Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 495 (2018) 292–308

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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/palaeo

Organic geochemical characteristics and depositional models of Upper T

Cretaceous marine source rocks in the Termit Basin, Niger
⁎
Hongfei Laia, Meijun Lia,b, , Jiguo Liuc, Fengjun Maoc, Hong Xiaoa, Wenxiang Heb, Lu Yanga
a
State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resources and Prospecting, College of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China
b
Key Laboratory of Exploration Technologies for Oil and Gas Resources, Ministry of Education, College of Resources and Environment, Yangtze University, Wuhan
430100, China
c
Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, PetroChina, Beijing 100083, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Upper Cretaceous marine mudstones are widely known as the most important source rocks in the Western
Sequence stratigraphy African rift basins. However, geochemical studies on their occurrence and formation mechanism are scarce. In
Biomarker this study, a detailed geochemical investigation within a sequence stratigraphic framework was carried out to
Organic matter reconstruct the palaeoenvironmental conditions and to establish models on the depositional history of Upper
Palaeoenvironment
Cretaceous marine mudstones in the Termit Basin (Niger), western African. A total of six third-order sequences
Sea level
(DSQ1, DSQ2, YSQ1, YSQ2, YSQ3 and MSQ1, from bottom to top) were identified in the Upper Cretaceous. The
distribution of biomarkers from 33 mudstone samples in different sequences indicate that mudstones from YSQ3
were mainly deposited in a suboxic to oxic environment, with significant contributions from mixed terrigenous
higher plants and lower aquatic organisms in fresh-brackish water column. In contrast, the other sequences
(YSQ2, YSQ1, DSQ2 and DSQ1) mainly represent a suboxic to anoxic marine environment with a stratified water
column (0.59 < pristane/phytane < 1.71, 20.78% < gammacerane/C30 hopane < 52.23%), dominated by
marine aquatic organisms such as algae and bacteria. Accumulation models of organic matter (OM) for different
sequences were established to delineate the combined effects of a variety of geological and environmental
controlling factors, such as global sea-level fluctuations, seawater circulation patterns, palaeoclimatic condi-
tions, input of terrigenous OM and inherited rift palaeotopography. Most notably, the relative changes of global
sea level and the patterns of seawater circulation were the critical factors controlling the sources, depositional
conditions and preservation of organic matter in the Termit Basin. Organic matter rich marine mudstones in
Termit Basin are closely related to high supply of terrigenous OM. This study not only provides practical de-
positional models for marine mudstones in the Termit Basin, but also improves the general understanding of
marine organic matter accumulation in a relatively restricted inland rift environment.

1. Introduction A series of accumulation models of organic matter have been es-

The Termit Basin, located in the southeast of Niger (Fig. 1), is one of
the largest Cretaceous-Tertiary rift basins in the West and Central Africa
Rift System (WCARS) (Fairhead, 1986; Genik, 1992, 1993; Guiraud
et al., 2005). It has been proven to be a hydrocarbon-rich basin (Xue
et al., 2014; Wan et al., 2014). The hydrocarbons discovered to date
have mainly been sourced from Upper Cretaceous marine mudstones
with thickness of ~500–2000 m (Genik, 1992, 1993; Harouna and
Philp, 2012; Liu et al., 2015). However, controlling factors leading to
the geochemical heterogeneity of potential source beds are yet poorly
understood, and the large variety of sources, accumulation and pre-
servation of organic matter has not yet been investigated in detail.
tablished in published literature in order to demonstrate the factors
controlling the occurrence and formation of marine source rocks in the
continental marginal basins or bathyal to abyssal basins (Tissot, 1979;
Peters et al., 2000; Fleck et al., 2002; Bertrand et al., 2003; Frimmel
et al., 2004; Götz et al., 2005; Gambacorta et al., 2016; Knapp et al.,
2017). However, the palaeotopography, hydrodynamic and pa-
laeoenvironmental conditions of the Termit Basin during the Late
Cretaceous are significantly different from those continental marginal
basins or bathyal to abyssal basins (Genik, 1992, 1993; Guiraud et al.,
2005). Relevant studies focusing on the geochemical characteristics and
comprehensive accumulation models of marine OM in such a special
marine-invaded depositional environment (inland rift basin) are scarce.

⁎
Corresponding author at: College of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum, No.18 Fuxue Road, Changping District, Beijing 102249, China.
E-mail address: meijunli@cup.edu.cn (M. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2018.01.024
Received 3 October 2017; Received in revised form 5 January 2018; Accepted 17 January 2018
Available online 31 January 2018
0031-0182/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
H. Lai et al.
Fig. 1. Map of the geographic location and schematic structure of the Agadem block in the Termit Basin, Niger (modified after Genik, 1993) and a representative geological profile
(section A-A’) showing the stratum, faults and basement of the Termit Basin.
An integrated approach based on a combination of sequence stra-
tigraphy and organic geochemistry, i.e. sequence stratigraphic geo-
chemistry, has been adopted to reconstruct the depositional environ-
ment and biological sources of OM in various types of worldwide basins
(Peters et al., 2000; Bohacs et al., 2000; Bombardiere and Gorin, 2000;
Fleck et al., 2002; Li and Zhou, 2003, Li et al., 2005; Frimmel et al.,
2004). This approach also helps to estimate the petroleum potential of
source rocks and to quantify the amount and quality of the reservoir
hydrocarbons within a sequence stratigraphic framework. The aim of
this paper is to study the controlling factors leading to the deposition of
Upper Cretaceous marine mudstones and their geochemical variations
using sequence stratigraphic geochemistry. We present comprehensive
depositional models of variations in organic matter sources and quality
for the Upper Cretaceous in the Termit Basin, which provides a basis for
robust estimates of source rock quality and hydrocarbon generation
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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 495 (2018) 292–308
potential. Our data may, therefore, be highly significant for future hy-
drocarbon exploration and development in this region. Furthermore,
these results expand the general understanding of marine organic
matter deposition in relatively restricted inland rift basins with large
scale marine transgression.
2. Geological setting
The Termit Basin is the second largest extensional asymmetric rift
basin in the WCARS. The central part of the main depression (Agadem
block, Fig. 1) has an area of approximately 27,000 km2, with a length of
nearly 300 km and a width of ~60–110 km (Liu et al., 2012a). The
basin is divided into nine tectonic units: the Western platform, Iaguil
platform, Dinga step-fault zone, Dinga depression, Yogou slope, Fana
uplift, Moul depression, Araga graben and the Trakes slope (Fig. 1). The
H. Lai et al.
Fig. 2. Generalized stratigraphic column and sequence division of the Termit Basin (modified after Genik, 1993; Wan et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2015). Eustatic curves and relative coastal
onlap are cited from Haq et al., 1987. The 3rd order sequence division scheme is cited from Wang et al., 2016. Quat. = Quaternary, Fm. = Formation, Sq.n = Sequence name,
Cy. = Cycle.
basement comprises metamorphic rocks of a Precambrian-Jurassic
system and is overlain with strata from the Lower Cretaceous to Qua-
ternary with a maximum cumulative thickness of about 12,000 m
(Fig. 1).
During the Early Cretaceous (~150–98.9 Ma), rifting in the Termit
Basin was caused by the breakup of Gondwana, which was the begin-
ning of the separation between the African and South American con-
tinental plates (Fairhead and Binks, 1991). Several kilometers of Lower
Cretaceous terrigenous sediments (K1 Formation) were deposited
during this period. The basin experienced large scale thermal sub-
sidence during the Late Cretaceous (~98.9–65.6 Ma), with a large scale
marine transgression from the Tethys via Mali and Algeria in the north,
and from the Atlantic via the Benue trough in the south. This period was
followed by seawater regression until about 74 Ma (Genik, 1992, 1993).
Three formations can be distinguished in this sequence (Fig. 2). The
Donga and Yogou formations are composed of shallow marine shale,
silts, sands and minor carbonates, while the Madama Formation mainly
consists of thick sandstones from braided delta, fluvial and alluvial
deposition. The eustatic curves and relative coastal onlap according to
Haq et al. (1987) indicate that the Donga and Yogou formations cor-
respond to the global Late Cretaceous sea level highstand (Fig. 2).
Previous studies on sequence stratigraphy suggest that the strata of
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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 495 (2018) 292–308
Lower and Upper Cretaceous can be identified as two second order
sequences (TS1 and TS2, respectively). The TS2 sequence can be sub-
divided into six third-order sequences (Fig. 2) (Fu et al., 2012; Tang
et al., 2015; Mao et al., 2016). During the Paleogene (~65.5–23.8 Ma),
up to 3 km of Cenozoic terrigenous sediments (e.g., delta, fluvial and
lacustrine sediments) were deposited in the Termit Basin, which are
known as the Sokor-1 and Sokor-2 formations (Liu et al., 2012b). The
Termit Basin was significantly faulted and uplifted during the Neogene
to Quaternary, and overlain by thick alluvial, fluvial and lacustrine
sediments (Genik, 1992, 1993).
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Samples selection
A total of 41 sidewall cores from wells Kga-1, KLD-1 and HL-1, and
14 mudstone cuttings from other four wells (Mg-1, YgN-1, D-1 and
OUE-1) were collected for this study (well location seen in Fig. 1). The
wells from which the cutting samples were selected were drilled with
water-based drilling mud. The samples were obtained from mudstone
layers within the Upper Cretaceous. All shale samples were selected for
total organic carbon (TOC) analysis and Rock-Eval pyrolysis (Section
H. Lai et al.
Fig. 3. Sequence stratigraphic division of representative wells Mg-1, KLD-1 and Kga-1 in the Termit Basin. LST = Lowstand systems tract; TST = Transgressive systems tract;
HST = Highstand systems tract. DT: Sonic wave travel time (μs/ft), RT: Deep resistivity (ohm), GR: Gamma ray (GAPI), Th: Thorium (ppm), U: Uranium (ppm).
3.2). In addition, 33 samples were selected (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, Table 2)
for detailed biomarker analysis by gas chromatography–mass spectro-
metry (GC–MS) on the basis of TOC content and results from pyrolysis
and sequence stratigraphy. Furthermore, a well-logging curves data set
of the sampled wells was collected for this study.
3.2. TOC and Rock-Eval pyrolysis analysis
All the samples for geochemical analysis were treated to remove
impurities and sieve-washed using distilled water to remove possible
contaminants from water based drilling mud filtrate, then crushed and
ground to < 80 mesh. TOC content was analyzed using a LECO CS-230
Carbon/Sulfur instrument after carbonate removal by dilute hydro-
chloric acid (1.5 mol/L). Rock-Eval pyrolysis was determined on pow-
dered rock samples (100 mg) with an OGE-VI Rock Pyrolysis instrument
following the procedures described by Espitalié et al. (1985). In this
study, the repeatability and reproducibility for TOC (0.5% < TOC <
10%) measurement are in the range of 0.07%–0.43% and
0.11%–1.24%, respectively. The tolerance of relative deviation for S2
(S2 > 0.5 mg/g), i.e. one of the Rock-Eval parameters, is < 0.3. Be-
sides, a deviation value < 2 °C or 5 °C is used to evaluate the un-
certainties of Tmax when it is lower or higher than 450 °C, respectively.
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3.3. Biomarker analysis
Bitumen extracts of the 33 powdered rock samples were obtained by
Soxlhet extraction for 48 h with dichloromethane/methanol (93:7, v:
v). Asphaltenes in these extracts were precipitated by n-hexane by
stirring the solution for 12 h in the dark at room temperature. The
deasphalted extracts were eluted over silica gel/alumina columns using
n-hexane and dichloromethane/n-hexane (2:1, v: v) to obtain saturated
and aromatic hydrocarbon fractions, respectively.
Gas chromatography analyses coupled to mass spectrometry
(GC–MS) of saturated hydrocarbon fractions were undertaken using an
Agilent 5975i GC–MS system. The GC instrument was equipped with an
HP-5MS fused silica capillary column (60 m long × 0.25 mm inner
diameter, with a 0.25 μm film thickness of 5% phenylmethylpolysi-
loxane). The GC–MS system was operated in the following conditions:
(1) the GC oven temperature was initially at 80 °C for 1 min, then
ramped from 80 °C to 310 °C at 3 °C/min and held isothermal for
16 min; (2) the split injector temperature was set at 300 °C and helium
was used as the carrier gas; (3) the MS was operated at an ionization
energy of 70 eV in full scan mode recording in the range m/z = 50 to
m/z = 600. Agilent ChemStation software was used for data acquisition
and data processing. In this study, the repeatability and reproducibility
for a certain biomarker parameter with an average value of 1.0 among
multiple measurements are 0.0172 and 0.1072, respectively.
H. Lai et al.
Fig. 4. Regional correlation of the stratigraphic sequence between wells HL-1, DNW-1, Mg-1, AbS-1, YgN-1 and Kga-1 in the Termit Basin (the location of this profile can be seen in Fig.1).
DT: Sonic wave travel time (μs/ft), RT: Deep resistivity (ohm), GR: Gamma ray (GAPI), U: Uranium (ppm).
4. Results
4.1. Sequence stratigraphic framework and sedimentology
4.1.1. Sequence stratigraphic framework
A total of five sequence stratigraphic classification schemes were
generally accepted by geologists (Catuneanu et al., 2009). Each classi-
fication scheme and sequence model is reasonable in the context in
which it was proposed and may provide the optimum approach under
the specific environment (Catuneanu et al., 2009). Taking the timing of
significant tectonic activities in this region (Genik, 1992, 1993) and the
special marine-invaded depositional environment (i.e. shallow marine
system in a marine basin with ramp margin) into consideration, in this
study, we established the sequence stratigraphic framework of the
Upper Cretaceous following the approach of siliciclastic sequence
stratigraphy proposed by Van Wagoner et al. (1990). Moreover, this
method was also used in the sequence division scheme reported in
previous studies (Tang et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2016). Therefore, a
more reliable sequence stratigraphic framework can be established
combing the results in this study and previous literature.
During the Late Cretaceous, an integrated marine transgressive-re-
gressive cycle coincided with the deposition of sediments in the Termit
Basin (Fig. 2). Therefore, sea-level variations may be a major control-
ling factor contributing to the development of the stratigraphic se-
quence and deposition. The sequence stratigraphic framework and the
basin filling patterns of the Cretaceous have been summarized in pre-
vious studies (Tang et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2016). However, previous
results were mainly based on seismic data rather than well logging data.
In this study, on the basis of a variety of well logging data, such as
conventional logging, gamma spectrometry logging curves and litho-
logical logging information, we provide a detailed sequence strati-
graphic analysis with specific emphasis on sea-level variation and de-
positional evolution. Wells Mg-1, KLD-1 and Kga-1 have penetrated the
Upper Cretaceous formations in different tectonic blocks of the Termit
Basin (Fig. 3). Based on the classification scheme of sequence and
systems tract reported by Van Wagoner et al. (1990), these three wells
comprise in total six third-order sequences (DSQ1, DSQ2, YSQ1, YSQ2,
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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 495 (2018) 292–308
YSQ3 and MSQ1, from bottom to top) within the Upper Cretaceous
formations. Moreover, three systems tracts (lowstand systems tract,
LST; transgressive systems tract, TST; highstand systems tract, HST) can
be subdivided within third-order sequences, respectively according to
the retrogradational or progradational stacking pattern of para-
sequences (Fig. 3).
The lithology of different sequences was closely related to their
depositional conditions during the global sea-level fluctuations. For
example, the upward increasing amount of sandstone interlayers from
YSQ2 to MSQ1 indicates the turbulent hydrodynamic conditions in
shallow water column, whereas the thick mudstones/shales with only a
few thin sandstone interlayers in the DSQ1, DSQ2 and YSQ1 indicate a
quiet hydrodynamic conditions with deep water column (Fig. 3).
In addition to depositional variations, such cycles are generally as-
sociated with changing redox conditions, which has been commonly
studied by trace elemental distributions (Adams and Weaver, 1958;
Jones and Manning, 1994). For instance, Thorium (Th) is relatively
immobile in surface environment and is concentrated during weath-
ering in residual minerals. Hexavalent uranium (U) is the typical con-
figuration under oxic conditions and soluble in water. In contrast, tet-
ravalent U is insoluble and may thus be fixed and enriched in a reducing
depositional environment (Adams and Weaver, 1958; Jones and
Manning, 1994). Therefore, the U content and Th/U ratio obtained
from gamma spectrometry logging curves were widely used in the
evaluation of depositional conditions (Jones and Manning, 1994). For
example, the Th/U ratio of rocks can be used as an indicator to evaluate
the redox condition of depositional environment (Table 1) (Dai et al.,
1995).
Table 1
Relationship between Th/U ratio and the condition of depositional environment (after
Dai et al., 1995).
Th/U > 30 30–10 10–4 <4
Condition of Oxidation Weak oxidation Reduction Strong
depositional to reduction reduction
environment
H. Lai et al.
In this study, the U content of well Mg-1 and KLD-1 abruptly in-
creased to 5–10 ppm in well Mg-1 and KLD-1 at the top interface of the
YSQ1, indicating a more reductive depositional conditions during the
period of YSQ1, DSQ2 and DSQ1 (Fig. 3). Moreover, the Th/U curves
also suggest strong reductive conditions during the period of YSQ1,
DSQ2 and DSQ1 with the Th/U ratio < 4, whereas other sequences
deposited in a weak-reductive to oxidative depositional conditions
(4 < Th/U < 20) (Fig. 3). Besides, Tang et al. (2017) have reported
the inorganic geochemical characteristics of the Yogou Formation
(equivalent to the YSQ3, YSQ2 and YSQ1 in this study) with 20 samples
from sampled wells (Helit-1, Tehi-1, Ounissoui-1 and Dibeilla-1, which
correspond to the well HL-1, TH-1, OU-1 and D-1 in this study). Based
on the parameter of MnO/TiO2 and Zr/Y, Tang et al. (2017) proposed
that the lower part of the Yogou Formation (equivalent to the YSQ2 and
YSQ1 in our sequence stratigraphic framework) were deposited in a
deeper water marine environment comparing to the upper part of the
Yogou Formation (equivalent to the YSQ3).
The good correspondences between the characteristics of litholo-
gical assemblage, U content, Th/U ratio and global sea level changes
(Haq et al., 1987), in combination with the inorganic geochemical data
reported by Tang et al. (2017), may indicate that MSQ1, YSQ3 and
YSQ2 were deposited in a lower global sea level stage while the YSQ1,
DSQ2 and DSQ1 a higher global sea level (Fig. 3).
4.1.2. Depositional characteristics
The correlation profiles (Fig. 4) show the sequence stratigraphic
framework and depositional characteristics of the Upper Cretaceous
formations. Sequence boundaries and maximum flooding surfaces of
the six third-order sequences in different wells are readily identified by
their similar logging response to the three representative wells.
The sequences (HST of DSQ1, DSQ2 and YSQ1) deposited in the
higher global sea level stage are characterized by thick marine mud-
stones and shales with higher uranium content (mostly larger than
5 ppm) and GR values (mostly larger than 90 GAPI), which correlates
well with the global Cretaceous sea level highstand proposed by Haq
et al. (1987) (Fig. 2). In contrast, the LST and TST of DSQ1 are char-
acterized by thin interbedded sandstone intervals within mudstone
units in the present wells (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4), representing depositional
features related to the beginning of a marine transgression period. The
sequences (YSQ2, YSQ3 and MSQ1) deposited in the lower global sea
level stage are characterized by lower uranium content (mostly < 5
ppm) and GR values (mostly < 90 GAPI). Specifically, MSQ1 is com-
posed of thick braided deltaic sandstones with some thin mudstone
intervals, whereas YSQ3 and YSQ2 mainly consist of interbedded sand-
and mudstones from transitional marine to terrigenous environments
(Fig. 4). The parasequences of YSQ3 and YSQ2 indicate a typical pro-
gradation pattern (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5), indicating that a marine regression
was prevalent during that time.
4.2. Geochemical characteristics in the representative well
The Kga-1 well is chosen as an example to discuss the vertical
geochemical characteristics of source rocks in different sequences or
systems tracts (Fig. 5). The source rock evaluation criterions in this
article are cited from Peters (1986) and Peters and Cassa (1994). There
is no obvious geochemical variations among the mudstone samples
from DSQ1 and DSQ2 sequences. The TOC concentration, hydrocarbon
potential index (S1 + S2) and hydrogen index (HI) of mudstones from
the Donga Formation mudstones range from 0.43% to 1.19%, 0.45 mg/
g to 2.28 mg/g, and 66.02 mg/g to 151.75 mg/g, respectively, re-
presenting source rocks of poor to fair hydrocarbon potential. All
samples from the Donga Formation are mature with Tmax values ranging
from 435 °C to 470 °C. In addition, marine mudstones from YSQ1, YSQ2
and the LST and TST of YSQ3 also represent with similar geochemical
characteristics, which could be regarded as fair to good potential source
rocks with TOC, S1 + S2 and HI, ranging from 0.98% to 1.74%,
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1.49 mg/g to 6.41 mg/g and 123.59 mg/g to 368.64 mg/g, respectively.
Most of them have entered the early oil generation window with a Tmax
range of 435 °C to 447 °C. In contrast, thin immature source rock in-
tervals with higher TOC (5.0%–8.51%), S1 + S2 (8.18–36.70 mg/g),
and HI values (152.4–501.1 mg/g) occur in the HST of YSQ3. Fig. 5
shows that mudstones from HST of YSQ3 occurred in the transitional
marine to terrestrial environment while the other sequences or systems
tracts deposited in the offshore to inner shelf environment, indicating
these significant geochemical differences may be contributed to their
different palaeoenvironmental factors, e.g. OM depositional environ-
ment, preservation condition and OM source input.
4.3. Biomarkers of saturated hydrocarbon fractions
4.3.1. n-Alkanes, isoprenoids and isoalkanes
n-Alkanes are ubiquitous compounds in sedimentary rocks and their
distributions and related geochemical parameters, e.g., carbon pre-
ference index (CPI) and odd-to-even predominance (OEP), can provide
a reliable interpretation of OM sources and depositional environments
(Peters and Moldowan, 1993). In our study, the saturated hydrocarbon
fractions were dominated by n-alkanes ranging from nC15 to nC33,
whereas acyclic isoprenoids range from C15 to C23 (Fig. 6). In contrast,
n-alkane distributions of most YSQ3 samples are bimodal with a pre-
dominance of nC18 and nC29 (Fig. 6A, B). Moreover, a distinct
odd‑carbon preference is observed in the n-C25+ range with CPI and
OEP values ranging from 1.05 to 1.91 and from 1.01 to 2.12, respec-
tively (Table 2). However, samples from other sequences (YSQ2, YSQ1,
DSQ2 and DSQ1) show unimodal n-alkane distributions with maxima at
n-C19 to n-C21 (Fig. 6D–H) without pronounced odd‑carbon preference
in the range of n-C25+ (1.02 < CPI < 1.30, 0.99 < OEP < 1.44)
(Table 2). Furthermore, pristane (Pr) to phytane (Ph) ratios are higher
in samples (0.73 < Pr/Ph < 4.19) from the HST of YSQ3, and lower
in samples (0.62 < Pr/Ph < 1.69) from LST and TST of YSQ3
(Table 2).
4.3.2. Tricyclic terpanes
The distributions of tricyclic terpanes (TT) have been used to re-
construct organic matter input, organic matter depositional conditions
and oil-source/oil-oil correlation (Bohacs et al., 2000; Peters et al.,
2008; Tao et al., 2015). A series of tricyclic terpanes was detected in
samples from different sequences. However, the C24 tetracyclic terpane
(TeT) was co-eluted with C26TT(22R) or C26TT(22S) due to perfor-
mance of chromatographic column during the analytic process. Samples
from YSQ3 are characterized by abundant C21TT, whereas C23TT is
predominant over other compounds in samples from the YSQ1, DSQ2
and DSQ1 (Fig. 7). The (C19 + C20)TT/C23TT ratios were lower in
samples from the YSQ1, DSQ2 and DSQ1 than in those from YSQ3 and
YSQ2 (Table 2). These results may indicate that the organic matter
input and depositional conditions were varied between the sequences
(YSQ1, DSQ2 and DSQ1) deposited in higher global sea level stage and
the sequences (YSQ2 and YSQ3) in lower global sea level stage, which
will be discussed in Sections 5.2 and 5.3.
4.3.3. Hopanes
Hopanes originate from the bacteriohopanepolyols precursors of
bacterial membranes, which are synthesized by most prokaryotes
(Peters et al., 2005). A series of homologues with carbon numbers
ranging from 27 to 35 have been detected as a result of defunctiona-
lization and degradation of the precursor compounds in various geo-
logical processes (Ourisson et al., 1979). In this study, triterpanes (m/
z = 191 mass chromatograms) are abundant in all samples, character-
ized by the relative predominance of 17α(H),21β(H)-hopane (C30H)
and 17α(H),21β(H)-30-norhopane (C29H) (Fig. 8). Furthermore,
17β(H),21α(H)-moretane (C30M) and 17β(H),21α(H)-normoretane
(C29M) are abundant in samples from the YSQ3, whereas 18α(H)-
22,29,30-Trisnorhopane (Ts), Gammacerane (Ga) and homohopanes in
H. Lai et al.
Fig. 5. Profiles of geochemical characteristics of well Kga-1 associated with the sequence framework of third-order sequences and systems tracts. LST = Lowstand systems tract,
TST = Transgressive systems tract, HST = Highstand systems tract.
the C34–C35 range are less abundant or absent (Fig. 8A, B). The tri-
terpane distributions of the YSQ2 is quite similar to that of YSQ3, ex-
hibiting intact homohopanesranging from C31H to C35H and less
abundant moretane (C30M) and normoretane (C29M) (Fig. 8C, D).
However, samples from the YSQ1 sequence are characterized by the
high intensity of Gammacerane, which distinguishes it from other se-
quences (Fig. 8E, F). The triterpane distribution of DSQ2 and DSQ1
sequence samples is similar to that of the YSQ1 sequence. However,
they are distinguished from the YSQ1 sequence by a lower abundance
of Gammacerane (Fig. 8G, H).
4.3.4. Steranes
Steroids are widely present in all eukaryotes (Peters et al., 2005).
Regular steranes and diasteranes containing 27, 28 or 29 carbon atoms
are the most common sterane homologues in the saturated hydrocarbon
fractions of mudstone samples. For example, C27 steranes originate
from C27 sterols, which occur in the cellular membranes of vertebrates,
algae, zooplankton and phytoplankton (e.g., diatoms, coccolithophorids
and coelenterantes) (Gagosian et al., 1979; Smith et al., 1982). Most
C28-sterols are derived from vitamin D precursors (Gomis et al., 2000)
and ergosterols are synthesized in some microalgae (Volkman et al.,
1999). In contrast, C29 steranes are mainly derived from sitosterol and
stigmasterol precursors synthesized by higher plant cells (Hartmann,
1998). Depositional conditions and diagenetic processes strongly im-
pact the sterane formation and composition. For instance, with in-
creasing maturity, regular steranes change from their original
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biological stereochemistry configuration (e.g., 5α(H), 14α(H), 17α(H)-
20R–cholestane and 5α(H), 14β(H), 17β(H)-20R–cholestane) to a more
thermodynamically stable geological configuration (e.g., 5α(H),
14α(H), 17α(H)-20S–cholestane and 5α(H), 14β(H), 17β(H)-20S–cho-
lestane) (Peters et al., 2005).
In this study, C27, C28 and C29-steranes series were detected in all
samples, and all of them are dominated by C27, C28 and C29-5α(H),
14α(H), 17α(H)-20R–cholestanes exhibiting approximately a “V” type
distribution (Fig. 9; Table 2). In samples from the YSQ3 and YSQ2 se-
quences, steranes with biological structural configurations are more
abundant than in other samples with lower concentration of C27-dia-
sterene isomers (Fig. 9A–D). However, in the sequences (YSQ1, DSQ2
and DSQ1) deposited in the higher global sea level stage, steranes in
their geological configuration are more abundant (Fig. 9E–H), and some
of the samples are characterized by a high concentration of C27-dia-
sterene isomers (Fig. 9F and H).
5. Discussion
The specificity and reliability of biomarker indicators for the pa-
laeoenvironment interpretation or organic matter source are always
influenced by other geological factors, such as thermal maturity, di-
agenetic condition (Peters et al., 2005). The C29 regular steranes iso-
merization ratios, i.e. C29 20S/(20S + 20R) and C29 ββ/(ββ + αα), are
the generally accepted maturation indicators with highly specific for
immature to main phase of oil generation range (Peters et al., 2005).
H. Lai et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 495 (2018) 292–308

Fig. 6. n-Alkane distributions (total ion chromatograms, TIC) of saturated hydrocarbon fractions of some representative samples from different sequences. Well Kga-1, Mg-1, KLD-1 and
OUE-1 are located in the Yogou slope, Dinga step-fault zone, Fana uplift and Araga garben, respectively, which can be seen in Fig. 1. Sample location in the wells can be found in Fig. 3
and Fig. 4. Peak assignments: Cn = C-numbers for the n-alkanes, Sam.ID = Sample ID, Pr = Pristane, Ph= Phytane.

With increasing thermal maturity, isomerization of C29 regular steranes
would causes C29 20S/(20S + 20R) and C29 ββ/(ββ + αα) to rise from
0 to ~0.5 (0.52–0.55 = equilibrium point) and 0 to ~0.7
(0.67–0.71 = equilibrium point) (Seifert and Moldowan, 1978). In this
study, the thermal maturity level of samples are not equilibrium and
most of them have reached the main phase of oil generation (Fig.10;
Table 2). Therefore, the interferences of thermal maturity may not be
significant when we use biomarker indicators to establish pa-
laeoenvironmental conditions. Furthermore, in order to minimize the
interferences by other secondary geological factors, inferences on the
palaeoenvironmental conditions should always be collectively sup-
ported by geochemical parameters assemblage and geological data,
rather than drawing conclusions according to a certain biomarker
parameter alone.
5.1. Organic matter sources input
In this study, the origin of organic matter was attributed based on
the distributions of n-alkanes, steranes and triterpanes. Long chain n-
alkanes (> nC25) are commonly used as indicators of terrigenous higher
plants, whereas short chain n-alkanes (< nC20) are typically associated
with algae and other microorganisms (Eglinton and Hamilton, 1967;
Peters et al., 2005). The odd over even predominance of n-alkanes,
characterized by high CPI or OEP indices (Bray and Evans, 1961;
Scanlan and Smith, 1970), indicate a predominance of high terrigenous
plant organism sources. In this study, the n-alkane distribution patterns
of the YSQ3 samples show a bimodal distribution with a predominance
of long chain n-alkanes (> n-C25) over short chain n-alkanes (< n-C20)
(Fig. 6), indicating mixed organic matter with contributions from both
terrigenous and aquatic organisms. Their moderate to high CPI ratio
and OEP (mostly higher than 1.2) (Table 2) also suggests that some of
the organic matter sources derived from terrigenous high plant organ-
isms. Whereas the samples from other sequences (YSQ2, YSQ1, DSQ2
and DSQ1 sequence) exhibit a unimodal n-alkane distribution (with a
maximum peak around nC19 to nC21) (Fig. 6) without pronounced
odd‑carbon preference (Table 2).

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Table 2
Selected biomarker parameters and ratios of the Upper Cretaceous mudstone samples calculated from n-alkanes, terpane, and sterane distributions.

Tectonic Well Sample ID Depth (m) Sequences/ U (ppm) n-Alkane and isoprenoid ratios Terpanes Steranes
block name Systems tracts
Pr/Ph Pr/nC17 Ph/nC18 CPI OEP TAR (C19 + C20)TT C21TT/ Ts/Tm Ga/ Regular sterane Ster.C29 ββ/ Ster.C29 20S/
/C23TT C23TT C30H (ββ + αα) (20S + 20R)
(%) C27 (%) C28 (%) C29 (%)

Yogou slope Kga-1 kga-1 1708–1738 YSQ3-HST – 2.84 3.27 1.02 1.91 2.12 2.05 1.25 0.61 0.12 6.35 30.68 29.40 39.92 0.56 0.22
kga-2 1910–1928 YSQ3-TST – 0.62 1.34 2.22 1.68 1.88 0.79 0.78 1.06 0.32 26.05 39.32 24.35 36.33 0.31 0.14
kga-3 2128–2138 YSQ2-TST – 0.84 0.63 0.64 1.18 1.21 0.51 0.41 0.59 0.43 25.78 30.88 21.82 47.30 0.25 0.19
kga-4 2328–2348 YSQ1-MFS – 0.94 0.89 0.93 1.15 1.13 0.60 0.27 0.40 2.18 46.06 40.74 26.27 32.99 0.42 0.47
kga-5 2488–2498 YSQ1-LST 5.91 1.05 0.71 0.57 1.10 1.11 0.73 0.64 0.66 1.00 46.31 32.68 28.56 38.76 0.30 0.19
kga-6 2626–2642 DSQ2-HST 4.27 0.66 0.79 0.63 1.15 1.22 0.73 0.60 0.78 1.67 26.53 45.93 24.96 29.10 0.44 0.41
kga-7 2782–2798 DSQ1-HST 7.89 0.93 0.39 0.34 1.06 1.08 1.00 0.89 0.95 1.64 43.06 49.47 25.22 25.30 0.40 0.39
kga-8 2980–2992 DSQ1-TST 6.17 0.74 0.49 0.41 1.07 1.11 0.85 0.72 0.88 1.32 34.75 40.18 25.07 34.76 0.44 0.38
YgN-1 ygn-1 2514–2538 YSQ3-HST 3.88 2.25 1.92 1.00 1.38 1.41 0.78 0.84 0.97 0.19 24.64 39.98 25.34 34.68 0.27 0.33
ygn-2 2922–2962 YSQ2-HST 2.16 0.81 0.49 0.67 1.10 1.07 0.35 0.34 0.54 1.96 46.49 31.25 23.68 45.07 0.45 0.39
Fana uplift KLD-1 kld-1 2692 YSQ3-HST 3.42 4.19 5.33 1.06 1.60 1.86 3.82 1.68 0.97 0.04 11.37 32.21 27.98 39.81 0.36 0.32
kld-2 3158 YSQ3-LST 1.80 0.79 0.53 0.43 1.19 1.19 0.51 0.68 0.87 0.63 31.49 27.56 28.63 43.81 0.37 0.40
kld-3 3230 YSQ2-HST 2.68 1.31 0.60 0.42 1.06 1.07 0.70 1.05 0.89 2.20 32.09 30.34 27.70 41.95 0.37 0.41
kld-4 3350 YSQ2-MFS 2.36 1.71 0.32 0.17 1.02 1.03 0.67 2.04 1.13 3.74 33.26 34.77 25.63 39.60 0.37 0.43

300
kld-5 3678 YSQ1-TST 4.13 1.18 0.24 0.20 1.07 1.07 0.36 0.86 0.89 0.98 30.73 33.56 27.72 38.72 0.37 0.37
kld-6 3910 DSQ2-HST 7.31 0.91 0.54 0.52 1.12 1.15 0.63 0.72 0.83 0.94 30.33 30.47 27.64 41.89 0.38 0.38
kld-7 4058 DSQ2-TST 6.88 1.36 0.58 0.56 1.29 1.38 0.11 0.79 0.86 1.00 27.75 30.93 27.29 41.77 0.38 0.39
kld-8 4202 DSQ1-HST 5.15 1.71 0.54 0.46 1.32 1.44 0.03 0.87 0.95 0.64 24.51 37.31 28.60 34.09 0.36 0.42
kld-9 4300 DSQ1-HST – 1.02 0.58 0.62 1.30 1.43 0.16 0.58 0.74 0.92 23.22 32.01 30.81 37.19 0.39 0.44
Dinga step- Mg-1 mg-1 1834–1864 YSQ3-TST 1.51 1.69 0.89 0.50 1.31 1.27 0.26 0.74 0.81 0.37 26.05 30.40 29.06 40.54 0.26 0.15
fault mg-2 1930–1954 YSQ3-TST 1.65 0.85 0.57 0.93 1.33 1.37 0.29 0.63 0.69 0.24 38.20 28.16 26.42 45.43 0.25 0.18
zone mg-3 2152–2188 YSQ2-TST 1.63 0.60 0.50 0.93 1.08 0.99 0.64 0.35 0.47 0.27 42.35 26.52 21.67 51.81 0.17 0.22
mg-4 2326–2356 YSQ1-HST 6.32 0.91 0.52 0.67 1.17 1.09 0.29 0.35 0.43 0.59 52.23 29.42 27.57 43.01 0.29 0.25
mg-5 2602–2632 YSQ1-LST 5.17 0.92 0.17 0.14 1.05 1.04 1.12 1.00 0.92 1.93 36.66 28.76 26.07 45.17 0.33 0.35
mg-6 2784–2818 DSQ2-TST 4.54 0.97 0.20 0.16 1.04 1.06 1.12 0.60 0.68 0.75 31.10 22.08 26.88 51.03 0.25 0.31
mg-7 3070–3088 DSQ1-HST 4.99 0.91 0.51 0.67 1.11 1.10 0.34 0.92 1.09 0.93 33.82 26.54 27.41 46.05 0.31 0.32
mg-8 3232–3250 DSQ1-MFS 5.68 0.89 0.28 0.28 1.08 1.05 0.66 0.63 0.80 1.31 30.79 26.53 27.04 46.43 0.36 0.32
HL-1 hl-1 2074 YSQ3-HST 1.10 2.19 1.29 0.87 1.48 1.58 1.76 1.58 1.16 2.14 8.57 26.46 27.17 46.37 0.37 0.20
hl-2 2442 YSQ2-HST 1.70 0.87 0.92 0.86 1.05 1.01 0.50 0.76 0.69 0.71 20.78 36.18 27.54 36.27 0.43 0.40
Araga OUE-1 oue-1 1972–2004 YSQ3-HST 3.3 0.73 0.79 0.89 1.52 1.88 1.43 1.66 1.18 1.36 29.02 32.90 28.65 38.45 0.33 0.17
graben oue-2 2412–2478 YSQ2-HST 3.81 0.75 0.69 0.82 1.21 1.26 0.56 0.94 1.24 0.44 32.92 35.55 30.83 33.62 0.28 0.25
oue-3 2802–2850 YSQ1-HST 3.48 0.79 0.61 0.68 1.15 1.17 0.43 0.62 0.78 0.65 38.30 38.39 27.38 34.24 0.31 0.25
D-1 D-1 3344–3362 YSQ3-TST – 1.56 0.77 0.81 1.12 1.17 0.16 1.30 1.02 0.55 21.46 26.43 25.05 48.52 0.31 0.41

U- Uranium, average value of sampling interval. Pr- Pristane. Ph- Phytane. CPI- Carbon preference index: {[(nC23 + nC25 + nC27) + (nC25 + nC27 + nC29)]/(nC24 + nC26 + nC28)}/2 (After Marzi et al., 1993). OEP- Odd-to-even predominance:
(nC25 + 6*nC27 + nC29)/(4*nC26 + 4*nC28) (After Marzi et al., 1993). TAR = (nC27 + nC29 + nC31)/(nC15 + nC17 + nC19). Ster.C29 = C29 regular sterane. “–” = no data.
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 495 (2018) 292–308
H. Lai et al.
Fig. 7. Tricyclic terpane distributions (m/z 191 mass fragmentograms) in saturated hydrocarbon fractions of some representative samples from different sequences. Peak assignments:
C19TT = C19 Tricyclic terpane, C24 TeT = C24 Tetracyclic terpane, similarly to other compounds. R, S: the configuration of compounds. Sam.ID = Sample ID. Geographic location of
sampled wells and samples location in the wells were same as description in Fig. 6.
The characteristics of steranes distribution are widely applied to
predict OM source input. For example, the predominance of higher
plant-derived organic matter is also typically indicated by high con-
centrations of C29 relative to C27 and C28 steranes (Huang and
Meinschein, 1979), while prokaryotic organisms-derived organic
matter often exhibits similar concentrations of C27 and C29 steranes and
lower concentrations of C28 steranes (Isaken, 1991). However, a
number of studies have reported that a predominance of C29 steranes
also occurs in algal-dominated organic matter with no higher plant
source input (Gramtham, 1986; Flowler and Douglas, 1987; Volkman,
1988). Most of the analyzed samples from different sequences show a
similar sterane distribution pattern with similar concentrations of C27
and C29 steranes and lower concentrations of C28 steranes (Fig. 9).
These results indicate mixed contributions of planktonic algae, bacteria
and other microorganisms as well as terrigenous plant materials
(Fig. 11).
In addition, previous authors proposed that C19TT and C20TT are
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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 495 (2018) 292–308
more abundant in terrigenous oils, while C23TT is often the dominant
homologues in crude oils from saline lacustrine and marine sources
(Peters and Moldowan, 1993; Tao et al., 2015). Higher terrigenous/
aquatic ratio (TAR) in sediment or rock extracts indicate more terri-
genous input from the surrounding watershed relative to aquatic
sources (Bourbonniere and Meyers, 1996; Meyers, 1997). In our study,
high abundance of C19TT and C20TT in combination with higher TAR
(> 1.3) in the YSQ3 samples suggest higher contributions of terrige-
nous organic matter input (Fig. 12). In contrast, samples from other
sequences may dominated by marine aquatic organisms contributions
(e.g. algae and bacteria) with lower (C19 + C20)TT/C23TT ratio (< 1.1)
and TAR (< 1.3) (Fig. 12).
Based on the OM source indicators discussed above, it is acceptable
that the OM sources input of YSQ3 mudstones characterized by a mixed
contribution of terrigenous OM and aquatic organisms, while mud-
stones from other sequences were dominated by marine aquatic or-
ganisms.
H. Lai et al.
Fig. 8. Triterpane distributions (m/z 191 mass fragmentograms) in saturated hydrocarbon fractions of representative samples from different sequences. Peak assignments: C30H = C30
Hopane, C29 M = C29 Moretane, similarly to other compounds. Ga = Gammacerane, *: 17α-Diahopane. R, S: the configuration of compounds. Geographic location of sampled wells and
samples location in the wells were same as description in Fig. 6.
5.2. Organic matter preservation and palaeodepositional environment
Though the Pr/Ph ratio was influenced by many different geological
factors, it still be considered as an effective indicator of the redox
conditions during the process of sedimentation and diagenesis when
used together with other redox indicators (Volkman and Maxwell,
1986; Didyk et al., 1978). In our study, Pr/nC17 and Ph/nC18 ratios
range between 0.17 and 5.33, and between 0.14 and 2.22, respectively
(Table 2). The cross plot of the Pr/nC17 versus Ph/nC18 ratios suggest
that most of the samples were formed in transitional (mixed marine-
terrestrial) environment. However, a proportion of YSQ3 samples were
sourced from terrigenous organic matter in suboxic to oxic environ-
ments such as peat or a coastal plain depositional environment
(Fig. 13), which agrees to their higher value of C24TeT/C23TT and
higher amount of interbedded sandstone intervals.
A relative high abundance of gammacerane, generally shown as a
high gammacerane index (gammacerane/C30-hopane ratio (Ga/C30H)),
has been used as indicator of a stratified water column and a possible
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marker for photic zone anoxia (ten Haven et al., 1988). In this study,
isorenieratane or related aryl isoprenoids have not been detected in all
the selected samples, which may suggest that there was no photic zone
euxinia (PZE) during deposition. However, most analyzed samples were
characterized by a high gammacerane index ranging from 20% to 53%
and lower Pr/Ph ratio in the range of 0.5–2.0 (Table 2; Fig. 14), in-
dicating a stratified water column and anoxic conditions prevailing at
the time of sediment deposition. In contrast, a fraction of YSQ3 source
rocks exhibit lower Ga/C30H ratios (< 20%) and higher Pr/Ph ratios
(> 2.0) (Table 2; Fig. 14), suggesting suboxic to oxic depositional
conditions without a stratified water column, which is in agreement
with Liu et al. (2015) and Tang et al. (2017) who proposed that mud-
stones from the upper member of Yogou Formation (equivalent to the
HST of YSQ3 in this paper) were deposited in a shallow marine to
terrestrial transition environment with fresh to brackish waters under
suboxic to oxic conditions.
H. Lai et al.
Fig. 9. Sterane distributions (m/z 217 mass fragmentograms) in saturated hydrocarbon fractions of representative samples from different sequences. C27St = Regular C27 Sterane,
C28St = Regular C28 Sterane, C29St = Regular C29 Sterane. Geographic location of sampled wells and samples location in the wells were same as description in Fig. 6.
5.3. Accumulation models of organic matter
Based on the global sea-level changes described in Haq et al. (1987),
the reconstruction of tectonic evolution and palaeogeography of the
WCARS in Genik (1992, 1993) and Guiraud et al. (2005), and the
molecular geochemical data presented in this study, we propose accu-
mulation models of organic matter for the Upper Cretaceous marine
mudstones in the Termit Basin.
5.3.1. Palaeoclimatic and sea-level evolution
Hot-humid climate conditions prevailed in the Niger-Chad region
during the depositional period of the Upper Cretaceous Yogou
Formation, as confirmed by a higher ω(MgO)/ω(CaO) ratios, higher
chemical alteration indices (CIA) and the lower Sr/Cu values of Yogou
mudstones (Tang et al., 2017). Further, the palaeolatitude of the Termit
Basin during the Late Cretaceous is roughly identical to its present-day
geographic location according to the studies of Guiraud et al. (2005).
Therefore, a hot-humid savanna climate may have been predominated
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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 495 (2018) 292–308
during the Late Cretaceous.
Seawater from the Tethys began to invade the Niger-Chad area
during the period of DSQ1, reaching its highest sea level stand and
circulating with Atlantic seawater at the end of DSQ2 (Genik, 1992,
1993; Guiraud et al., 2005). The lithological logging data in this study
indicate that thin sandstones intervals are frequently interbedded with
mudstones in the LST and TST of the DSQ1, e.g. well Kga-1, AbS-1 and
TKN-1D (Fig. 4), while the HST of the DSQ1 and DSQ2 mainly consist of
pure marine mudstones or shales, e.g. well Mg-1, AbS-1 (Fig. 4), which
may suggest that a rapid marine transgression occurred during the early
phase of DSQ1, then reaching its maximum sea level in the period of
DSQ1-HST. Moreover, the YSQ1 sequence exhibits the highest GR value
and pure marine shale in the well correlation profiles (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4),
as well as the highest average Ga/C30H ratio (Table 2), indicating that
the global sea level remained at the highest level during the YSQ1
period. Compared to the YSQ1, the lower uranium content and GR
value, and the increase in sandstone intervals in the YSQ2 reveal a
lower sea level during deposition. Therefore, the YSQ2 period
H. Lai et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 495 (2018) 292–308

Fig. 10. Plot of C29 ββ/(ββ + αα) versus C29 20S/(20S + 20R) showing the thermal Fig. 12. Terrigenous/aquatic ratio (TAR) versus C19-C20 tricyclic terpane to C23 tricyclic
maturation level of samples from different sequences. terpane [(C19 + C20)TT/C23TT] showing contributions of organic matter input of organic
matter. TAR = (nC27 + nC29+ nC31)/(nC15 + nC17 + nC19).

Fig. 13. Phytane to n-C18 alkane (Ph/nC18) versus Pristane to n-C17 alkane (Pr/nC17)
showing depositional conditions and type of organic matter (after Shanmugam, 1985).

Fig. 11. Ternary diagram of regular steranes (C27, C28 and C29) showing the relationship
between sterane compositions and organic matter input (modified after Huang and
Meinschein, 1979).

represents the early phase of marine regression in the Niger-Chad re-

gion. The distinctive progradational parasequence in the HST of YSQ3
and the overlying MSQ1 sandstones indicate a slow marine regression
in the Termit Basin region.
Combined with the results of sequence stratigraphy of the Upper
Cretaceous in the Termit Basin (Fu et al., 2012; Tang et al., 2015; Mao
et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2016) and the sequence analysis we have
presented here, it is acceptable that the Termit Basin area have ex-
perienced a rapid marine transgression in the early phase of DSQ1, then
maintained at a higher sea level until the end of YSQ1. Marine re-
gression began in YSQ2 and lasted until the late phase of MSQ1.

Fig. 14. Pristane to phytane (Pr/Ph) versus gammacerane to C30 hopane (Ga/C30H) ratios
5.3.2. Accumulation models of OM under lower global sea level indicative of depositional conditions of organic matter.
Mudstones in YSQ3 have distinctive geochemical characteristics,
such as lower uranium concentration, higher TOC content
(1.04% < TOC < 8.51%), bimodal distribution patterns of n-alkane,

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Fig. 15. Organic matter accumulation models of the Upper Cretaceous marine mudstones of the Termit Basin in the lower global sea-level stages. Fig. A1 and B1 are the organic matter
accumulation models of YSQ3 and YSQ2 of Upper Cretaceous in the Termit Basin under hot-humid palaeoclimatic conditions, respectively. Fig. A2 and B2 are the patterns of restricted
water exchange with external oceans, respectively. The approximate salinity ranges in this study follow the division scheme of Venice Classification System (1958): freshwater (< 0.5‰),
brackish (oligohaline, 0.5‰–5‰), mesohaline (5‰–18‰), normal salinity (polyhaline to euhaline, 18‰–40‰), hyperhaline (> 40‰). The mean salinity of the present day ocean
worldwide is 34.6‰ (Talley et al., 2011).

wide range of Pr/Ph ratios (0.62 < Pr/Ph < 4.19), higher relative
abundance of C19-C20 TT and lower intensity of gammacerane
(6.34% < Ga/C30H < 38.2%). In contrast, the YSQ2 mudstones ex-
hibit the geochemical characteristics of medium TOC content
(1.06% < TOC < 1.25%), narrow range of Pr/Ph (0.6 < Pr/
Ph < 1.71), higher intensity of gammacerane (20.78% < Ga/
C30H < 46.49%) and predominantly aquatic organisms contributions.
Based on the palaeoenvironmental conditions conveyed by these geo-
chemical properties (Sections 5.1 and 5.2), this study proposed the
accumulation models of OM during the period of YSQ3 and YSQ2
(Fig. 15).
During the period of lower global sea level (80–66 Ma) (Haq et al.,
1987), which approximately equivalent to the period of YSQ2, YSQ3
and MSQ1, Termit Basin was probably deposited in a restricted water
environment, resulting in limited water exchange with the Tethys in the
north and the Atlantic in the south (Fig. 15). During the phase of YSQ3,
the hot-humid climatic conditions (Sections 5.3.1) gave rise to a terri-
genous freshwater influx into the basin, in combination with a pro-
liferation of terrigenous organic matter (TOM) and high nutrient input
from the eastern and western platforms (Fig. 15A1). Therefore, a fresh
to brackish water column with high primary productivity predominated
in the Termit Basin, while a suboxic to anoxic depositional environment
occurring at the bottom of a salinity stratified water column con-
centrated in a small area of the depocenter (Fig. 15A1 and Fig. 15A2).
In contrast, during the period of YSQ2, little or even no terrigenous
freshwater influx and limited seawater inflow from the Tethys and
Atlantic was conducive to the establishment of water column stratifi-
cation (Fig. 15B1 and Fig. 15B2). As a result, a suboxic to anoxic pre-
servation environment for organic matter occurred widely in the Termit
Basin, but primary productivity was mainly attributable to marine or-
ganisms because of the limited fresh to brackish water column and
absence of terrigenous OM or nutrient supply. The argillaceous

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Fig. 16. Organic matter accumulation models of the Upper Cretaceous marine mudstones of Termit Basin in the higher sea-level stages. Fig. A1 and B1 are the organic matter accu-
mulation models of YSQ1 & DSQ2 and DSQ1 of Upper Cretaceous in Termit Basin, respectively. Fig. A2 and B2 are the two patterns of unrestricted seawater circulation with external
palaeoocean, respectively.

limestones in the YSQ2 of well YgN-1 located in the Yogou slope also
indicate that sediments supplied from the western platform was rare or
even absent.
5.3.3. Accumulation models of OM under higher global sea level
Marine mudstones from YSQ1, DSQ2 and DSQ1 exhibit similar
geochemical characteristics such as higher uranium concentration,
lower TOC content (0.43% < TOC < 1.74%), unimodal distribution
patterns of n-alkane, narrow range of Pr/Ph (0.66 < Pr/Ph < 1.7),
higher intensity of gammacerane (24.51% < Ga/C30H < 52.23%)
and lower ratio of (C19 + C20)TT/C23TT (ranging from 0.27 to 1.0) and
TAR (< 1.3). However, the sea-level evolution (Section 5.3.1) and the
approximate coverage area of seawater in the western African (Guiraud
et al., 2005) indicate that the palaeoenvironmental conditions of DSQ1
were different from YSQ1 and DSQ2 sequence.
Higher global sea level (94–80 Ma) was prevailing during the period
of YSQ1 and DSQ2, e.g. the highest global Cretaceous sea level at 91 Ma
(Haq et al., 1987), resulting in the entire basin submerged under the
deepest seawater (Guiraud et al., 2005). Warmer surface seawater from
the Atlantic in the South and the lower part colder seawater from the
Tethys in the North unrestrictedly exchanged under these conditions
(Fig. 16A2). Water column stratification governed by salinity or tem-
perature readily occurred in the Niger-Chad area with the existence of a
large scale rift basin (Fig. 16A1). However, there was less TOM and a

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reduced nutrient supply in the Termit Basin area because of the great
distance to the coastline or other potential provenance, which can be
estimated by the relative depth of covering water. Therefore, the or-
ganic matter sources of YSQ1 and DSQ2 marine mudstones were mainly
from in situ marine organisms (Fig. 16A1).
The DSQ1 sequence was deposited under the background of a rapid
global sea-level rise during the period of 99–94 Ma (Haq et al., 1987)
(Section 5.3.1). Seawater invaded into Termit Basin only from the Te-
thys in the early phase of DSQ1 (~98 Ma) (Guiraud et al., 2005)
(Fig. 16B2). This pattern of seawater circulation readily lead to larger
scale of seawater circulation zone than YSQ1 and DSQ2 because of the
lower sea level and the absent seawater circulation from Atlantic
(Fig. 16B2). As a result, a suboxic to anoxic environment in the bottom
of the stratified water column could still have developed in the main
depression of Termit Basin during the TST and HST of DSQ1
(Fig. 16B1). Besides, the OM source of DSQ1 marine mudstones was
dominated by situ marine organisms, with less TOM contributions
(Fig. 16B1).
6. Conclusions
A detailed geochemical investigation of potential Upper Cretaceous
source rocks in the Termit Basin was carried out to reconstruct the
palaeoenvironmental conditions of organic matter accumulation within
a sequence stratigraphic framework. Based on the results, we have
reached the following conclusions:
(1) The geological or environmental controlling factors for the accu-
mulation of Upper Cretaceous marine organic matter in the Termit
Basin include the following six aspects: 1) relative global sea-level
fluctuations, 2) the pattern of seawater circulation, 3) the scale of
water-column stratification, 4) the contribution of terrigenous or-
ganic matter input invoked by fresh water influx, 5) the hot-humid
palaeoclimatic conditions, 6) the inherited rift palaeotopography.
(2) Global sea-level changes during the Late Cretaceous are the factors
controlling the depth and coverage area of seawater in the Termit
Basin region, as well as the pattern of seawater circulation between
Termit Basin and the external palaeoocean. Meanwhile, they are
also the critical factors controlling the sources, depositional and
preservation conditions for organic matter.
(3) The occurrence of organic-rich marine source rocks (YSQ3-HST) in
Termit Basin is closely related to high terrigenous organic matter
input. Sufficient freshwater influx provide a number of necessary
nutrients substance for the booming of lower aquatic organisms, in
combination with abundant terrigenous organic matters. Whereas
mudstones from the sequences with few or no freshwater influx (i.e.
YSQ2, YSQ1, DSQ2 and DSQ1) were regarded as fair to good source
rocks with relative lower TOC, S1 + S2 and HI. Nutrient-barren
water environment invoked by relatively restricted water column or
insufficient nutrient supply by great distance seawater circulation
lead to the relatively low but steady primary productivities.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China [Grant No. 41272158] and the Foundation of the State Key
Laboratory of Petroleum Resources and Prospecting, China University
of Petroleum, Beijing [PRP/indep-03-1615]. The authors are grateful
for the assistance of Shengbao Shi and Lei Zhu for the geochemical
analyses of all selected samples. We would like to thank the Research
Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, PetroChina for
providing samples and data, and for permission to publish this work.
We are so thankful for the assistance of Dr. Sebastian Näher for im-
provement the quality of English as well as the constructive comments
and suggestions. In addition, we appreciate the valuable comments and
suggestions from Dr. Thomas J. Algeo, Dr. Thierry Corrège, editors and
307
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 495 (2018) 292–308
anonymous reviewers.
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