Informatics for Health and Social Care

ISSN: 1753-8157 (Print) 1753-8165 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/imif20

Intimate partner violence: a review of online

interventions

Ebony Rempel, Lorie Donelle, Jodi Hall & Susan Rodger

To cite this article: Ebony Rempel, Lorie Donelle, Jodi Hall & Susan Rodger (2018): Intimate
partner violence: a review of online interventions, Informatics for Health and Social Care, DOI:
10.1080/17538157.2018.1433675

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17538157.2018.1433675

Published online: 14 Mar 2018.

Submit your article to this journal

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=imif20
INFORMATICS FOR HEALTH & SOCIAL CARE
https://doi.org/10.1080/17538157.2018.1433675

Intimate partner violence: a review of online interventions

Ebony Rempela, Lorie Donelleb, Jodi Hallc, and Susan Rodgerd
a
Faculty of Health and Rehabilitation Science, Western University, London, Canada; bArthur Labatt Family School of
Nursing/School of Health Studies, Western University, London, Canada; cSchool of Nursing, Faculty of Health Science,
Human Services and Nursing, Fanshawe College, London, Canada; dFaculty of Education, Western University,
London, Canada

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Violence against women (VAW) is a global social issue affecting health, Intimate partner violence;
social, and legal systems. VAW contributes to the inequities with respect online; information; social
to the social determinants of health that many women face today. The onus media; women
on self-care in the face of violence remains almost singularly with the
victims. Access to information and services in support of women’s health
and safety is fundamental. However, research gaps exist regarding how
women access health information across all stages of an abusive intimate
relationship. Given the ubiquity of online access to information, the pur-
pose of this scoping review was to provide an overview of online interven-
tions available to women within the context of intimate partner violence
(IPV). Research literature published between 2000 and 2016, inclusive, was
reviewed: 11 interventions were identified. Findings suggest that online
interventions focused on the act of leaving with less emphasis on the
experiences that occur after a woman has left the relationship. In addition,
the online interventions concentrated on the individual capacity of the
survivor to leave an abusive relationship and demonstrated limited under-
standing of IPV in relation to the broader social-contextual factors. Findings
from this research highlight information gaps for women who require
significant support after leaving an abusive relationship.

Introduction
The prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV) varies globally with rates ranging from 4% to
75%.1 According to recent Canadian police data, 29% of all women were abused by a current or
former partner, compared to 7% of men.2 The rate of police-reported sexual assaults against females
was more than ten times the rate for males (six per 100,000 population), with females accounting for
92% of reported sexual assault victims in Canada.2 The United Nation’s Declaration3 on the
Elimination of Violence against Women provides some description and a broad definition of
VAW which is: “Any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical,
sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or
arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life.” In addition to
physical, sexual, and psychological violence, women may experience: emotional, l, verbal; financial;
spiritual or cultural; and criminal harassment/stalking.1,2,4–11 Women who have low income, are less
educated, are pregnant, and/or are Indigenous particularly at risk of IPV.9,12–16 The impact of IPV
exposure is long-lasting and contrary to popular belief, IPV effects do not end when women leave an
abusive relationship. In fact many survivors of IPV experience heightened negative consequences
including: harassment, stalking, increased risk of being murdered, post-traumatic stress disorder

CONTACT Ebony Rempel erempel3@uwo.ca Faculty of Health and Rehabilitation Science, Western University, London,
Ontario, Canada
© 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 E. REMPEL ET AL.

(PTSD), depression, suicide, and self-medication and require support and services after they leave or
separate from the abusive partner.11,17–21
Current evidence indicates that IPV screening, and safety interventions such as information cards
and phone numbers for support, have limited to no impact on the prevalence rates of violence
against women (VAW).12,22–25 Systematic reviews conducted by Wathen and MacMillan26 and by
Jahanfar et al.23 conclude that there are a lack of interventions available to support women aimed at
preventing abuse or re-abuse. The stigma, humiliation, guilt, and shame experienced by many
women who are in abusive relationships may inhibit women from seeking help via face-to-face
interactions.27,28
There is a widespread assumption that the internet has enabled ease of access to information,
services, and supports; especially given the ubiquity of mobile computing technology (e.g.,
smartphones).29,30 In 2015, over 60% of Americans owned a smartphone and 19% of them used
their device to access online information.31 The ability to access social media sites has created an
online landscape for those with smartphones to conveniently explore a range of social and health
issues.29,32,33 Despite the existence of online IPV interventions, the research evidence informing their
efficacy in violence prevention, their utility for supporting women experiencing IPV, and enhancing
safety among victims is lacking.12,34 Therefore, the development, research, and evaluation of new
types of IPV interventions, such as online social media applications, is an important avenue for
investigation.

Access to information, services, and support for women experiencing IPV

Access to accurate information, relevant services, and support is important for improving health and
well-being.18 Accessing health information among women who are or have experienced IPV is
difficult; complicated by the complex dynamics such as partner surveillance, safety concerns,
geographical factors, and the social isolation unique to women experiencing IPV.35–37 Paradoxical
to the access barriers to health care are the significant and varied health care challenges among
women who experience IPV, including physical health problems; reproductive health issues; psy-
chological, social, emotional, and behavioral problems; depression and anxiety disorders; and alcohol
and/or drug issues.15,38,39
Accessing health information among women who have experienced or are currently experiencing
IPV is individualized and can include a need for diverse information and service resources that align
with different stages of women’s experience with IPV.38 Publicly held understanding of IPV tends to
focus on the individual (victim or abuser) and their interpersonal relationship.36,40 However, many
feminist, social-cultural, and social-political perspectives have moved our understanding of VAW and
IPV to include an understanding of the impact of the broader social-contextual factors5,6,26,35,36,40–47;
where unequal distribution of resources and patterns of social relations actively construct the gendered
roles in relationships that contribute to the sustainability of IPV.6,39,40,48 Beyond the obvious need for
health care, Westbrook18 reports that women experiencing IPV require additional information based
on three layers of service requirements: emergency aid (e.g., first responders), specific aid focused on
IPV (e.g., emergency shelters), and speciality social services (e.g., addictions and mental health
services). Evidence suggests that women experiencing IPV prefer resources related to informal types
of communication; online and print-based information are examples of this.18 A (2013) study looking
at the communication needs of women who have experienced IPV revealed that traditional sources of
communication such as face-to-face and phone communication were the preferred methods, however
the women were open to using mobile phone texting and social media networks such as Facebook.49
Currently, there is limited evidence on the benefits of the available interventions related to
women accessing health information.7,26 Women experiencing IPV need information about available
services and interventions to support them at various points along the trajectory of an abusive
relationship.40,48,50,51 Chang and colleagues51 interviewed 21 women who experienced IPV who
reported the need for: information on IPV, legal advice, counselling options (i.e., safety, relationship
 INFORMATICS FOR HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE 3

issues, and mental health issues), assistance from police/health care professionals, and safety inter-
ventions (hotline).51 However, contextual factors (e.g., inadequate housing, ongoing harassment,
poor health), negatively affected women’s ability to seek help, and inhibited them from accessing
needed information, services, and support.44,47,50 The feedback from women experiencing IPV
emphasized the need for interventions tailored to each woman as a means of meeting their current
and ever-changing needs.40,48

Online health information access

Women aged 15 to 24 years are at the highest risk for IPV7,9,52,53, and are also the most prevalent
users of the internet and social media online technologies.54,55 Social media technologies include
web-based services where individuals can go online, create a profile, and connect with other users via
text, video, and pictures.54 Newer terms such as ‘Health 2.0’ and ‘Medicine 2.0’ describe how people
interact and communicate online regarding health issues and re-defines how the general public
create and contribute to online health-based content.56 Social media sites involve a variety of user-
generated content via social networking platforms (e.g., Facebook©, Google+©), micro-blogging
sites (e.g., Twitter©), rating and review websites (e.g., Amazon©, Tripadvisor©), collaborative
information tools (e.g., Wikipedia©, WikiBooks©), photo sharing sites (e.g., Instagram©, Flikr©),
and video sharing sites (e.g., YouTube©).55–59 Common practice among the use of social media
networks is to access them through smartphone applications (i.e., apps), which are software
applications specifically designed to be used on handheld computing devices.55
However, research is limited on how newer forms of communication and health information,
namely social media networks (e.g., Facebook and Twitter), are used to access information, services,
and supports among women experiencing IPV.60,61 Murray and colleagues61 distributed online
surveys regarding information technology readiness to 471 domestic violence service providers
(social workers, shelter staff, advocates) who work with those who have experienced IPV and
noted that they used technology in a variety of ways, such as safety planning and were optimistic
about the value of technology with respect to supporting those who have experienced IPV. In this
same study, service provider respondents expressed concerns related to women’s safety and security,
specifically regarding the use of technology by abusers to harass/stalk their partners.61
Based on the prevalence of smartphone use and social media as an important mainstream
communication strategy, the purpose of this scoping review was to explore online interventions
available to women survivors and/or those experiencing IPV. For the purpose of this paper, IPV is a
term used throughout the paper to encompass many manifestations of trauma associated with being
in an abusive relationship and the enduring consequences of the relationship for women survivors of
violence.15

Methods
A scoping review of published and grey literature was judged an appropriate method to explore the
emergent research related to online interventions for women within the context of IPV. Arksey and
O’Malley’s scoping review framework has proven to be effective and valuable in assessing and
summarizing diverse (e.g., issues, methodologies, methods) research literature.62 This scoping review
followed the five stages outlined by Arksey and O’Malley’s63 inclusive of: 1. identifying the research
question; 2. identifying relevant studies; 3. study selection; 4. charting the data; and 5. collating,
summarizing, and reporting the results.
The aim of this paper was not to focus on the quality of studies63, but rather to gain an
understanding of the scope of literature regarding online interventions for women who are or
were experiencing IPV. The research question guiding this scoping review was: what are the online
interventions available to women who have experienced IPV?
4 E. REMPEL ET AL.

To identify published peer-reviewed literature the following search terms/keywords -‘violence’,

‘women’, ‘intimate partner violence’, ‘violence against women’ ‘intimate partner terrorism’, ‘health
information’, ‘online’, ‘intervention’ were used in combination to search Scopus, CINAHL, and
Medline research databases from the year 2000 to January 2016. In addition, the grey literature was
searched using the Google search engine with the same search terms to ensure a comprehensive
exploration of relevant resources. All retrieved articles were downloaded and exported into
Mendeley64 an online reference management system.
Criteria for study inclusion in the scoping review was devised based on the increased familiarity
of the literature.63 Studies were included in this scoping review if they fit the following criteria:1
documents were in English and2 reported on an online intervention that supported IPV survivors.
Three researchers reviewed the articles and online web-pages that were included in the first level of
screening were read in full and screened for final inclusion in the review. Grey literature and web-
based files were reviewed by reading the source home page of the online documents. If the relevance
of an intervention was unclear, the full text of that document was retrieved. Studies were excluded if
they did not outline a specific online intervention available to support women who had experi-
enced IPV.
Information regarding each intervention was recorded in a data matrix (Table 1). The citation,
study location, study participants, purpose, intervention/outcome measures, and findings were
documented. Some studies reported preliminary research findings of online interventions and
therefore information regarding the interventions was incomplete.
The objective of the scoping review was to describe the types of interventions and their relative
use and utility for women experiencing IPV.63 The reclaiming self40,48,50
framework was used as a way to organize and report the findings from the review of literature.

Guiding framework
In order to understand IPV, significant research attention has been given to investigating safe and
effective strategies for leaving an abusive relationship.7,10,65–67 According to Merritt-Gray and
Wuest48 and Wuest and Merritt-Gray40,50, leaving an abusive relationship can be understood as a
process of reclaiming self (Table 2), which recognizes that IPV has potentially life-long consequences
for women even after leaving the abusive relationship.
This framework places emphasis on women as active participants in their struggle to break
free from the violence they endure, and describes their leaving as a nuanced process of stages
rather than a single discreet act of leaving.40,48,50 The reclaiming self theory has four stages: 1.
counteracting abuse where women tend to relinquish valued parts of their ‘self identity’, minimize
their abuse, and fortify their defences to leave the relationship; 2. breaking free stage where women
physically leave the relationship; 3. not going back to the abusive relationship occurs among
women who claim and maintain a safe area or territory and engage in relentless justification of
their decision to remain separate from their abusive partner; and, 4. the moving on stage is
characteristic of women who have greater clarity regarding the unhealthy aspects of the relation-
ship, have figured it out, and are launching into new relationships, and taking on a new image of
enhanced self-worth.40,48,50 Women who have experienced IPV may seek support at any point
within the proposed stages and would require information/support in different ways throughout
this experience; however, survivors require the greatest amount of support to remain separated
from their abuser and to move on.50

Findings
Using the search terms listed above, the initial search generated 106 documents from the three
online databases (i.e., Scopus, Medline, and CINAHL), grey literature, and online hand searching. Of
these, 11 intervention-based papers fit the inclusion/exclusion criteria (Figure 1).
Table 1. Description of the Interventions.
Study
Study reference location Study population Purpose of study Intervention/Outcome measures Findings
iCan plan 4 safety. (2015). Canada 1 Women; 2 19 years of age and To learn whether the tool can help Four, confidential online sessions Not yet completed
Retrieved from icanplan4safety. older; 3 able to speak English; 4 women be safer and healthier over the course of one year.
ca comfortable with and access to
the internet
Koziol-McLain, J., Vandal, A. C., New Three hundred forty women To test the effectiveness of anRandomized control trial. Not yet completed
Nada-Raja, S., Wilson, D., Glass, Zealand who have been abused innovative, interactive web-based
Intervention components include:
N. E., Eden, K. B., . . . Case, J. safety decision aid. (a) safety priority setting, (b) danger
(2015). A web-based assessment and (c) an individually
intervention for abused women: tailored safety action plan. Primary
the New Zealand isafe outcomes are depression and IPV
randomized controlled trial exposure. Secondary outcomes
protocol. BMC Public Health., include PTSD, psychological abuse,
151, 56 decisional conflict, safety behaviors
and danger in the relationship.
Constantino, R. E., Braxter, B., Ren, USA Thirty-two adult females who To compare the effectiveness of the Participants were randomized into The HELPP intervention 1
D., Burroughs, J. D., Doswell, W. were not living with the HELPP (Health, Education on Safety, three study groups: Online (ONL), decreased anxiety, depression,
M., Wu, L., . . . Greene, W. B. perpetrator; have experienced and Legal Support and Resources in Face-to- Face (FTF), or Waitlist anger, and 2 increased personal
(2015). Comparing online with IPV during the past 18 months; IPV Participant Preferred) Control (WLC). and social support in the ONL
face-to-face HELPP intervention and owned a computer at home intervention among IPV survivors. Outcomes measures were anxiety, group. HELPP was shown to be
in women experiencing with Internet access. depression, anger, personal, and feasible, acceptable, and effective
intimate partner violence. Issues social support. among IPV survivors compared
in Mental Health Nursing, 2840 with participants in the WLC
group.
Young-Hauser, A. M., Eden, K. B., New Fourteen women who had To examine the suitability of an Women completed the U.S. online Considering the findings from the
Wilson, D., & Koziol-Mclain, J. Zealand experienced IPV in the past and intimate partner violence decision aid tool and provided focus group sessions the decision
(2014). Intimate partner six service providers. interactive online decision aid feedback on the safety decision aid was modified to suit New
violence: modifying an internet- developed in the United States for criteria, content, and design. Zealand population.
based safety decision aid to a its application in New Zealand,
new zealand context. Journal of particularly with regard to cultural
Technology in Human Services, appropriateness
4
32 , 297–311.
(Continued )
INFORMATICS FOR HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE
5

Table 1. (Continued).
Study
Study reference location
Palanisamy, B., Sensenig, S., Joshi, USA
J., & Constantino, R. (2014).
LEAF: A privacy-conscious social
network-based intervention
tool for IPV survivors.
Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE
15th International Conference on
Information Reuse and
Integration, IEEE IRI 2014,
138–146.
Bloom, T. L., Glass, N. E., Case, J., USA
Wright, C., Nolte, K., & Parsons,
L. (2014). Feasibility of an
online safety planning
intervention for rural and urban
pregnant abused women.
Nursing Research, 634, 243–51.
Lindsay, M., Messing, J. T., Thaller, USA
J., Baldwin, A., Clough, A.,
Bloom, T., . . . Glass, N. (2013).
Survivor feedback on a safety
decision aid smartphone
application for college-age
women in abusive relationships.
Journal of Technology in Human
Services, 31, 368–388.
Hassija, C. & Gray, M. J. (2011). The USA
effectiveness and feasibility of
videoconferencing technology
to provide evidence-based
treatment to rural domestic
violence and sexual assault
populations. Telemedicine &
Ehealth, 174, 309–315
Study population
Population not reported
Fifty-nine participants, who
were more than 12 weeks
pregnant.
Thirty-eight female college
students in four states, who self-
identified as survivors of
abusive relationships.
Fifteen female victims of
assaultive violence
Purpose of study
To provide an easily accessible
support system to those who have issues that arise from limits in
escaped from the abusive situation, physical community support.
especially to people lacking
transportation and to those
residing in rural or suburban areas.
The aim was to evaluate feasibility
(usability, safety, and acceptability)
of internet-based safety planning
for rural and urban pregnant
women who have been abused and
practicality of recruitment
procedures for future trials.
To explore a prototype smart
phone application (“app”) that is a
safety decision aid for female
survivors of dating violence
To evaluate effectiveness and
feasibility of providing evidence-
based, trauma-focused treatment
via videoconferences to rural
survivors of domestic violence and
sexual assault.
Intervention/Outcome measures
LEAF was created to address the
Women were asked to complete
four one hour online sessions (early
pregnancy, late pregnancy, 3 and
6 months postpartum). All women
completed self-report measures of
IPV exposure, safety behaviors,
decisional conflict, and IPV-related
health outcomes and received
emergency safety plans
Participants reviewed and provided
feedback on the usefulness,
understandability, appropriateness,
and comprehensiveness of the app
Participants received at least four
treatment sessions) treatment via
videoconferencing-based
technology at crisis centres.
Outcome measures revealed
reduction in PTSD and depression.
High degree of client satisfaction.
6
Findings
None reported
E. REMPEL ET AL.
Participants reported severe IPV at
baseline, but all were able to
identify a safe computer, and
73.9% completed the baseline
session in less than 1 week, with
no adverse events reported
Participants were positive about
the potential of the app to
provide
personalized information about
abusive dating relationships and
appropriate resources in a private,
safe, and nonjudgmental manner.
Results provide evidence in
support of videoconferencing as
an effective means to provide
psychological services.
(Continued )
Table 1. (Continued).
Study reference
Glass, N., Eden, K. B., Bloom, T., &
Perrin, N. (2010). Computerized
aid improves safety decision
process for survivors of intimate
partner violence. Journal of
Interpersonal Violence, 2511,
1947–1964.
Fass, D. F., Benson, R. I., & Leggett,
D. G. (2008). Assessing
Prevalence and Awareness of
Violent Behaviors in the
Intimate Partner Relationships
of College Students Using
Internet Sampling. Journal of
College Student Psychotherapy,
224, 66–75.
Constantino, R., Crane, P., Noll, B.
S., Doswell, W. M. & Braxter, B.
(2007). Exploring the feasibility
of email-mediated interaction
in survivors of abuse. Journal of
Psychiatric and Mental Health
Nursing, 14, 291–301.
Study
location Study population Purpose of study Intervention/Outcome measures Findings
USA Ninety female participants To develop the computerized safety Phase 1: demographics, safety- Women reported that the decision
decision aid. seeking behaviors, DCS, priorities aid was useful and provided
for safety, and the DA much-needed privacy for making
Phase 2: Evaluation of the impact of safety decisions.
the computerized safety decision
aid on abused women’s decisional
conflict.
USA Two hundred fifty-four college To investigate the occurrence and Online Survey. Data were collected Over 22% of the students who
students. awareness of violence in intimate on the occurrences of violent have been perpetrators or victims
partner relationships as reported by behaviors in their intimate partner of violent physical acts are still
college students recruited by e-mail relationships as well as their unaware that these violent
awareness of victimization and behaviors constitute relational
perpetration behaviors abuse
1
USA Six pairs of mother and child assess the utility of an email Themes found in the email Email interaction is a feasible and
(n = 12) who have received a device called MIVO as a mode of interaction between the nurse and acceptable way of providing
PFA within the past six months. interaction between a nurse and survivors were: 1 safety issues; 2 support and information to
mother and child survivors of job-related issues; 3 school-related survivors of abuse after their PFA.
abuse; and 2 explore the themes issues; 4 parenting-related issues; Email interaction is useful in
discerned from the email messages and 5 health-related issues. Themes education, screening, safety
from the mother and child pair to identified for the children were instructions, and follow-up care.
the nurse. school work and friends.
INFORMATICS FOR HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE
7
8 E. REMPEL ET AL.

Table 2. Reclaiming Self framework.

Reclaiming Self Framework
Counteracting This stage has subprocesses of: relinquishing parts of self, minimizing abuse, and fortifying defences. These
Abuse subprocesses interact and influence each other with differences in timing.
Breaking Free The transition stage between counteracting abuse and not going back where women explore ways of
disengaging and exiting the abusive relationship.
Not Going Back This stage has subprocesses of: claiming and maintaining territory and relentless justification. There is an
emphasis to create boundaries to ensure some measure of safety.
Moving On The final stage and involves subprocesses of figuring it out, putting it in its rightful place, launching new
relationships, and taking on a new image.

Table 3. Interventions classified using the Reclaiming Self framework.

Not
Counteracting Breaking Going Moving
Intervention Abuse Free Back On
iCan plan 4 safety. (2015). Retrieved from www.icanplan4safety.ca ✓
Koziol-McLain, J., Vandal, A. C., Nada-Raja, S., Wilson, D., Glass, N. E., Eden, K. ✓ ✓
B., . . . Case, J. (2015). A web-based intervention for abused women: the
New Zealand isafe randomized controlled trial protocol. BMC Public Health.,
151, 56 https://www.isafe.aut.ac.nz/
Constantino, R. E., Braxter, B., Ren, D., Burroughs, J. D., Doswell, W. M., Wu, L., ✓ ✓
. . . Greene, W. B. (2015). Comparing online with face-to-face HELPP
intervention in women experiencing intimate partner violence. Issues in
Mental Health Nursing, 2840
Young-Hauser, A. M., Eden, K. B., Wilson, D., & Koziol-Mclain, J. (2014). ✓ ✓
Intimate partner violence: modifying an internet-based safety decision aid
to a New Zealand context. Journal of Technology in Human Services, 324,
297–311.
Palanisamy, B., Sensenig, S., Joshi, J., & Constantino, R. (2014). LEAF: A privacy- ✓
conscious social network-based intervention tool for IPV survivors.
Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE 15th International Conference on Information
Reuse and Integration, IEEE IRI 2014, 138–146.
Bloom, T. L., Glass, N. E., Case, J., Wright, C., Nolte, K., & Parsons, L. (2014). ✓ ✓
Feasibility of an online safety planning intervention for rural and urban
pregnant abused women. Nursing Research, 634, 243–51.
Lindsay, M., Messing, J. T., Thaller, J., Baldwin, A., Clough, A., Bloom, T., . . . ✓ ✓
Glass, N. (2013). Survivor feedback on a safety decision aid smartphone
application for college-age women in abusive relationships. Journal of
Technology in Human Services, 31, 368–388.
Hassija, C. & Gray, M. J. (2011). The effectiveness and feasibility of ✓
videoconferencing technology to provide evidence-based treatment to
rural domestic violence and sexual assault populations. Telemedicine &
Ehealth, 174, 309–315
Glass, N., Eden, K. B., Bloom, T., & Perrin, N. (2010). Computerized aid ✓ ✓
improves safety decision process for survivors of intimate partner violence.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2511, 1947–1964.
Fass, D. F., Benson, R. I., & Leggett, D. G. (2008). Assessing Prevalence and ✓
Awareness of Violent Behaviors in the Intimate Partner Relationships of
College Students Using Internet Sampling. Journal of College Student
Psychotherapy, 224, 66–75.
Constantino, R., Crane, P., Noll, B. S., Doswell, W. M. & Braxter, B. (2007). ✓
Exploring the feasibility of email-mediated interaction in survivors of abuse.
Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 14, 291–301.
6 7 4 0

All 11 online interventions captured in this scoping review aligned with one (or more) stages within
the guiding framework (Table 3). The online interventions varied in terms of the type of interventions,
they had a variety of purposes and they provided support across the different stages of leaving an
abusive relationship. The majority of interventions were based in the USA; New Zealand and Canada.
The publication dates of the interventions ranged from 2007 to 2015. Studies from 2010 to 2015
 INFORMATICS FOR HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE 9

92 Documents from Scopus, 0 Government Documents 14 Document from Google

Medline and CINAHL hand searching

67 Excluded
during 1st
screening

28 Excluded
during 2nd
screening

11 Total Interventions

Figure 1. Flowchart of included interventions.

reported mainly on decision support safety aids that were developed as a Smartphone app targeted to
mothers and their children, pregnant women, rural women, and college students (see Table 1).
In relation to the guiding framework by Merritt-Gray and Wuest48, the interventions included in
this scoping review focused on more than one of the four stages of leaving and most (n = 7/11) of the
interventions aligned with the stage related to the initial act of leaving the abusive relationship. Six
interventions aligned with supporting women to create personal defence strategies within the abusive
relationship. The purpose of four other interventions was to support women immediately after they
have left the abusive relationship. However, none of the interventions within this scoping review
were specific to supporting women during the phase of “moving on in their lives”. Importantly, all
interventions expected women to be accountable for taking the necessary steps to leave the abusive
relationship and to improve their situation without consideration of the broader societal context that
contributes to the perpetuation of violence against women.5,6,26,35,36,40–47

Counteracting abuse
The counteracting abuse stage within the reclaiming self framework involves the process of relin-
quishing parts of self, minimizing abuse, and fortifying defences. Fass and colleagues53 surveyed
college students to assess the prevalence and awareness of violent behaviors within the students’
intimate relationships; 22% of the students were unaware that their behaviors’ constituted IPV.50
Secondarily, online interventions provided information to help women understand and recognize
IPV; the primary goal of most online interventions was to enhance awareness of IPV behaviors and
support women’s safety through the use of online safety planning tools.14,58,68–70 A computerized
safety decision aid was developed to help women set priorities for their safety within their
relationships.58

Breaking free
Breaking free is the second stage within the reclaiming self framework where women actively pursue
ways of disengaging from and exiting the abusive relationship.40,48 Interventions that were related to
this stage also involved safety planning. A computerized safety aid developed by Glass et al.58,
assessed participants’ safety-seeking behaviors and resources and participants reported feeling
10 E. REMPEL ET AL.

supported in developing their safety plan.58 This safety decision aid was modified for use among
rural women14, college-aged students68 and New Zealanders.69,70 Canadian researchers are working
on a personalized safety decision support aid, iCAN Plan 4 Safety, intended to help women assess
their particular situation in terms of setting priorities and safety risks through the use of a mobile
app.71
Researchers investigated the effectiveness of the Health, Education on Safety, and Legal Support
and Resources in IPV Participant Preferred (HELPP) intervention among IPV survivors.27 The
intervention was administered online (via email) and face-to-face to participants.27 The results
demonstrated that the online group of women showed significant improvements in the outcome
measures of reduced anxiety, anger, depression, personal, and social support and, personal, inter-
personal, and community ecological outcomes.27

Not going back

The not going back stage of the guiding framework reflects a woman’s need to harness various
supports and resources in order to gain financial security, personal safety, and establish plans for the
future.40,50 LEAF (lending encouragement, affirming futures) was developed to understand the gap
in supports available to women after they have left the abusive relationship and was created to
address the issues that arise from the limits within community.28 LEAF consists of a web portal that
provides information about online supports within a privacy-conscious social network.28 By acces-
sing the web portal, users are able to find relevant information related to social support after leaving
an abusive relationship.
Constantino and colleagues60 developed an email device called MIVO that was used by mothers
(aged 30 to 45) to communicate with their children (aged 11 to 13) after they had left an abusive
relationship. Findings from this study showed that email interaction between mother and child
pertained to safety issues, job-related issues, school-related issues, parenting-related issues, and
health-related issues and was reported as a feasible and valued way of providing support.60
Finally, Hassija and Gray72 conducted research with 15 females who were referred to a local
treatment clinic for PTSD related to the trauma from IPV. Women living in rural areas received
trauma-focused treatment via videoconferencing and reported the videoconferencing as an
effective method of service delivery.72 Findings revealed a reduction in assessed PTSD and
depression.72

Moving on
Women in the moving on stage, are not consumed by the pragmatic issues related to survival in the
presence of abuse but instead are focused on establishing a violence-free existence apart from the
abusive partner.50 None of the online interventions from this scoping review reflected aspects of this
stage.

Discussion
This scoping review explored the published research and grey literature from 2000 to 2016 detailing
online interventions available to women survivors and/or those experiencing IPV and found 11
online interventions. Six interventions focused on personal safety planning that would enable
women’s safety while remaining engaged within the abusive relationship. Seven interventions
focused on safety planning to support women to physically leave an abusive relationship. Four
interventions focused on the provision of services and resources to support women in the immediate
aftermath of leaving an abusive partner. None of the interventions focused on supporting women to
“move on” from an abusive relationship and none of the interventions appeared to consider the
broader social implications related to IPV.
 INFORMATICS FOR HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE 11

Finding and assessing the credibility and utility of health information online (e.g., web sites, social
media networks) can be overwhelming for many individuals and can be particularly challenging for
women in abusive relationships and with complex life circumstances.14,33,73 Unquestionably, the
internet/social media networks are significant resources for social and health information.54,55 There
is a general assumption and expectation that individuals will–and can access online information.
Increasingly information in important sectors such as employment, health, and education is only
accessible from an online source.73,74
Our review of interventions highlighted several important online supports and services for women
who have experienced or are experiencing IPV. However, the available literature on IPV interventions
is predominantly focused on supporting women currently in or planning to leave an abusive relation-
ship; the focus is on safety planning.6,37,50 The mainstream conceptualization of IPV tends to focus on
the individual (victim or abuser).36,40 However, many feminist, social-cultural, and social-political
perspectives have moved our comprehension of VAW and IPV to a more complex and nuanced
understanding that considers the impact of broader social contextual factors.5,6,26,35,36,40–47
Although the Wuest and Merritt-Gray48 reclaiming self framework accounts for a broad range of
stages across the process of leaving an abusive relationship40,48,50, the published interventions remain
focused on the individual behavior change of the IPV survivor with limited consideration of
women’s life context. Minimizing IPV to a singular decision to stay with or leave an abusive partner
negates the broader contextual factors of VAW and IPV and sets the stage whereby women are often
blamed for the abuse by sustaining a relationship with their abuser.18,37,75 Understanding how the
complexity of individual and societal factors create the context for abusive relationships is important
for developers of online IPV interventions.12,47,48,76
In general, the reported social media interventions intended to support women are contingent on
women’s decision to leave and focus on the immediate safety issues women must consider as a
consequence of leaving the abusive relationship.18,19,58,76 Findings from this scoping review indicate
that the majority of online interventions effectively address safety planning for women at very critical
stages of planning to or leaving an abusive situation. However, women who have experienced IPV
are particularly in need of support in dealing with the long term aftermath of leaving the abusive
relationship; the trauma many women experience when engaged with an abusive partner often
surfaces after they have left the abusive situation.50
In research conducted by Berman and colleagues15 “interpersonal trauma [was redefined] as
experiences involving a disruption in trusted relationships as the result of violence, abuse, war, or
other forms of political oppression, or forced uprooting and dislocation from one’s family, commu-
nity, heritage and/or culture.” (p2) Such a reconceptualization of interpersonal trauma acknowledges
the multiple dimensions of trauma associated with the experience of IPV, whether in the relation-
ship, attempting to leave the relationship, and/or severing ties with a partner who has been abusive.
For example, women’s challenges within the social/legislative context is illustrated by the experience
of women who are required to repeatedly justify their need for services. Secondary victimization of
women occurs through the obligatory re-telling of their ‘abuse story’ to shelter workers, law
enforcement, and family thereby compromising their willingness to engage with the very systems
intended to support them6,47,77 and making it difficult for women to change their life circumstances.-
15,50
In fact, women have reported that they require intensive support during the time after they have
left an abusive relationship, for issues such as housing, employment, financial resources, childcare,
and social support.26,50,78,79 The internet and social media along with women’s ability to harness
these resources of information, services, and supports, may play a significant part in assisting women
during this time. The apps available to women offer support immediately after leaving an abusive
relationship, however there are a lack of online interventions or apps that address the social
complexity of ‘moving on’.
Researchers have expressed a great deal of concern regarding the issues surrounding personal safety,
security, and privacy.36,49 The ability to track smartphone usage (e.g., geographical location, application
information, etc.) by abusive partners for the purposes of person tracking is a major issue for individuals
12 E. REMPEL ET AL.

experiencing IPV.29,36 Contrary to the benefits of online technologies, detrimental use of technology
includes virtual stalking that includes the ability to track people using Global Positioning Systems (GPS),
web search engines, text messages, and various social media outlets.36,49,80 Within the context of IPV,
women’s information, privacy, and security is fundamental to their safety and survival. Online social
media sites constitute a major communication strategy for access to information and social support.16
While this holds true, spyware, originally developed for companies to track consumer preferences, can
now be used by abusers to track the internet activity of their victims.36,37,49,81–83 The ‘check in’ feature
available to Facebook users allows GPS to pinpoint specific locations in real-time. Changes to social
media status, updates, tweets, belonging to ‘group’ Facebook pages, the ability to ‘like’ certain pages and/
or status, have the ability to both support and harm the survivor.36 This has implications for innovation
in the development of online IPV interventions and speaks to the importance of e-literacy (awareness of
the online privacy settings and tracking functions of their technology) among women and girls.18,19,36
One of the online interventions (LEAF: A privacy-conscious social network-based intervention tool for
IPV survivors) sought to ensure that safety and privacy was upheld by including an anonymous
communication social network where users would not have to disclose their information to other
users in order to participate in the social network.28
The VAW and IPV that occurs in our offline world has manifested within the online world.79
Researchers and technology developers will need to be prudent and exercise caution when designing
or recommending online information to support individuals seeking support regarding IPV.
Additional research is needed to understand how social media and online interventions are used,
including the potential barriers in terms of the ability of the abusers to use technology to maintain
the relationship with their victim through virtual contact and extend their abusive behavior through
a virtual space. There are important design and policy implications for web designers accountable for
information privacy and personal safety of women in IPV situations. Sorenson et al.34 conducted
research reviewing agencies with an online presence that were servicing women who have experi-
enced IPV and found that an exit button (i.e., a visible button on the screen that when clicked, take
the user to a generic non-relevant webpage) was evident in about one-third of online agencies. In
addition, Shelternet, an online organization that understands the fact that many women would go
online to access resources related to IPV, has compiled a list of relevant links to Canadian shelters
and resources.7,8,84 There is a need for research which focuses on online information that supports
the health and social needs of women experiencing IPV, especially in terms of mobile usage and
perhaps looking at how social media is taken up within the context of women survivors of IPV.
As with all research, there are limitations to this study. This research only included articles that
were written in English. Findings may have been different if this review included research conducted
in settings with cultural and language diversity. The efficacy and/or effectiveness of the interventions
included in this review were not the focus of this review. However, of the included interventions,
there was an absence of randomized control trials, limiting our understanding of the impact of these
online interventions.

Conclusion
This scoping review demonstrated that online IPV interventions focus on safety planning for women
leaving or preparing to leave an abusive relationship. For women who had left an abusive situation,
there are limited online interventions. IPV is a public health issue disproportionately affecting
women globally. Disenfranchised women characterized as poor, with limited educated, pregnant,
and/or are Indigenous, are particularly at risk.9,12–16 Currently, there are relatively few online
interventions directed at IPV and limited evaluation of these online interventions. There is some
evidence to support the effectiveness of IPV interventions using mobile phones and online social
media. However, much of what has been developed has focused on the physical act of leaving and
the time directly after. Understanding the potential benefits and barriers that online interventions
create is important for health educators, service providers and those working in the field to support
 INFORMATICS FOR HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE 13

women survivors of IPV. Understanding how to support women of IPV after leaving an abusive
relationship and sustaining independence from the abusive partner is an important area for future
research.

Declaration of interest
The authors report no competing financial interests.

References
1. WHO. Understanding and addressing violence against women [Internet]. Geneva: WHO; 2012. http://www.
who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/en/index.html.
2. Vaillancourt R. Gender differences in police-reported violent crime in Canada, 2008. Ottawa, ON: Statistics
Canada; 2008.
3. United Nations. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women [Internet]. 1993. http://www.un.
org/documents/ga/res/48/a48r104.htm
4. Spencer RA, Shahrouri M, Halasa L, Khalaf I, Clark CJ. Women’s help seeking for intimate partner violence in
Jordan. Heal Care Women Int. 2014;35(4):380–99. doi:10.1080/07399332.2013.815755.
5. Goard C, Tutty LM. Reclaiming Self: issues and resources for women abused by intimate partners. Halifax, NS:
Fernwood; 2002. p. 1–144.
6. Lempert LB. Women’s strategies for survival: developing agency in abusive relationships. J Fam Violence.
1996;11(3):269–89. doi:10.1007/BF02336945.
7. Cherniak D, Grant L, Mason R, Moore B, Pellizzari R. SOGC clinical practice guidelines: intimate partner
violence consensus statement. J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;157:365–88.
8. Macmillan HL, Wathen CN, Jamieson E, Boyle M, Mcnutt L, Worster A, Lent B, Webb M, McMaster Violence
Against Women Research Group. Approaches to screening for intimate partner violence in health care settings.
J Am Med Assoc. 2006;296(5):530–36. doi:10.1001/jama.296.5.530.
9. Sinha M. Measuring violence against women: statistical trends [Internet]. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada; 2015.
http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85-002-x/2013001/article/11766-eng.pdf.
10. Karakurt G, Smith D, Whiting J. Impact of intimate partner violence on women’s mental health. J Fam
Violence [Internet]. 2014;29:693–702. doi:10.1007/s10896-014-9633-2.
11. Tjaden P, Thoennes N. Prevalence and consequences of male to female and female to male intimate partner
violence as measured by the national violence against women survey. Violence Against Women. 2000;6(2):142–
61. doi:10.1177/10778010022181769.
12. Wathen N, MacMillan HL. Research brief: identifying and responding to intimate partner violence against
women. London, ON: PreVAil: Preventing Violence Across the Lifespan Research Network; 2014.
13. George JA. Intimate partner violence (IPV) and the social determinants of aboriginal peoples’ health: a case
study of first nations women’s resilience, resistance, and renewal. London, ON: Western University; 2012.
14. Bloom TL, Glass NE, Case J, Wright C, Nolte K, Parsons L. Feasibility of an online safety planning intervention
for rural and urban pregnant abused women. Nurs Res [Internet]. 2014;63(4):243–51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pubmed/24977721.
15. Berman H, Mason R, Hall J, Rodger S, Classen CC, Evans MK, et al. Laboring to mother in the context of past
trauma: the transition to motherhood. Qual Health Res [Internet]. 2014;24(9):1253–64. http://www.pubmedcen
tral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=4232343&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract
16. Edwards KM, Mattingly MJ, Dixon KJ, Banyard VL. Community matters: intimate partner violence among
rural young adults. Am J Community Psychol. 2014;53(1–2):198–207. doi:10.1007/s10464-014-9633-7.
17. Macy RJ, Rizo CF, Ermentrout DM. Characteristics, needs, and help seeking of partner violence victims
mandated to community services by courts and child protective services. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2013;83
(4):588–99. doi:10.1111/ajop.12049.
18. Westbrook L. Understanding crisis information needs in context: the case of intimate partner violence
survivors. Libr Q Information, Community. 2008;78(3):237–61. doi:10.1086/588443.
19. Westbrook L, Gonzalez ME. Information support for survivors of intimate partner violence: public librarian-
ship’s role. Public Libr Q [Internet]. 2011;30(2):132–57. doi:10.1080/01616846.2011.575709.
20. Rapp L, Button DM, Fleury-Steiner B, Fleury-Steiner R. The internet as a tool for black feminist activism:
lessons from an online antirape protest. Fem Criminol. 2010;5(3):244–62. doi:10.1177/1557085110371634.
21. Black MC. Intimate partner violence and adverse health consequences: implications for clinicians. Am J
Lifestyle Med [Internet]. 2011;5(5):428–39. http://hinarilogin.research4life.org/uniquesigajl.sagepub.com/
uniquesig0/content/5/5/428.full.pdf+html.
14 E. REMPEL ET AL.

22. Burke JG, Mahoney P, Gielen A, McDonnell KA, O’Campo P. Defining appropriate stages of change for
intimate partner violence survivors. Violence Vict. 2009;24(1):36–51. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.24.1.36.
23. Jahanfar S, Janssen PA, Howard LM, Dowswell T. Interventions for preventing or reducing domestic violence
against pregnant women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(2):CD009414. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009414.
24. Wathen CN, Sibbald SL, Jack SM, MacMillan HL. Talk, trust and time: A longitudinal study evaluating
knowledge translation and exchange processes for research on violence against women. Implement Sci
[Internet]. 2011;6(102):1–15. http://www.implementationscience.com/content/6/1/102.
25. Houry D, Kaslow NJ, Kemball RS, McNutt LA, Cerulli C, Straus H, Rosenberg E, Chengxing L, Rhodes KV.
Does screening in the emergency department hurt or help victims of intimate partner violence? Ann Emerg
Med. 2008;51(4):433–42. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2007.11.019.
26. Wathen CN, Macmillan HL. Interventions for violence against women. J Am Medican Assoc. 2003;289(5):589–
600. doi:10.1001/jama.289.5.589.
27. Constantino RE, Braxter B, Ren D, Burroughs JD, Doswell WM, Wu L, Hwang JG, Klem ML, Joshi JBD,
Greene WB. Comparing online with face-to-face HELPP intervention in women experiencing intimate partner
violence. Issues Ment Health Nurs. 2015;36(6):430–38. doi:10.3109/01612840.2014.991049.
28. Palanisamy B, Sensenig S, Joshi J, Constantino R. LEAF: A privacy-conscious social network-based intervention
tool for IPV survivors. Proc 2014 IEEE 15th Int Conf Inf Reuse Integr IEEE IRI 2014. 2014;1:138.
29. Rich E, Miah A. Understanding digital health as public pedagogy: A critical framework. Societies [Internet].
2014;4:296–315. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4698/4/2/296.
30. Catalyst. With growth comes change: the evolving mobile landscape in 2015 [Internet]. 2015. http://catalyst.ca/
2015-canadian-smartphone-market/
31. Smith A. U.S. Smartphone Use in 2015 [Internet]. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center; 2015. http://www.
pewinternet.org/2015/04/01/us-smartphone-use-in-2015/.
32. Al Mamun M, Ibrahim HM, Turin TC. Social media in communicating health information: an analysis of
Facebook groups related to hypertension. Prev Chronic Dis. 2015;12(140265):1–10. doi:10.5888/pcd12.140265.
33. Viswanath K, Basu A. SafetiPin: an innovative mobile app to collect data on women’s safety in Indian cities.
Gend Dev [Internet]. 2015;23(1):45–60. doi:10.1080/13552074.2015.1013669.
34. Sorenson SB, Shi R, Zhang J, Xue J. Self-presentation on the web: agencies serving abused and assaulted women.
Am J Public Health [Internet]. 2014;104(4):702–07. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2013.301629.
35. MacGregor JC, Wathen N, Kothari A, Hundal PK, Naimi A. Strategies to promote uptake and use of intimate
partner violence and child maltreatment knowledge: an integrative review. BMC Public Health [Internet].
2014;14(862). http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=4152574&tool=pmcentrez&render
type=abstract.
36. Mason C, Magnet S. Surveillance studies and violence against women. Surveill Soc. 2012;10(2):105–18.
37. Westbrook L. Internet access and use in domestic violence shelters: policy, capacity, and management barriers. J
Soc Work [Internet]. 2012;13(1):30–53. doi:10.1037/a0037835.
38. Wathen N. Health impacts of violent victimization on women and their children. Ottawa, ON: Research and
Statistics Division Department of Justice Canada; 2012.
39. Campbell JC. Violence against women II: health consequences of intimate partner violence. Lancet.
2002;359:1331–36. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08336-8.
40. Wuest J, Merritt-Gray M. Not going back: sustaining the separation in the process of leaving abusive relation-
ships. Violence Against Women. 1999;5(2):110–33.
41. Carstairs C, Janovicek N. Feminist history in Canada: new essays on women, gender, work, and nation.
Vancouver: UBC Press; 2013. p. 1–290.
42. Carstairs S. Dancing backwards: A social history of Canadian women in politics. Winnipeg, MB: Heartland
Associates; 2004. p. 1–351.
43. Colquhoun RA. Women’s Experiences of the Intervention for Health Enhancement After Leaving (iHEAL).
London, ON: Western University; 2013.
44. Ford-Gilboe M, Wuest J, Varcoe C, Merritt-Gray M. Developing an evidence-based health advocacy interven-
tion for women who have left an abusive partner. Can J Nurs Res. 2006;38(1):147–67.
45. Okabe I, Da Fonseca RMGS. Woman abuse: contributions and shortcomings of the information system. Rev
Esc Enferm USP. 2009;43(2):449–54.
46. Sangster J. Through feminist eyes : essayson Canadian women’s history. Edmonton, AB: AU Press; 2011.
47. Wuest J, Ford-Gilboe M, Merritt-Gray M, Berman H. Intrusion: the central problem for family health
promotion among children and single mothers after leaving an abusive partner. Qual Health Res. 2003;13
(5):597–622. doi:10.1177/1049732303013005002.
48. Merritt-Gray M, Wuest J. Counteracting abuse and breaking free: the process of leaving revealed through
women’s voices. Health Care Women Int. 1995;16:399–412. doi:10.1080/07399339509516194.
49. Gilroy H, Mcfarlane J, Nava A, Maddoux J. Preferred communication methods of abused women. Public Health
Nurs. 2013;30(5):402–08. doi:10.1111/phn.2013.30.issue-5.
 INFORMATICS FOR HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE 15

50. Wuest J, Merritt-Gray M. Beyond survival: reclaiming self after leaving an abusive male partner. Can J Nurs
Res. 2001;32(4):79–94.
51. Chang JC, Cluss P a. A, Ranieri L, Hawker L, Buranosky R, Dado D, McNeil M, Scholle SH. Health care
interventions for intimate partner violence: what women want. Women’s Heal Issues. 2005;15(1):21–30.
doi:10.1016/j.whi.2004.08.007.
52. Fairbairn J. Hashtag conversations & knowledge translation: using social media for violence against women
prevention. London, ON: Western University; 2015.
53. Fass DF, Benson RI, Leggett DG. Assessing prevalence and awareness of violent behaviors in the intimate
partner relationships of college students using internet sampling. J College Stud Psychother [Internet]. 2008;22
(4):66–75. http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-67650087842&partnerID=tZOtx3y1.
54. Perrin A. Social Media Usage: 2005-2015 [Internet]. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center; 2015. http://www.
pewinternet.org/2015/10/08/social-networking-usage-2005-2015/.
55. Pew Research Center. Social networking fact sheet [Internet]. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center; 2015.
http://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheets/social-networking-fact-sheet/.
56. Scanfeld D, Scanfeld V, Larson EL. Dissemination of health information through social networks: twitter and
antibiotics. Am J Infect Control [Internet]. 2010;38(3):182–88. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2009.11.004.
57. Duggan M, Ellison NB, Lampe C, Lenhart A, Madden M. Social media update 2014 [Internet]. Washington,
DC: Pew Research Center; 2015. http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/01/09/social-media-update-2014/.
58. Glass N, Eden KB, Bloom T, Perrin N. Computerized aid improves safety decision process for survivors of
intimate partner violence. J Interpers Violence. 2010;25(11):1947–64.
59. Lampe C, Ellison N, Steinfield C. A Face(book) in the crowd: social searching vs. social browsing. In: Paper
presented at: 20th Anniversary ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work; 2006 Nov 4;
Banff, AB, Canada.
60. Constantino R, Crane P, Noll BS, Doswell WM, Braxter B. Exploring the feasibility of email-mediated
interaction in survivors of abuse. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs. 2007;14:291–301. doi:10.1111/jpm.2007.14.
issue-3.
61. Murray CE, Chow AS, Pow AM, Croxton R, Poteat L. Domestic violence service Providers’ technology
readiness and information needs. J Aggress Maltreat Trauma [Internet]. 2015;24(3):257–78. doi:10.1080/
10926771.2015.997908.
62. Daudt HML, Van Mossel C, Scott SJ. Enhancing the scoping study methodology: a large, inter-professional
team’s experience with Arksey and O’Malley’s framework. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2013;13(48):1–9.
doi:10.1186/1471-2288-13-48.
63. Arksey H, O’Malley L. Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. Int J Soc Res Methodol
[Internet]. 2005 Feb [accessed 2014 Jul 10]. 8(1):19–32. doi:10.1080/1364557032000119616.
64. Elsevier. Mendeley [Internet]. 2017. www.mendeley.com
65. Chang JC, Dado D, Ashton S, Hawker L, Cluss P A, Buranosky R, Scholle SH. Understanding behavior change
for women experiencing intimate partner violence: mapping the ups and downs using the stages of change.
Patient Educ Couns. 2006;62(3):330–39. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2006.06.009.
66. Brown J. Working toward freedom from violence: the process of change in battered women. Violence Against
Women. 1997;3(1):5–26. doi:10.1177/1077801297003001002.
67. Burke JG, Gielen A, McDonnell KA, O’Campo P, Maman S. The process of ending abuse in intimate
relationships. Violence Against Women. 2001;7(10):1144–63. doi:10.1177/10778010122183784.
68. Lindsay M, Messing JT, Thaller J, Baldwin A, Clough A, Bloom T, Eden KB, Glass N. Survivor feedback on a
safety decision aid smartphone application for college-age women in abusive relationships. J Technol Hum Serv
[Internet]. 2013;31:368–88. doi:10.1080/15228835.2013.861784.
69. Koziol-McLain J, Vandal AC, Nada-Raja S, Wilson D, Glass NE, Eden KB, et al. A web-based intervention for
abused women: the New Zealand isafe randomised controlled trial protocol. BMC Public Health [Internet].
2015;15(1):56. http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-84938601975&partnerID=tZOtx3y1.
70. Young-Hauser AM, Eden KB, Wilson D, Koziol-Mclain J. Intimate partner violence: modifying an internet-
based safety decision aid to a New Zealand context. J Technol Hum Serv [Internet]. 2014;32(4):297–311.
doi:10.1080/15228835.2014.967905.
71. iCan plan 4 safety [Internet]. 2015 [accessed 2016 Jan 4]. icanplan4safety.ca
72. Hassija C, Gray MJ. The effectiveness and feasibility of videoconferencing technology to provide evidence-based
treatment to rural domestic violence and sexual assault populations. Telemed e-Health. 2011;17(4):309–15.
doi:10.1089/tmj.2010.0147.
73. Wathen CN, McKeown S. Can the government really help? Online information for women experiencing
violence. Gov Inf Q. 2010;27(2):170–76. doi:10.1016/j.giq.2009.12.004.
74. Smith A Searching for Work in the Digital Era [Internet]. 2015 [accessed 2016 Jan 3]. http://www.pewinternet.
org/2015/11/19/searching-for-work-in-the-digital-era/
75. McKerlich R, Ives C, McGreal R. Measuring use and creation of open educational resources in higher
education. Int Rev Res Open Distance Learn. 2013;14(4):90–103.
16 E. REMPEL ET AL.

76. Ford-Gilboe M, Varcoe C, Noh M, Wuest J, Hammerton J, Alhalal E, Burnett C. Patterns and predictors of
service use among women who have separated from an abusive partner. J Fam Violence [Internet]. 2015;30
(4):419–31. doi:10.1007/s10896-015-9688-8.
77. Burnett CJ. Examining the effects of policies on the delivery of shelter services to women who have experienced
intimate partner violence. London, ON: Western University; 2012.
78. Ford-Gilboe M, Wuest J, Varcoe C, Davies L, Merritt-Gray M, Campbell J, Wilk P. Modelling the effects of
intimate partner violence and access to resources on women’s health in the early years after leaving an abusive
partner. Soc Sci Med. 2009;68(6):1021–29. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.01.003.
79. Stoleru M, Costescu EA. (Re)producing violence against women in online spaces. Philobiblon. 2014;19(1):95–
114.
80. Southworth C, Finn J, Dawson S, Fraser C, Tucker S. Intimate partner violence, technology, and stalking.
Violence Against Women. 2007;13(8):842–56. doi:10.1177/1077801207302045.
81. Westbrook L. Internet access and use in domestic violence shelters: policy, capacity, and management barriers. J
Soc Work [Internet]. 2013;13:30–53. http://libaccess.mcmaster.ca/login?url=http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.
cgi?T=JS&CSC=Y&NEWS=N&PAGE=fulltext&D=psyc10&AN=2012-35203-002 http://sfx.scholarsportal.info/
mcmaster?sid=OVID:psycdb&id=pmid:&id=doi:&issn=1468-0173&isbn=&volume=13&issue=1&spage=30&p.
82. Rothman EF, Meade J, Decker MR. E-mail Use among a sample of intimate partner violence shelter residents.
Violence Against Women [Internet]. 2009;15(6):736–44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19407335.
83. White JS. Social network analysis approach and applications. Potsdam, NY: Clarkson University; 2014.
84. Shelternet Law Firm. Shelternet [Internet]. 2016. [accessed 2016 Jan 4]. http://www.shelternet.ca/