability, energy
saving traits and environmental affability. The foremost challenges,
current progress and future trends of nanotechnology enrouted self-
healing concretes potential were emphasized. An all-inclusive overview
of the appropriate literature on nanomaterials based self-healing con-
crete allowed us to draw the following conclusions:
i. Self-healing concretes are characterized by many significant traits
such as less pollution, cheap, eco-friendly, and elevated durability
performance in harsh environment. These properties make them
effective sustainable materials in the construction industries.
ii. The design of nanomaterials based self-healing concretes with im-
proved performances and endurance useful for several appications
is a new avenue in nanoscience and nanotechnology.
iii. The environmental pollution can considerably be reduced by im-
plementing high strength and durable cementitious composites
fabricated using diverse nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes and na-
nofibers.
iv. In the domain of building and construction the production of ma-
terials via nanotechnology route is going to play a vital role towards
sustainable development in the near future.
v. Use of nanomaterials in concrete is advantageous in terms of im-
proved engineering properties of cementitious materials, especially
for the generation of self-healing and sustainable concretes.
vi. This comprehensive review is believed to provide taxonomy to na-
vigate and underscore the research progress toward nanomaterials
based self-healing concrete technology.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported and funded by the Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia Centre of Excellence (UTM COE) research grant
Q.J130000.2409.04G00 and Fundamental Research Grant Scheme
(FRGS) grant R.J130000.7822.4F722. The authors would like to thanks
the grants provider, namely Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and Ministry
of Higher Education, staff from Material and Structure Laboratory,
School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, and the EM
Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. and EMRO Japan for their support and cooperation
in conducting this research.
References
[1] R. Chen, Y. Li, R. Xiang, S. Li, Effect of particle size of fly ash on the properties of
lightweight insulation materials, Constr. Build. Mater. 123 (2016) 120–126.
[2] G.F. Huseien, A.R.M. Sam, J. Mirza, M.M. Tahir, M.A. Asaad, M. Ismail, et al.,
Waste ceramic powder incorporated alkali activated mortars exposed to elevated
Temperatures: performance evaluation, Constr. Build. Mater. 187 (2018)
307–317.
[3] H. Mohammadhosseini, M.M. Tahir, M. Sayyed, Strength and transport properties
of concrete composites incorporating waste carpet fibres and palm oil fuel ash, J.
Build. Eng. 20 (2018) 156–165.
[4] G.F. Huseien, J. Mirza, M. Ismail, M.W. Hussin, M. Arrifin, A. Hussein, The effect
of sodium hydroxide molarity and other parameters on water absorption of geo-
polymer mortars, Indian J. Sci. Technol. 9 (2016) 1–7.
[5] K. Du, C. Xie, X. Ouyang, A comparison of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission trends
among provinces in China, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 73 (2017) 19–25.
[6] A. Keyvanfar, A. Shafaghat, M.Z.A. Majid, H.B. Lamit, M.W. Hussin, K.N.B. Ali,
et al., User satisfaction adaptive behaviors for assessing energy efficient building
indoor cooling and lighting environment, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 39 (2014)
277–295.
168
Journal of Building Engineering 23 (2019) 155–171
[7] G.F. Huseien, J. Mirza, M. Ismail, S. Ghoshal, A.A. Hussein, Geopolymer mortars as
sustainable repair material: a comprehensive review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
80 (2017) 54–74.
[8] T. Xie, T. Ozbakkaloglu, Behavior of low-calcium fly and bottom ash-based geo-
polymer concrete cured at ambient temperature, Ceram. Int. 41 (2015)
5945–5958.
[9] G.F. Huseien, J. Mirza, M. Ismail, M.W. Hussin, Influence of different curing
temperatures and alkali activators on properties of GBFS geopolymer mortars
containing fly ash and palm-oil fuel ash, Constr. Build. Mater. 125 (2016)
1229–1240.
[10] Á. Palomo, A. Fernández-Jiménez, C. López-Hombrados, J.L. Lleyda, Railway
sleepers made of alkali activated fly ash concrete, Rev. Ing. De. Constr. 22 (2011)
75–80.
[11] G.F. Huseien, J. Mirza, M. Ismail, M.W. Hussina, M.A.M. Ariffin, Potential use
coconut milk as alternative to alkali solution for geopolymer production, J.
Teknol. 78 (2016) 133–139.
[12] N.F. Ariffin, M.W. Hussin, A.R.M. Sam, M.A.R. Bhutta, N.H.A. Khalid, J. Mirza,
Strength properties and molecular composition of epoxy-modified mortars, Constr.
Build. Mater. 94 (2015) 315–322.
[13] G.F. Huseien, J. Mirza, N.F. Ariffin, M.W. Hussin, Synthesis and characterization of
self-healing mortar with modified strength, J. Teknol. 76 (2015) 195–200.
[14] L. Jiang, D. Niu, Study of deterioration of concrete exposed to different types of
sulfate solutions under drying-wetting cycles, Constr. Build. Mater. 117 (2016)
88–98.
[15] Y. Chen, J. Gao, L. Tang, X. Li, Resistance of concrete against combined attack of
chloride and sulfate under drying–wetting cycles, Constr. Build. Mater. 106 (2016)
650–658.
[16] J.G. Calvo, G. Pérez, P. Carballosa, E. Erkizia, J. Gaitero, A. Guerrero,
Development of ultra-high performance concretes with self-healing micro/nano-
additions, Constr. Build. Mater. 138 (2017) 306–315.
[17] S. Gupta, S. Dai Pang, H.W. Kua, Autonomous healing in concrete by bio-based
healing agents–A review, Constr. Build. Mater. 146 (2017) 419–428.
[18] J. Wang, K. Van Tittelboom, N. De Belie, W. Verstraete, Use of silica gel or
polyurethane immobilized bacteria for self-healing concrete, Constr. Build. Mater.
26 (2012) 532–540.
[19] J. Miranda, A. Fernández-Jiménez, J. González, A. Palomo, Corrosion resistance in
activated fly ash mortars, Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (2005) 1210–1217.
[20] G. Habert, J.D.E. De Lacaillerie, N. Roussel, An environmental evaluation of
geopolymer based concrete production: reviewing current research trends, J.
Clean. Prod. 19 (2011) 1229–1238.
[21] G.F. Huseien, J. Mirza, M. Ismail, S. Ghoshal, M.A.M. Ariffin, Effect of metakaolin
replaced granulated blast furnace slag on fresh and early strength properties of
geopolymer mortar, Ain Shams Eng. J. 9 (2018) 1557–1566.
[22] H. Mohammadhosseini, J.M. Yatim, A.R.M. Sam, A.A. Awal, Durability perfor-
mance of green concrete composites containing waste carpet fibers and palm oil
fuel ash, J. Clean. Prod. 144 (2017) 448–458.
[23] X. Shi, F. Collins, X. Zhao, Q. Wang, Mechanical properties and microstructure
analysis of fly ash geopolymeric recycled concrete, J. Hazard. Mater. 237 (2012)
20–29.
[24] K. Behfarnia, Studying the effect of freeze and thaw cycles on bond strength of
concrete repair materials, 2010.
[25] F. Gouny, F. Fouchal, P. Maillard, S. Rossignol, A geopolymer mortar for wood and
earth structures, Constr. Build. Mater. 36 (2012) 188–195.
[26] J. Mirza, B. Durand, A.R. Bhutta, M.M. Tahir, Preferred test methods to select
suitable surface repair materials in severe climates, Constr. Build. Mater. 50
(2014) 692–698.
[27] H.S. Mueller, M. Haist, J.S. Moffatt, M. Vogel, Design, material properties and
structural performance of sustainable concrete, Procedia Eng. 171 (2017) 22–32.
[28] G.F. Huseien, M.M. Tahir, J. Mirza, M. Ismail, K.W. Shah, M.A. Asaad, Effects of
POFA replaced with FA on durability properties of GBFS included alkali activated
mortars, Constr. Build. Mater. 175 (2018) 174–186.
[29] T. Qureshi, A. Kanellopoulos, A. Al-Tabbaa, Autogenous self-healing of cement
with expansive minerals-II: impact of age and the role of optimised expansive
minerals in healing performance, Constr. Build. Mater. 194 (2019) 266–275.
[30] P. Chindaprasirt, U. Rattanasak, Improvement of durability of cement pipe with
high calcium fly ash geopolymer covering, Constr. Build. Mater. 112 (2016)
956–961.
[31] M. Hossain, M. Karim, M. Hossain, M. Islam, M.F.M. Zain, Durability of mortar and
concrete containing alkali-activated binder with pozzolans: a review, Constr.
Build. Mater. 93 (2015) 95–109.
[32] M.M. Norhasri, M. Hamidah, A.M. Fadzil, Applications of using nano material in
concrete: a review, Constr. Build. Mater. 133 (2017) 91–97.
[33] E. Gartner, Potential improvements in cement sustainability. In: Proceedings of the
31st Cement and Concrete Science Conference Novel Developments and
Innovation in Cementitious Materials, 12–13 September 2011.
[34] J. Li, S.T. Ng, M. Skitmore, Review of low-carbon refurbishment solutions for
residential buildings with particular reference to multi-story buildings in Hong
Kong, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 73 (2017) 393–407.
[35] P. Wang, J. Wang, Q. Qin, H. Wang, Life cycle assessment of magnetized fly-ash
compound fertilizer production: a case study in China, Renew. Sustain. Energy
Rev. 73 (2017) 706–713.
[36] A. Mastrucci, A. Marvuglia, U. Leopold, E. Benetto, Life Cycle Assessment of
building stocks from urban to transnational scales: a review, Renew. Sustain.
Energy Rev. 74 (2017) 316–332.
[37] L. Struble, J. Godfrey, How sustainable is concrete, Int. Workshop Sustain. Dev.
Concr. Technol. (2004) 201–211.
G.F. Huseien et al.
[38] A. Bilodeau, V.M. Malhotra, High-volume fly ash system: the concrete solution for
sustainable development. CANMET/ACI Séminaire international, 2000.
[39] D.Y. Zhu, M.Z. Rong, M.Q. Zhang, Self-healing polymeric materials based on mi-
croencapsulated healing agents: from design to preparation, Progress. Polym. Sci.
49 (2015) 175–220.
[40] Z. He, S. Jiang, Q. Li, J. Wang, Y. Zhao, M. Kang, Facile and cost-effective synthesis
of isocyanate microcapsules via polyvinyl alcohol-mediated interfacial poly-
merization and their application in self-healing materials, Compos. Sci. Technol.
138 (2017) 15–23.
[41] V.C. Li, E. Herbert, Robust self-healing concrete for sustainable infrastructure, J.
Adv. Concr. Technol. 10 (2012) 207–218.
[42] B. Van Belleghem, P. Van den Heede, K. Van Tittelboom, N. De Belie,
Quantification of the service life extension and environmental benefit of chloride
exposed self-healing concrete, Materials 10 (2016) 5.
[43] A. Kousourakis, A. Mouritz, The effect of self-healing hollow fibres on the me-
chanical properties of polymer composites, Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010)
085021.
[44] N. Zhong, W. Post, Self-repair of structural and functional composites with in-
trinsically self-healing polymer matrices: a review, Compos. Part A: Appl. Sci.
Manuf. 69 (2015) 226–239.
[45] C. Dry, Procedures developed for self-repair of polymer matrix composite mate-
rials, Compos. Struct. 35 (1996) 263–269.
[46] M. Motuku, U. Vaidya, G. Janowski, Parametric studies on self-repairing ap-
proaches for resin infused composites subjected to low velocity impact, Smart
Mater. Struct. 8 (1999) 623.
[47] S. Bleay, C. Loader, V. Hawyes, L. Humberstone, P. Curtis, A smart repair system
for polymer matrix composites, Compos. Part A: Appl. Sci. Manuf. 32 (2001)
1767–1776.
[48] J. Pang, I. Bond, ‘Bleeding composites'—damage detection and self-repair using a
biomimetic approach, Compos. Part A: Appl. Sci. Manuf. 36 (2005) 183–188.
[49] J.W. Pang, I.P. Bond, A hollow fibre reinforced polymer composite encompassing
self-healing and enhanced damage visibility, Compos. Sci. Technol. 65 (2005)
1791–1799.
[50] V.C. Li, E.-H. Yang, Self healing in concrete materials, Self healing materials,
Springer, 2007, pp. 161–193.
[51] A.N. Al-Gemeel, Y. Zhuge, O. Youssf, Use of hollow glass microspheres and hybrid
fibres to improve the mechanical properties of engineered cementitious composite,
Constr. Build. Mater. 171 (2018) 858–870.
[52] C. Dry, Matrix cracking repair and filling using active and passive modes for smart
timed release of chemicals from fibers into cement matrices, Smart Mater. Struct. 3
(1994) 118.
[53] C. Dry, Three designs for the internal release of sealants, adhesives, and water-
proofing chemicals into concrete to reduce permeability, Cem. Concr. Res. 30
(2000) 1969–1977.
[54] H. Mihashi, Y. KANEKO, T. Nishiwaki, K. Otsuka, Fundamental study on devel-
opment of intelligent concrete characterized by self-healing capability for
strength, Trans. Jpn. Concr. Inst. 22 (2001) 441–450.
[55] C. Joseph, A. Jefferson, M. Cantoni Issues relating to the autonomic healing of
cementitious materials. Proceedings of the First international conference on self-
healing materials. p. 1-8.
[56] S.K. Ghosh, Self-healing materials: fundamentals, design strategies, and applica-
tions, John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
[57] A.R. Hemsley, P.C. Griffiths, Architecture in the microcosm: biocolloids, self-as-
sembly and pattern formation, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A: Math., Phys. Eng.
Sci. 358 (2000) 547–564.
[58] D. Bekas, K. Tsirka, D. Baltzis, A. Paipetis, Self-healing materials: a review of
advances in materials, evaluation, characterization and monitoring techniques,
Compos. Part B: Eng. 87 (2016) 92–119.
[59] J. He, X. Shi, Developing an abiotic capsule-based self-healing system for ce-
mentitious materials: the state of knowledge, Constr. Build. Mater. 156 (2017)
1096–1113.
[60] M. Wu, B. Johannesson, M. Geiker, A review: self-healing in cementitious mate-
rials and engineered cementitious composite as a self-healing material, Constr.
Build. Mater. 28 (2012) 571–583.
[61] S.R. White, N. Sottos, P. Geubelle, J. Moore, M.R. Kessler, S. Sriram, et al.,
Autonomic healing of polymer composites, Nature 409 (2001) 794.
[62] W. Li, Z. Jiang, Z. Yang, Acoustic characterization of damage and healing of mi-
croencapsulation-based self-healing cement matrices, Cem. Concr. Compos. 84
(2017) 48–61.
[63] D. Sun, B. Li, F. Ye, X. Zhu, T. Lu, Y. Tian, Fatigue behavior of microcapsule-
induced self-healing asphalt concrete, J. Clean. Prod. 188 (2018) 466–476.
[64] T. Nishiwaki, Fundamental study on development of intelligent concrete with self-
healing capability. Japan, Tohoku University, Master’s thesis, 1997.
[65] E. Rattner, Cost-effective Self-healing Concrete [EB/OL], 2011.
[66] W. Du, J. Yu, Y. Gu, Y. Li, X. Han, Q. Liu, Preparation and application of micro-
capsules containing toluene-di-isocyanate for self-healing of concrete, Constr.
Build. Mater. 202 (2019) 762–769.
[67] T. Kishi, T. Ahn, A. Hosoda, S. Suzuki, H. Takaoka, Self-healing behaviour by
cementitious recrystallization of cracked concrete incorporating expansive agent.
Proceedings of the First International Conference on Self-healing Materials, 18-20
April: Noordwijk aan Zee, 2007.
[68] T.-H. Ahn, T. Kishi, Crack self-healing behavior of cementitious composites in-
corporating various mineral admixtures, J. Adv. Concr. Technol. 8 (2010)
171–186.
[69] M. Al-Ansari, A.G. Abu-Taqa, M.M. Hassan, A. Senouci, J. Milla, Performance of
modified self-healing concrete with calcium nitrate microencapsulation, Constr.
169
Journal of Building Engineering 23 (2019) 155–171
Build. Mater. 149 (2017) 525–534.
[70] M.A. Sherir, K.M. Hossain, M. Lachemi, Development and recovery of mechanical
properties of self-healing cementitious composites with MgO expansive agent,
Constr. Build. Mater. 148 (2017) 789–810.
[71] H.M. Jonkers, A. Thijssen, G. Muyzer, O. Copuroglu, E. Schlangen, Application of
bacteria as self-healing agent for the development of sustainable concrete, Ecol.
Eng. 36 (2010) 230–235.
[72] K. Van Tittelboom, N. De Belie, W. De Muynck, W. Verstraete, Use of bacteria to
repair cracks in concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 40 (2010) 157–166.
[73] J. Luo, X. Chen, J. Crump, H. Zhou, D.G. Davies, G. Zhou, et al., Interactions of
fungi with concrete: significant importance for bio-based self-healing concrete,
Constr. Build. Mater. 164 (2018) 275–285.
[74] H.A. Algaifi, S.A. Bakar, A.R.M. Sam, A.R.Z. Abidin, S. Shahir, W.A.H. AL-Towayti,
Numerical modeling for crack self-healing concrete by microbial calcium carbo-
nate, Constr. Build. Mater. 189 (2018) 816–824.
[75] N. De Belie, E. Gruyaert, A. Al‐Tabbaa, P. Antonaci, C. Baera, D. Bajare, et al., A
Review of Self‐Healing Concrete for Damage Management of Structures, Adv.
Mater. Interfaces (2018) 1800074.
[76] U. Gollapudi, C. Knutson, S. Bang, M. Islam, A new method for controlling
leaching through permeable channels, Chemosphere 30 (1995) 695–705.
[77] Y. Sakai, Y. Kitagawa, T. Fukuta, M. Iiba, Experimental study on enhancement of
self-restoration of concrete beams using SMA wire, Smart Struct. Mater. 2003:
Smart Syst. Nondestruct. Eval. Civil. Infrastruct.: Int. Soc. Opt. Photonics (2003)
178–187.
[78] S. El-Tawil, J. Ortega-Rosales, Prestressing concrete using shape memory alloy
tendons, Struct. J. 101 (2004) 846–851.
[79] A. Jefferson, C. Joseph, R. Lark, B. Isaacs, S. Dunn, B. Weager, A new system for
crack closure of cementitious materials using shrinkable polymers, Cem. Concr.
Res. 40 (2010) 795–801.
[80] G. Song, N. Ma, H.-N. Li, Applications of shape memory alloys in civil structures,
Eng. Struct. 28 (2006) 1266–1274.
[81] T.W. Duerig, K. Melton, D. Stöckel, Engineering aspects of shape memory alloys,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 2013.
[82] D. Shen, S. Shi, T. Xu, X. Huang, G. Liao, J. Chen, Development of shape memory
polyurethane based sealant for concrete pavement, Constr. Build. Mater. 174
(2018) 474–483.
[83] G. Song, Y. Mo, Increasing concrete structural survivability using smart materials.
A proposal submitted to Grants to Enhance and Advance Research (GEAR),
University of Houston, 2003.
[84] M. Pittaluga, The electrochromic wall, Energy Build. 66 (2013) 49–56.
[85] K. Gobakis, D. Kolokotsa, N. Maravelaki-Kalaitzaki, V. Perdikatsis,
M. Santamouris, Development and analysis of advanced inorganic coatings for
buildings and urban structures, Energy Build. 89 (2015) 196–205.
[86] K. Lau, A.A. Sagüés, Coating condition Evaluation of epoxy coated rebar, ECS
Trans. 3 (2007) 81–92.
[87] D.G. Shchukin, S. Lamaka, K. Yasakau, M. Zheludkevich, M. Ferreira, H. Möhwald,
Active anticorrosion coatings with halloysite nanocontainers, J. Phys. Chem. C.
112 (2008) 958–964.
[88] Y. Chen, C. Xia, Z. Shepard, N. Smith, N. Rice, A.M. Peterson, et al., Self-healing
coatings for steel-reinforced concrete. ACS sustainable Chemistry & engineering, 5
(2017) 3955–3962.
[89] S.H. Cho, S.R. White, P.V. Braun, Self‐healing polymer coatings, Adv. Mater. 21
(2009) 645–649.
[90] T. Nesterova, K. Dam-Johansen, S. Kiil, Synthesis of durable microcapsules for self-
healing anticorrosive coatings: a comparison of selected methods, Progress. Org.
Coat. 70 (2011) 342–352.
[91] W.J. Yang, X. Tao, T. Zhao, L. Weng, E.-T. Kang, L. Wang, Antifouling and anti-
bacterial hydrogel coatings with self-healing properties based on a dynamic dis-
ulfide exchange reaction, Polym. Chem. 6 (2015) 7027–7035.
[92] X. Luo, P.T. Mather, Shape memory assisted self-healing coating, ACS Macro Lett.
2 (2013) 152–156.
[93] J. Kötteritzsch, S. Stumpf, S. Hoeppener, J. Vitz, M.D. Hager, U.S. Schubert,
One‐Component Intrinsic Self‐Healing Coatings Based on Reversible Crosslinking
by Diels–Alder Cycloadditions, Macromol. Chem. Phys. 214 (2013) 1636–1649.
[94] D.V. Andreeva, D. Fix, H. Möhwald, D.G. Shchukin, Self‐healing anticorrosion
coatings based on ph‐sensitive polyelectrolyte/Inhibitor sandwichlike nanos-
tructures, Adv. Mater. 20 (2008) 2789–2794.
[95] C. Suryanarayana, K.C. Rao, D. Kumar, Preparation and characterization of mi-
crocapsules containing linseed oil and its use in self-healing coatings, Progress.
Org. Coat. 63 (2008) 72–78.
[96] R.S. Jadhav, D.G. Hundiwale, P.P. Mahulikar, Synthesis and characterization of
phenol–formaldehyde microcapsules containing linseed oil and its use in epoxy for
self‐healing and anticorrosive coating, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 119 (2011) 2911–2916.
[97] Y. Chen, Y. Jiang, H. Chen, Z. Zhang, J. Zhang, C. Cao, Corrosion inhibition of mild
steel in acidic medium by linseed oil-based imidazoline, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 90
(2013) 1387–1395.
[98] M. Samadzadeh, S.H. Boura, M. Peikari, A. Ashrafi, M. Kasiriha, Tung oil: an au-
tonomous repairing agent for self-healing epoxy coatings, Progress. Org. Coat. 70
(2011) 383–387.
[99] V.C. Li, From micromechanics to structural engineering-the design of cementitous
composites for civil engineering applications, 1993.
[100] J. Zhou, S. Qian, M.G.S. Beltran, G. Ye, K. van Breugel, V.C. Li, Development of
engineered cementitious composites with limestone powder and blast furnace slag,
Mater. Struct. 43 (2010) 803–814.
[101] V.C. Li, Y.M. Lim, Y.-W. Chan, Feasibility study of a passive smart self-healing
cementitious composite, Compos. Part B: Eng. 29 (1998) 819–827.
G.F. Huseien et al.
[102] H.-W. Reinhardt, M. Jooss, Permeability and self-healing of cracked concrete as a
function of temperature and crack width, Cem. Concr. Res. 33 (2003) 981–985.
[103] M. Ismail, A. Toumi, R. François, R. Gagné, Effect of crack opening on the local
diffusion of chloride in cracked mortar samples, Cem. Concr. Res. 38 (2008)
1106–1111.
[104] A. Guerrero, J.L.G. Calvo, P. Carballosa, G. Perez, V.R. Allegro, E. Erkizia, et al.,
An Innovative Self-Healing System in Ultra-high Strength Concrete Under Freeze-
Thaw Cycles, Nanotechnology in Construction, Springer, 2015, pp. 357–362.
[105] Y. Yang, M. Lepech, V.C. Li, Self-healing of ECC under cyclic wetting and drying,
2005.
[106] M. Sahmaran, M. Li, V.C. Li, Transport properties of engineered cementitious
composites under chloride exposure, Mater. J. 104 (2007) 604–611.
[107] J. Zhou, S. Qian, M. Sierra Beltran, G. Ye, E. Schlangen, K. van Breugel, Developing
engineered cementitious composite with local materials. International conference
on microstructure related durability of cementitious composites, Nanjing, China,
2008.
[108] S. Qian, J. Zhou, M. De Rooij, E. Schlangen, G. Ye, K. Van Breugel, Self-healing
behavior of strain hardening cementitious composites incorporating local waste
materials, Cem. Concr. Compos. 31 (2009) 613–621.
[109] A. Kanellopoulos, T. Qureshi, A. Al-Tabbaa, Glass encapsulated minerals for self-
healing in cement based composites, Constr. Build. Mater. 98 (2015) 780–791.
[110] L. Lv, Z. Yang, G. Chen, G. Zhu, N. Han, E. Schlangen, et al., Synthesis and
characterization of a new polymeric microcapsule and feasibility investigation in
self-healing cementitious materials, Constr. Build. Mater. 105 (2016) 487–495.
[111] J. Wang, H. Soens, W. Verstraete, N. De Belie, Self-healing concrete by use of
microencapsulated bacterial spores, Cem. Concr. Res. 56 (2014) 139–152.
[112] Y. Yamazaki, H. Kamiaka, S. Kobayashi, T. Hirose, Expansion mechanism and
hydration of expansive cement, CAJ Rev. 34th General. Meet. (1980) 59–61.
[113] S. Nagataki, H. Gomi, Expansive admixtures (mainly ettringite), Cem. Concr.
Compos. 20 (1998) 163–170.
[114] M. Ish-Shalom, A. Bentur, Properties of type K expansive cement of pure compo-
nents I. Hydration of unrestrained paste of expansive component—Results, Cem.
Concr. Res. 4 (1974) 519–532.
[115] W. Khaliq, M.B. Ehsan, Crack healing in concrete using various bio influenced self-
healing techniques, Constr. Build. Mater. 102 (2016) 349–357.
[116] H.M. Jonkers, E. Schlangen A two component bacteria-based self-healing concrete.
Concrete Repair, Rehabilitation and Retrofitting II in: Proceedings of the 2nd
International Conference on Concrete Repair, Rehabilitation and Retrofitting,
ICCRRR-2, 24-26 November 2008, Cape Town, South Africa: CRC Press. p. 119.
[117] K. Alaneme, M. Bodunrin, Self-healing using metallic material systems–A review,
Appl. Mater. Today 6 (2017) 9–15.
[118] R. Das, R. Jones, Characteristics of the design surface of damage tolerance para-
meters and their relation to shape optimisation, Int. J. Fatigue 70 (2015) 490–502.
[119] M. Collepardi, Damage by delayed ettringite formation, Concr. Int. 21 (1999)
69–74.
[120] T.T.X. Hang, T.A. Truc, M.-G. Olivier, C. Vandermiers, N. Guérit, N. Pébère,
Corrosion protection mechanisms of carbon steel by an epoxy resin containing
indole-3 butyric acid modified clay, Progress. Org. Coat. 69 (2010) 410–416.
[121] M.W. Lee, S.S. Yoon, A.L. Yarin, Solution-blown core–shell self-healing nano-and
microfibers, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8 (2016) 4955–4962.
[122] Z. Wang, P. Ciselli, T. Peijs, The extraordinary reinforcing efficiency of single-
walled carbon nanotubes in oriented poly (vinyl alcohol) tapes, Nanotechnology
18 (2007) 455709.
[123] K. Guterrez, How Nanotechnology can Change the Concrete World, 2005.
[124] H. Abdoli, H. Farnoush, H. Asgharzadeh, S. Sadrnezhaad, Effect of high energy ball
milling on compressibility of nanostructured composite powder, Powder Metall.
54 (2011) 24–29.
[125] E. Jankowska, W. Zatorski Emission of nanosize particles in the process of nano-
clay blending. Quantum, Nano and Micro Technologies ICQNM'09 Proceedings of
the Third International Conference on: IEEE. p. 147-151.
[126] F. Sanchez, K. Sobolev, Nanotechnology in concrete–a review, Constr. Build.
Mater. 24 (2010) 2060–2071.
[127] S.P. Shah, M. Konsta-Gdoutos, Z. Metaxa, P. Mondal Nanoscale modification of
cementitious materials. Nanotechnology in Construction 3: Springer. p. 125-130.
[128] N.J. Saleh, R.I. Ibrahim, A.D. Salman, Characterization of nano-silica prepared
from local silica sand and its application in cement mortar using optimization
technique, Adv. Powder Technol. 26 (2015) 1123–1133.
[129] M. Gesoglu, E. Güneyisi, D.S. Asaad, G.F. Muhyaddin, Properties of low binder
ultra-high performance cementitious composites: comparison of nanosilica and
microsilica, Constr. Build. Mater. 102 (2016) 706–713.
[130] K.T. Paul, S. Satpathy, I. Manna, K. Chakraborty, G. Nando, Preparation and
characterization of nano structured materials from fly ash: a waste from thermal
power stations, by high energy ball milling, Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2 (2007) 397.
[131] H. Li, Xiao H-g, J. Yuan, J. Ou, Microstructure of cement mortar with nano-par-
ticles, Compos. Part B: Eng. 35 (2004) 185–189.
[132] K.W. Shah, T. Sreethawong, S.-H. Liu, S.-Y. Zhang, L.S. Tan, M.-Y. Han, Aqueous
route to facile, efficient and functional silica coating of metal nanoparticles at
room temperature, Nanoscale 6 (2014) 11273–11281.
[133] A. Porro, J. Dolado, I. Campillo, E. Erkizia, Y. De Miguel, Y.S. de Ibarra, et al.
Effects of nanosilica additions on cement pastes. Applications of Nanotechnology
in Concrete Design: Proceedings of the International Conference held at the
University of Dundee, Scotland, UK on 7 July 2005: Thomas Telford Publishing. p.
87-96.
[134] Y. Qing, Z. Zenan, K. Deyu, C. Rongshen, Influence of nano-SiO2 addition on
properties of hardened cement paste as compared with silica fume, Constr. Build.
Mater. 21 (2007) 539–545.
170
Journal of Building Engineering 23 (2019) 155–171
[135] B.-W. Jo, C.-H. Kim, Tae G-h, J.-B. Park, Characteristics of cement mortar with
nano-SiO 2 particles, Constr. Build. Mater. 21 (2007) 1351–1355.
[136] J. Schoepfer, A. Maji, An investigation into the effect of silicon dioxide particle
size on the strength of concrete, Spec. Publ. 267 (2009) 45–58.
[137] A.M. Said, M.S. Zeidan, Enhancing the reactivity of normal and fly ash concrete
using colloidal nano-silica, Spec. Publ. 267 (2009) 75–86.
[138] M.-H. Zhang, J. Islam, Use of nano-silica to reduce setting time and increase early
strength of concretes with high volumes of fly ash or slag, Constr. Build. Mater. 29
(2012) 573–580.
[139] A.C. Aydın, V.J. Nasl, T. Kotan, The synergic influence of nano-silica and carbon
nano tube on self-compacting concrete, J. Build. Eng. 20 (2018) 467–475.
[140] Lim NHAS, Mohammadhosseini, H. Tahir, M.M. Samadi, M. Sam, ARM. micro-
structure and strength properties of mortar containing waste ceramic nano-
particles, Arab. J. Sci. Eng. (2018) 1–9.
[141] J. Fu, S. Kamali-Bernard, F. Bernard, M. Cornen, Comparison of mechanical
properties of CSH and portlandite between nano-indentation experiments and a
modelling approach using various simulation techniques, Compos. Part B: Eng.
(2018).
[142] R. Yu, P. Spiesz, H. Brouwers, Effect of nano-silica on the hydration and micro-
structure development of Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) with a low
binder amount, Constr. Build. Mater. 65 (2014) 140–150.
[143] D. Adak, M. Sarkar, S. Mandal, Effect of nano-silica on strength and durability of
fly ash based geopolymer mortar, Constr. Build. Mater. 70 (2014) 453–459.
[144] J. Silva, R. Ismael, R. Carmo, C. Lourenço, E. Soldado, H. Costa, et al., Influence of
nano-SiO2 and nano-Al2O3 additions on the shear strength and the bending mo-
ment capacity of RC beams, Constr. Build. Mater. 123 (2016) 35–46.
[145] M.A. Massa, C. Covarrubias, M. Bittner, I.A. Fuentevilla, P. Capetillo, A. Von
Marttens, et al., Synthesis of new antibacterial composite coating for titanium
based on highly ordered nanoporous silica and silver nanoparticles, Mater. Sci.
Eng.: C. 45 (2014) 146–153.
[146] M. Morsy, S. Alsayed, M. Aqel, Hybrid effect of carbon nanotube and nano-clay on
physico-mechanical properties of cement mortar, Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (2011)
145–149.
[147] I. Navarro-Blasco, M. Pérez-Nicolás, J. Fernández, A. Duran, R. Sirera, J. Alvarez,
Assessment of the interaction of polycarboxylate superplasticizers in hydrated
lime pastes modified with nanosilica or metakaolin as pozzolanic reactives, Constr.
Build. Mater. 73 (2014) 1–12.
[148] D. Koleva, Nano-materials with tailored properties for self healing of corrosion
damages in reinforced concrete, IOP self healing materials. The Netherlands,
SenterNovem, 2008.
[149] K. Gajanan, S. Tijare, Applications of nanomaterials, Mater. Today.: Proc. 5 (2018)
1093–1096.
[150] S. Qian, J. Zhou, E. Schlangen, Influence of curing condition and precracking time
on the self-healing behavior of engineered cementitious composites, Cem. Concr.
Compos. 32 (2010) 686–693.
[151] P. Indumathi, S. Shabhudeen, C. Saraswathy, Synthesis and characterization of
nano silica from the pods of Delonix Regia ash, Int. J. Adv. Eng. Technol. 2 (2011)
421–426.
[152] Y. Qing, Z. Zenan, K. Deyu, C. Rongshen, Influence of nano-SiO2 addition on
properties of hardened cement paste as compared with silica fume, Constr. Build.
Mater. 21 (2007) 539–545.
[153] P. Bai, P. Sharratt, T.Y. Yeo, J. Bu, A facile route to preparation of high purity
nanoporous silica from acid-leached residue of serpentine, J. Nanosci.
Nanotechnol. 14 (2014) 6915–6922.
[154] H. Lindgreen, M. Geiker, H. Krøyer, N. Springer, J. Skibsted, Microstructure en-
gineering of Portland cement pastes and mortars through addition of ultrafine
layer silicates, Cem. Concr. Compos. 30 (2008) 686–699.
[155] G. Quercia, G. Hüsken, H. Brouwers, Water demand of amorphous nano silica and
its impact on the workability of cement paste, Cem. Concr. Res. 42 (2012)
344–357.
[156] L. Raki, J. Beaudoin, R. Alizadeh, J. Makar, T. Sato, Cement and concrete na-
noscience and nanotechnology, Materials 3 (2010) 918–942.
[157] H. Lopez-Calvo, P. Montes-Garcia, T. Bremner, M. Thomas, V. Jiménez-Quero,
Compressive strength of HPC containing CNI and fly ash after long-term exposure
to a marine environment, Cem. Concr. Compos. 34 (2012) 110–118.
[158] A. Grinys, V. Bocullo, A. Gumuliauskas Research of Alkali Silica Reaction in
Concrete With Active Mineral Additives. Journal of Sustainable Architecture and
Civil Engineering.6:34-41.
[159] L. Wang, D. Zheng, S. Zhang, H. Cui, D. Li, Effect of Nano-SiO2 on the Hydration
and Microstructure of Portland Cement, Nanomaterials 6 (2016) 241.
[160] V. Polshettiwar, D. Cha, X. Zhang, J.M. Basset, High‐surface‐area silica nano-
spheres (KCC‐1) with a fibrous morphology, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 49 (2010)
9652–9656.
[161] H. Wu, F.T. Isfahani, W. Jin, C. Xu, E. Redaelli, L. Bertolini, Modification of
properties of reinforced concrete through nanoalumina electrokinetic treatment,
Constr. Build. Mater. 126 (2016) 857–867.
[162] P. Sikora, M. Abd Elrahman, D. Stephan, The Influence of nanomaterials on the
thermal resistance of cement-based composites—A review, Nanomaterials 8
(2018) 465.
[163] A. Nazari, S. Riahi, Improvement compressive strength of concrete in different
curing media by Al2O3 nanoparticles, Mater. Sci. Eng.: A. 528 (2011) 1183–1191.
[164] P. Hosseini, R. Hosseinpourpia, A. Pajum, M.M. Khodavirdi, H. Izadi, A. Vaezi,
Effect of nano-particles and aminosilane interaction on the performances of ce-
ment-based composites: an experimental study, Constr. Build. Mater. 66 (2014)
113–124.
[165] Rosenqvist J. Surface chemistry of Al and Si (hydr) oxides, with emphasis on nano-
G.F. Huseien et al.
sized gibbsite (α-Al (OH) 3), 2002.
[166] I. Richardson, The nature of CSH in hardened cements, Cem. Concr. Res. 29 (1999)
1131–1147. [179]
[167] K. Sobolev, I. Flores, R. Hermosillo, L.M. Torres-Martínez, Nanomaterials and [180]
nanotechnology for high-performance cement composites. Proceedings of ACI
session on nanotechnology of concrete: recent developments and future perspec- [181]
tives:91-118, 2006.
[168] F. Lai, M. Zain, M. Jamil Nano cement additives (NCA) development for OPC
strength enhancer and Carbon Neutral cement production. Proceedings of the 35th [182]
Conference on Our World in Concrete and Structures, Singapore, 25–27 August
2010. p. 1-19. [183]
[169] T.M. Piqué, H. Balzamo, A. Vázquez, Evaluation of the hydration of portland ce-
ment modified with polyvinyl alcohol and nano clay, Key Eng. Mater.: Trans. Tech. [184]
Publ. (2011) 47–56.
[170] E. Shamsaei, F.B. de Souza, X. Yao, E. Benhelal, A. Akbari, W. Duan, Graphene-
based nanosheets for stronger and more durable concrete: a review, Constr. Build. [185]
Mater. 183 (2018) 642–660.
[171] S. Helmy, S. Hoa, Tensile fatigue behavior of tapered glass fiber reinforced epoxy
composites containing nanoclay, Compos. Sci. Technol. 102 (2014) 10–19. [186]
[172] B. Birgisson, A.K. Mukhopadhyay, G. Geary, Khan M. Konstanin Sobolev,
Nanotechnology in Concrete Materials. Transportation Research Circular, Number
E-C170, 2012. [187]
[173] P. Maravelaki-Kalaitzaki, Z. Agioutantis, E. Lionakis, M. Stavroulaki,
V. Perdikatsis, Physico-chemical and mechanical characterization of hydraulic [188]
mortars containing nano-titania for restoration applications, Cem. Concr. Compos.
36 (2013) 33–41.
[174] F. Vallee Cementitious materials for self-cleaning and de-polluting facade surfaces. [189]
RILEM International Symposium on Environment-Conscious Materials and
Systems for Sustainable Development: RILEM Publications SARL. p. 337-346.
[175] F. Pacheco-Torgal, S. Jalali, Nanotechnology: advantages and drawbacks in the [190]
field of construction and building materials, Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (2011) [191]
582–590.
[176] J. Chen, C.-s. Poon, Photocatalytic construction and building materials: from [192]
fundamentals to applications, Build. Environ. 44 (2009) 1899–1906.
[177] Q. Liu, Y. Zhang, H. Xu, Properties of vulcanized rubber nanocomposites filled [193]
with nanokaolin and precipitated silica, Appl. Clay Sci. 42 (2008) 232–237.
[178] M.J. Bessa, C. Costa, J. Reinosa, C. Pereira, S. Fraga, J. Fernández, et al., Moving [194]
into advanced nanomaterials. Toxicity of rutile TiO2 nanoparticles immobilized in
171
Journal of Building Engineering 23 (2019) 155–171
nanokaolin nanocomposites on HepG2 cell line, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 316
(2017) 114–122.
Z. Adamis, R.B. Williams, Bentonite, kaolin and selected clay minerals, 2005.
B. Sabir, S. Wild, J. Bai, Metakaolin and calcined clays as pozzolans for concrete: a
review, Cem. Concr. Compos. 23 (2001) 441–454.
A. Chakchouk, L. Trifi, B. Samet, S. Bouaziz, Formulation of blended cement: effect
of process variables on clay pozzolanic activity, Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (2009)
1365–1373.
P. Blanchart, S. Deniel, N. Tessier-Doyen, Clay structural transformations during
firing, Adv. Sci. Technol.: Trans. Tech. Publ. (2010) 31–37.
D. Zhang, C.-H. Zhou, C.-X. Lin, D.-S. Tong, W.-H. Yu, Synthesis of clay minerals,
Appl. Clay Sci. 50 (2010) 1–11.
E. Ghafari, H. Costa, E. Júlio, Critical review on eco-efficient ultra high perfor-
mance concrete enhanced with nano-materials, Constr. Build. Mater. 101 (2015)
201–208.
M. Morsy, S. Alsayed, M. Aqel, Effect of nano-clay on mechanical properties and
microstructure of ordinary Portland cement mortar, Int. J. Civil. Environ. Eng.
IJCEE-Ijens. 10 (2010) 23–27.
M. Morsy, Y. Al-Salloum, H. Abbas, S. Alsayed, Behavior of blended cement
mortars containing nano-metakaolin at elevated temperatures, Constr. Build.
Mater. 35 (2012) 900–905.
M. Zbik, R.S.C. Smart, Nanomorphology of kaolinites: comparative SEM and AFM
studies, Clays Clay Miner. 46 (1998) 153–160.
A. Al-Salami, H. Shoukry, M. Morsy, Thermo-mechanical characteristics of
blended white cement pastes containing ultrafine nano clays. International, J.
Green. Nanotechnol. 4 (2012) 516–527.
M. Heikal, A. Ali, M. Ismail, S.A.N. Ibrahim, Behavior of composite cement pastes
containing silica nano-particles at elevated temperature, Constr. Build. Mater. 70
(2014) 339–350.
A. Rattan, P. Sachdeva, A. Chaudhary Use of Nanomaterials in Concrete.
R. Olar, Nanomaterials and nanotechnologies for civil engineering. Buletinul
Institutului Politehnic din lasi Sectia, Constr., Arhit. 57 (2011) 109.
R.J. Hamers, Nanomaterials and Global sustainability, Acc. Chem. Res. 50 (2017)
633–637.
D. Bondar, Alkali activation of Iranian natural pozzolans for producing geopo-
lymer cement and concrete: The University of Sheffield, 2009.
M. Kambic, J. Hammaker Geopolymer concrete: the future of green building
materials.