Teaching and Teacher Education 66 (2017) 137e146

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Teaching and Teacher Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate

Pre-service English teachers' attitudes towards English as a lingua

franca
Jean E. Curran*, Chiou-lan Chern
Department of English, National Taiwan Normal University, 162 Hoping East Road, Section 1, Taipei 106, Taiwan

h i g h l i g h t s

Students in EFL settings need enhanced language skills to function in today's world.

Pre-service English teachers in Taiwan surveyed about English as a lingua franca.

Educational background a factor in how pre-service teachers view the role of English.

Teacher training programs in EFL settings should address English as a lingua franca.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study investigated the attitudes pre-service English teachersdEnglish majors, students minoring in
Received 9 October 2016 English, graduate students, and internsdhave towards English as a lingua franca. Results showed dif-
Accepted 14 April 2017 ferences concerning the native speaker of English as a role model and the importance of exposure to a
Available online 3 May 2017
variety of Englishes. Interns and English majors expressed higher expectations for attaining native-like
proficiency; English minors showed less reliance on a native-speaker model. To help future educators
Keywords:
develop greater awareness of the role of English in today's world, teacher preparation programs in
English as a lingua franca
settings where English is a foreign language should reflect a global Englishes perspective.
Teacher training
Pre-service teachers' beliefs and attitudes
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In an English as a foreign language environment (EFL), profi-
ciency in English can be the key to better opportunities in both
educational and employment settings. In the past, students in many
EFL countries in Asia began their study of English in the first year of
junior high school and took English as a subject for a total of six
years. The incorporation of English into the primary school cur-
riculum in the past decade means that younger students today
receive even more exposure to English education as they progress
through their schooling.
While many Asian countries place great importance on English
education and English language skills in general, it is unclear if the
present educational system is preparing students for how English is
being used in the 21st century (Graddol, 1997, 2006). Students and
employees are likely to find themselves in situations where they
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: curran.jean@gmail.com (J.E. Curran), clchern@ntnu.edu.tw
(C.-l. Chern).
need to work with individuals from different linguistic and cultural
backgrounds, and they will often use English as a lingua franca to
take part in these interactions. As students' and employees' re-
quirements for language use evolve, it is thus necessary to reassess
whether English language programs are preparing students for the
range of communication needed in an increasingly globalized
world.
Although students in Taiwan now have at least ten years of
English education in schooldfour in primary school and three each
in junior high and senior highdmost of the instruction in English
classrooms focuses on preparing students to take exams. Conse-
quently, the emphasis is often on vocabulary, grammar knowledge,
and answering reading comprehension questions. Despite the fact
that students may be exposed to English through online sources or
travel experiences, and university students may be using English
textbooks in their courses, little emphasis is placed on teaching
students how to use English other than to secure better educational
opportunities.
Recently, in an effort to promote the use of English in class-
rooms, the Ministry of Education in Taiwan (MOE) has encouraged
English teachers at primary and secondary schools to use English at

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.04.007
0742-051X/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
138 J.E. Curran, C.-l. Chern / Teaching and Teacher Education 66 (2017) 137e146
least 70% of the time in class. In 2016, the MOE specifically stated
that one of its key goals was to enhance students' language skills
and their international outlook, thereby increasing young people's
global mobility (Ministry of Education, 2016). Thus, similar to other
countries worldwide, Taiwanese English teachers must face the fact
that the needs of their students are changing. It is therefore
important to explore whether teachers and teacher trainers are
aware of these changes and if they are taking steps to prepare their
students to use English for communication and not solely to pass
exams.
The purpose of the present study was to learn more about the
attitudes pre-service English teachers have towards English as a
lingua franca (ELF). Because the group of participants was
comprised of four different typesdEnglish majors, students
minoring in English, graduate students, and internsdthis study
presented an opportunity to assess whether any differences in
perceptions about English as a lingua franca were based on
participant background. This study sought to answer the following
research questions:
(1) What are the perceptions of different groups of pre-service
English teachers regarding principles associated with En-
glish as a lingua franca?
(2) Does academic background or current stage in the teacher
training program affect participants' perceptions towards
concepts associated with English as a lingua franca?
2. Literature review
The need for a language of communication, a lingua franca, for
people who do not share the same linguistic background, has
existed for thousands of years (Haberland, 2011). However, it is only
more recently that English has played a role as a lingua franca.
English began its spread around the globe as settlers left Britain for
colonies in the Americas in the 17th century, and by the 19th
century, Great Britain had established colonies around the world
(Graddol, 1997). This period of colonization has resulted in a diverse
group of individuals who speak English today. One of the earliest
classification systems developed to describe the range of English
speakers, and one that is often used in English language teaching, is
comprised of three categoriesdEnglish as a native language (ENL),
English as a second language (ESL), and English as a foreign lan-
guage (EFL) (Kirkpatrick, 2007). In an ENL setting, English is the
mother tongue of most individuals who live there. ESL settings are
usually former colonies of either the U.K. or the U.S., and English is
often an official language. In countries classified as EFL, English is
more often a subject studied at school. However, the language is
rarely used in daily life. This ENL/ESL/EFL model makes the
assumption that there is one variety of English spoken in ENL set-
tings. It also assumes that there is a “standard” form of English that
those in ESL and EFL contexts should strive to imitate.
Kachru (1985) offered an alternative to the previous classifica-
tion system and introduced the concept of three concentric cir-
clesdthe inner circle, the outer circle, and the expanding circledto
describe how English is used by individuals of different linguistic
and cultural backgrounds. The inner circle is used to represent
places where English is the primary language of most of the in-
dividuals who live there and includes countries such as Australia,
Canada, New Zealand, the U.K. and the U.S. The outer circle refers to
places where English has also spread as a result of colonization, but
in these cases, English is used by individuals who are bilingual or
multilingual. In outer circle contexts, such as India, Nigeria, and
Singapore, English is often designated an official language and is
used for particular purposes such as in government offices or in the
educational system. It is also in the outer circle that much of the
research in World Englishes has taken place (Jenkins, 2006). The
remaining circle, or the expanding circle, refers to settings where
English is a foreign language, and includes countries such as Japan,
Korea, and Taiwan. While the citizens of expanding circle countries
do not have a connection to English as either a mother tongue or via
colonization, English is viewed as important because it allows for
international communication in either speaking or writing
(Breiteneder, 2009; Quirk, 1985; Seidlhofer, 2004).
The appeal of Kachru's model is that it is a more accurate rep-
resentation of the state of English in the world today (Kachru,
1990). The model recognizes there are many varieties of English,
and one variety is not favored over another (Kirkpatrick, 2007).
Moreover, this model accounts for the cultural diversity that has
accompanied greater linguistic diversity (Kachru, 1990). As Kachru
(1996) has noted in response to a question about why the term
World Englishes was used, “the term stresses the WE-ness among
the users of English, as opposed to us vs. them (native and non-
native)” (p. 135). Kachru's model also better reflects the range of
individuals who use English. It is currently thought that those
residing in the expanding circle make up the world's largest
number of English speakers (Jenkins, 2006). In 2003, Crystal esti-
mated that there were 320e380 million speakers of English in the
inner circle, 300 to 500 million in the outer circle, and 500 million
to one billion speakers in the expanding circle. Reasons for the
increasing number of English speakers, especially in the expanding
circle, has to do with population growth and the fact that English is
the language of science, technology, politics, the media, education,
and international travel (Crystal, 2003). It is these users of English
who reside in the expanding circle, where English is a foreign
language, that are making a profound impact on how English is
evolving today (Seidlhofer, 2005).
The concept of English as a lingua franca wasn't discussed in the
literature until the 1980s. It was the seminal publications by Jenkins
(2000) and Seidlhofer (2001) in the early part of this century that
served as the stimulus for research in this area (Jenkins, Cogo, &
Dewey, 2011). As the English used by non-native speakers was
recognized as worthy of study, there was interest amongst lan-
guage researchers in describing the features of these interactions
and the strategies non-native speakers employ when using English
to communicate (Graddol, 1997). The goal of these studies has been
to inform teachers and students of how communication using En-
glish as a lingua franca might be different from the way English is
taught as a foreign language. Researchers have examined
phonology, lexis, grammar, pragmatics, and spoken academic ELF
(Jenkins, 2011; Jenkins et al., 2011; Mauranen, 2012; Seidlhofer,
2004) and thus a number of principles characteristic of an ELF
perspective towards English teaching and learning have been
identified. In an ELF framework, the native speaker is no longer held
up as the standard for students to emulate and be measured
against, and all varieties of English are considered to have equal
value (Jenkins, 2006; Jenkins et al., 2011; Mauranen, 2012). While
the traditional model of English as a foreign language views learner
language that differs from the native-speaker norm as an error, an
ELF orientation sees this as part of the natural process of language
learning, and learners are not made to feel that the local variety of
English should be avoided (Jenkins, 2006; Jenkins et al., 2011). In
addition, code-switching is perceived as a useful technique for the
language learner as a way to compensate for new language that is
still in the process of being learned (Jenkins et al., 2011). Re-
searchers have also sought to identify which lexical and gram-
matical features of ELF communication may not be native-like, but
do not present difficulties for interlocutors (Seidlhofer, 2004).
Repetition, paraphrasing, and an avoidance of idiomatic language
have been identified as useful strategies for users of ELF to make
 J.E. Curran, C.-l. Chern / Teaching and Teacher Education 66 (2017) 137e146
their language more comprehensible (Jenkins, 2009). The overall
goal of an ELF orientation is to encourage and enable learners in
multilingual settings to use the language for effective communi-
cation (Kirkpatrick, 2012a, 2012b).
Since ELF research has gained credibility as an area of inquiry,
many questions have been raised about how the findings from ELF
research will impact English language education in expanding cir-
cle contexts where English is taught as a foreign language. Re-
searchers advocating an ELF approach often note that the greatest
challenges in adopting an ELF perspective in expanding circle set-
tings will lie in pedagogy and testing (Matsuda & Friedrich, 2011;
Seidlhofer, 2004; Tomlinson, 2006). Some of this difficulty is due
to the historical connection to an American or British model of
English learning and teaching. Publishers of English-teaching ma-
terials tend to prefer either American or British English as the
standard because it allows them to produce materials that can be
used in markets all around the globe. Due to the fact that a native
speaker is often the role model in these materials, there is a
resulting tendency to promote the native speaker as the standard
for all teachers and students to follow (Kirkpatrick, 2006). There are
also some researchers who believe that a student is better served
by learning a “standard form” of English so that he/she will be
understood in any part of the world where English is used (Quirk,
1985). Thus, when forced to make a choice about the direction of
an English curriculum or choose materials, educational authorities
often fall back on the traditional native-speaker of English as the
role model citing the fact that it is well-established and systematic
(Kirkpatrick, 2006; Tomlinson, 2006).
Despite the many challenges that exist in introducing teachers
to ELF principles or adopting an ELF approach in the classroom,
some researchers have begun to explore prospective teachers'
concepts of ELF (Dewey, 2012; Jenkins, 2007; Suzuki, 2011). In 2007,
Jenkins published two studies: One examined the attitudes of
teachers in expanding circle countries towards a variety of English
accents, and the other involved in-depth interviews with teachers
from expanding circle countries to assess the relationship between
language and identity. Both studies found an overwhelming pref-
erence for American English and British English. Some teachers
reported that their levels of competence and confidence as English
teachers were tied to how closely they could approximate a native-
speaker accent. The interviewees also expressed that while they
supported adopting an ELF perspective in the future, it wouldn't be
possible until a variety of Englishes was included in English text-
books and other teaching materials (Jenkins, 2007).
Besides exploring teachers' perceptions, some studies have
explored pre-service English teachers’ attitudes towards ELF. For
example, Dewey (2012) and Suzuki (2011) investigated how in-
dividuals training to become English teachers view ELF concepts
and the potential impact these concepts have on their teaching
practice. While the participants in Dewey's studydMA TESOL/
Applied Linguistics students in the UKdwere knowledgeable about
ELF theories and supported the idea that all varieties of English
should be recognized and respected, applying ELF principles to
their teaching practice was perceived to be more challenging. Re-
spondents noted that in most settings, teachers were expected to
adopt and teach a standard form of English, and that an ELF con-
sciousness had not been advocated. In Suzuki's (2011) study, three
third-year Japanese undergraduates training to be English teachers
were interviewed about their perceptions of English for interna-
tional communication. The participants agreed that Japanese stu-
dents need to be exposed to the idea that English is not owned by
one country or culture. However, similar to Dewey's participants,
when asked how to incorporate different varieties of English into
their English classrooms in the future, these three pre-service
teachers were more reserved. They expressed that while other
139
varieties of English could be mentioned in class, most Japanese
would still prefer British or American English as the standard
teaching model.
Some researchers in Taiwan are also beginning to explore the
topic of English as a lingua franca and how it affects both educators
and students (Chao, 2015, 2016; Chiang, 2014; Chien, 2014; Ke,
2012; Ke & Cahyani, 2014; Kuo, 2006; Lau & Lin, 2014; Lei, 2015;
Liou, 2010; Luo, 2017; Tsou & Chen, 2014; Wang & Ho, 2013;
Wang, 2012). These studies have primarily examined practicing
teachers' and students' attitudes towards English as a lingua franca
and different varieties of English (Chien, 2014; Kuo, 2006; Lei, 2015;
Liou, 2010; Wang & Ho, 2013; Wang, 2012). Some studies have
investigated other areas including how Taiwanese students
responded to participating in online tasks with students from other
countries who were also non-native speakers of English (Ke, 2012;
Ke & Cahyani, 2014), students' responses to the internationalization
of education in Taiwan (Lau & Lin, 2014; Tsou & Chen, 2014), native
English-speaking teachers in Taiwanese schools (Chiang, 2014), and
teachers' assessment of their own intercultural competence (Chao,
2015, 2016).
However, only a small number of studies in Taiwan have
investigated teachers' reactions to their experiences of introducing
ideas about ELF to their students or specifically explored ELF and
teacher training. Luo (2017) conducted a study on the challenges
faced by university teachers of general English classes as they tried
to introduce their students to some of the concepts associated with
ELF. The reactions of these English teachers were mixed. They
recognized the importance of introducing English as a lingua franca
to their students, but they questioned if this was what students
indeed wanted. The instructors also struggled with how to actually
teach their students about ELF as they felt there was a lack of
teaching materials on the topic, and their teaching was typically
based on native-speaker norms. Wang (2012), in a study of English
teachers in Taiwan and their reactions to varieties of English and
the global spread of English, examined the curriculum of two
teacher training programs for secondary school English teachers.
He found that the students in these teacher training programs
received a strong grounding in English skills and took introductory
courses in linguistics and literature as well as methodology and
teaching practice. However, Wang's study indicated that neither
teacher training program included a course that focused on English
as a lingua franca, English as an international language, or World
Englishes.
While studies exploring various aspects of ELF are becoming
more common in Taiwan, research devoted to teacher training is
limited, a situation similar to other settings internationally. It is not
clear if pre-service English teachers are aware of the principles
associated with ELF, and if teacher trainers are drawing upon ELF
research when they instruct their students. Therefore, there is a
need to explore the issue of teacher training in greater depth.
3. Methodology
3.1. Participants
Four groups of participants planning to become secondary
school English teachers took part in this survey study. Groups 1 and
2 were composed of third-year university students, with 36 English
majors in Group 1 and 8 English minors in Group 2. The English
minors were majoring in another subject but had taken a qualifying
exam that allowed them to take the required courses in the
Department of English. Group 3 was comprised of 11 graduate
students who were majoring in English. To become qualified sec-
ondary school English teachers, these three groups of students
were required to take the same teacher training courses. The final
140 J.E. Curran, C.-l. Chern / Teaching and Teacher Education 66 (2017) 137e146
group, Group 4, was comprised of 16 students who had completed
their university coursework and were working as intern English
teachers in secondary schools to complete their teacher training
requirements.
To be qualified to teach English at a secondary school in Taiwan,
students must first apply to the teacher training program at their
university. For many programs, students need to have good aca-
demic standing and be able to document that they have achieved at
least a B2 level of English language proficiency (Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages, 2003). After admission,
students must complete 26 credits of general education courses,
including subjects such as educational psychology, educational
sociology, TEFL methodology (teaching English as a foreign lan-
guage), and a teaching practicum. The pre-service teachers must
also complete 32 (for junior high school) to 40 (for senior high
school) credits in their major subject area, English. The curriculum
for pre-service English teachers typically includes courses in lan-
guage skills, linguistics, and literature. The teacher training pro-
gram at the institution where the study took place has no specific
courses focused on English as an international language, English as
a lingua franca, or World Englishes. Upon completion of their aca-
demic coursework, the pre-service teachers are assumed to have
acquired sufficient language skills and professional training to
begin teaching English in a secondary school. The pre-service
teachers then take part in a six-month teaching practicum in a
secondary school. After finishing the formal training program, the
pre-service teachers sit for a teacher qualification examination
administered by the Ministry of Education. Candidates that pass
this exam then receive a teaching license. The four groups of par-
ticipantsdEnglish majors, English minors, graduate students, and
internsdin this study were at different stages in the teacher
training program at the time the study was conducted. Three of the
groups, the English majors, English minors, and the graduate stu-
dents, were in the process of completing the necessary English or
education courses, and the interns were in the midst of their
teaching practicums.
3.2. Research tool
The tool adopted to collect data was a five-point Likert scale
questionnaire. Participants were asked to rank 20 statements
related to English as a lingua franca, from 1 to 5, with 1 repre-
senting strongly disagree and 5 strongly agree. The items on the
questionnaire were divided into four categories. The first category
consisted of ten statements (Statements 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 18, and
19) that were related to concepts associated with different models
of English. The purpose of these items was to tap the participants'
perceptions on issues such as exposing students to teaching ma-
terials that incorporated a variety of English accents, and whether
native speakers of English should be the role models for students
and teachers in secondary school English classrooms in Taiwan.
The second category included two statements (Statements 14
and 15) on the use of English for communication. These statements
asked participants if important instructional goals of an English
language class should be learning to use the language for real-life
communication and learning how to communicate with other
non-native speakers of English.
The third category was comprised of four statements (State-
ments 7, 8, 9, and 20) that focused on the role of language and
culture in the English classroom. Participants were asked whether
it was important for students to learn the culture of native speakers
of English, and if they felt English should be used to share their own
cultural traditions and practices with others. The participants were
also asked if teachers should make their students aware of differ-
ences that exist between people from diverse cultural backgrounds
and if students should be encouraged to discuss those differences.
Finally, the fourth category consisted of four statements
(Statements 12, 13, 16, and 17) related to language use in the
classroom. Participants were asked for their perceptions on
whether an English-only classroom should be encouraged, if and
when it was appropriate to use students' L1, Mandarin, and the
importance of teaching effective code-switching strategies.
Following the Likert survey, the participants were asked some
additional questions about teaching English in secondary schools.
These questions focused on participants' opinions on the appro-
priate amounts of English and Chinese that should be used in the
classroom, the models of English that should be included in class-
room materials, and which English language skills should be
stressed.
Participants in Groups 1, 2, and 3 completed the survey during
their regularly scheduled class time for their TEFL Methodology
course. Participants in Group 4, the intern teachers, completed the
survey on one of their monthly return visits to the university.
3.3. Data analysis
In total, 71 questionnaires were received, including 44 from the
undergraduates (36 English majors and 8 English minors), 11 from
the graduate students, and 16 from the intern teachers. Each
statement on the five-point Likert scale questionnaire was scored
according to the ranking it received, i.e., from 1 to 5 points, to
generate a mean score before further statistical analysis was per-
formed. For the additional questions, participants were allowed to
check multiple categories. Frequencies were tabulated and per-
centages calculated.
4. Results
Descriptive statistics presented below reveal the participants'
perspectives on the four categories of ELF-related principles, i.e.,
concepts associated with different models of English; the role of
English in communication; language and culture; and language
used in class.
The survey results of the ten statements associated with
different models of English are summarized in Table 1. Three of the
four groupsdEnglish minors, graduate students, and inter-
nsdranked Statement 4 highest: I think it is important that students
be exposed to English spoken by a range of native speakers. The
remaining group, the English majors, ranked this statement second
highest. Statement 11, concerning the importance of classroom
materials that include a range of English used by L1 and L2
speakers, was ranked highest by the English majors. The other
groups also viewed Statement 11 favorably, ranking it as one of the
top three. Statement 6, which stated that students should be
exposed to English that was spoken by proficient second language
speakers, was rated by all four groups as one of their top four
rankings. In other words, when considering all groups, Statements
4, 6, and 11 received high rankings for this category. These state-
ments represented a positive view towards principles associated
with an ELF perspective.
Regarding statements in this category that received a low
ranking by the participants, Statement 19, on whether being pro-
ficient in English means being able to behave like a native speaker
of English, received the lowest score from both English majors and
English minors. For the graduate student group, the lowest-ranking
statement concerned whether English teaching materials should
only use native-speaker models (Statement 1). For the intern
teachers, the item that received the lowest ranking was Statement
5, which related to whether or not it was confusing to introduce
students to many different English accents in class. These three
 J.E. Curran, C.-l. Chern / Teaching and Teacher Education 66 (2017) 137e146 141

Table 1
Perceptions towards models of English.

Statement Majors Minors Graduate Interns

(N ¼ 36) (N ¼ 8) Ss (N ¼ 16)
(N ¼ 11)

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

1 I think that English teaching materials should only use native-speaker models. 2.63 1.14 2.50 1.07 2.09 0.70 2.69 0.95
2 I think it is important that students try to sound like native speakers of English. 3.75 0.91 2.75 0.89 3.00 0.89 3.44 0.73
3 I don't think it is necessary for my students to sound like native speakers to be proficient speakers of English. 2.81 1.14 3.88 0.64 3.45 1.29 3.38 1.15
4 I think it is important that students be exposed to English spoken by a range of native speakers (e.g., Australians, 3.75 0.94 4.50 0.54 3.91 0.83 4.56 0.81
Indians, Africans, etc.).
5 I think it is confusing to introduce students to many different English accents in class. 2.78 1.12 2.38 1.51 2.55 1.29 2.56 1.15
6 I think it is important that students be exposed to English used by proficient second language speakers. 3.64 0.83 4.00 0.76 3.27 0.91 3.94 0.85
10 I think it is important that classroom materials provide a single model of English, either American or British. 3.17 1.13 2.88 0.99 2.73 0.91 2.88 1.20
11 I think it is important that classroom materials provide a range of models of English used by L1 and L2 speakers. 3.78 0.93 4.00 0.76 3.82 0.87 3.88 0.81
18 I think native speakers of English should be the role model for Taiwanese students. 3.44 0.97 2.63 1.06 3.09 0.70 3.88 0.72
19 Being proficient in English means being able to behave like a native speaker of English. 2.42 1.05 1.75 1.04 2.36 1.12 2.88 0.96

statements that were ranked very low by all four groups of par-
ticipants (Statements 1, 5, and 19) are counter to current ELF
concepts.
The minors, overall, held stronger opinions towards particular
statements. For seven of the statements in this category, the minors
were more likely to express stronger opinions, with the mean of
three statements (Statements 4, 6, and 11) ranked at 4.00 or above,
and one, Statement 19, less than 2.00.
Table 2 presents participants' perceptions towards using English
for communication. Statement 14, on using language in real-life
communication, received a very high ranking by all four groups,
with means over 4.0. The means for Statement 15dwhether the
focus of an English-learning program should be to prepare students
to communicate with non-native speakers of Englishdwere rated
3.5 or above, also a fairly high ranking, by all four groups. For this
second category, amongst the four groups, the English minors
showed the highest means for the two statements. Statement 14,
which focused on using English for real communication, received
the highest ranking of all statements on the survey (M ¼ 4.88,
SD ¼ 0.35) from the English minors.
This idea of using English for communication, be it with native
or non-native speakers of English, is often cited in the literature as
one of the key components of an ELF framework to English lan-
guage teaching. This result indicates that the participants in this
study, despite not having any previous exposure to a course dedi-
cated to ELF or World Englishes, recognized developing commu-
nication skills as an important component of an English-learning
curriculum. This finding also shows support for MOE objectives that
call for English to be used more often in class and for students to
develop a global outlook.
The results of the four statements that tapped students' per-
ceptions towards language and culture are summarized in Table 3.
All four statements in this third category were ranked over 4.0, a
high level of agreement, by the four groups of participants. In
addition, Statement 7, using English to share information about
speakers' own culture, received the highest means overall on the
survey for the English majors, graduate students, and interns. It is
obvious that all four groups of participants considered culture
sharing and understanding to be very important in English
communication.
For the fourth category, regarding the four statements on the
medium of instruction in English classes (see Table 4), the partici-
pants agreed with the ideas that a bilingual approach (Statement
13) and effective strategies of code-switching (Statement 17) are
important. However, they showed less agreement with the other
two statements, using only English (Statement 12) and the negative
impact of using Chinese (Statement 16). This result showed that all
four groups acknowledged the importance of capitalizing on stu-
dents' L1 while teaching them an L2, in this case English.
As one of the purposes of this study is to explore differences in
perceptions among the four groups of participants, ANOVA was
used to analyze the data, and significant differences were found
between groups for Statements 2, 4, and 18. A post-hoc multiple
comparison showed a significant difference between English ma-
jors and English minors for Statement 2 on the importance of
sounding like a native speaker of English, with English majors
expressing more agreement with this statement (p ¼ 0.041).
Regarding the statement on the importance of being exposed to
English spoken by a range of native speakers (Statement 4), intern
teachers ranked it significantly higher than English majors
(p ¼ 0.026). For the statement on having native speakers as a role
model for Taiwanese students (Statement 18), interns ranked it
significantly higher than English minors (p ¼ 0.021). It appears that
English minors placed less importance on sounding like native
speakers of English and having native speakers as role models.
The English minors and the interns also expressed slightly
different viewpoints towards Statement 15 concerning whether an
English program should prepare students for communication with
people who are not native speakers of English. Though the differ-
ence between the two groups (English minors, M ¼ 4.13, SD ¼ 1.13;

Table 2
Perceptions towards using English for communication.

Statement Majors Minors Graduate Interns

(N ¼ 36) (N ¼ 8) Ss (N ¼ 16)
(N ¼ 11)

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

14 I think the major focus of an English program should be teaching students to use the language in real-life 4.56 0.56 4.88 0.35 4.09 0.83 4.56 0.81
communication.
15 I think an important focus of an English program should be to prepare students for communication with people who are 3.56 0.84 4.13 1.13 3.64 0.67 3.69 0.87
not English native speakers.
142 J.E. Curran, C.-l. Chern / Teaching and Teacher Education 66 (2017) 137e146

Table 3
The role of language and culture.

Statement Majors Minors Graduate Interns

(N ¼ 36) (N ¼ 8) Ss (N ¼ 16)
(N ¼ 11)

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

7 I think it is important that students can use English to share information about their own culture and traditions. 4.67 0.59 4.75 0.46 4.45 0.69 4.75 0.58
8 I think it is important that English teachers help students to better understand exchange students or people from other 4.31 0.71 4.75 0.46 4.36 0.67 4.44 0.63
countries with whom they are likely to use English.
9 I think it is important that students become familiar with the culture and traditions of native speakers of English. 4.31 0.71 4.25 0.46 4.27 0.47 4.38 0.72
20 I think it is important to teach students to be aware of intercultural differences and encourage them to talk about such 4.36 0.80 4.38 1.06 4.36 0.67 4.63 0.50
differences.

Table 4
Language used in class.

Statement Majors Minors Graduate Interns

(N ¼ 36) (N ¼ 8) Ss (N ¼ 16)
(N ¼ 11)

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

12 I think English should be used as the only medium of instruction in English language classes. 2.44 0.81 2.75 0.46 2.36 1.21 2.38 1.09
13 I think a bilingual approach where Chinese is used as a support in English language classes is more effective for 3.97 0.85 3.88 0.64 4.27 0.79 4.38 0.89
Taiwanese students.
16 Using Chinese in class makes it more difficult for students to develop effective meaning negotiation strategies. 2.61 0.93 3.13 0.64 2.45 1.04 2.81 0.98
17 I think it is important to teach students strategies of effective code-switching between English and Chinese. 3.92 0.77 3.63 1.19 3.73 1.19 3.88 0.96

interns, M ¼ 3.69, SD ¼ 0.87) did not reach statistical significance
(p ¼ 0.51), this result provides another example of support for the
idea that the minors were more likely to see a broader role for
English learning.
The next part of the survey asked the participants what they
considered as an ideal proportion of Chinese and English for
classroom language use and which models of English should be
included in classroom materials. The ideal proportion of L1 and L2
ranged from 20% English to 100% in 10-percentage point in-
crements. With the exception of the interns, the most popular
choice for the proportion of Chinese and English was 50% Chinese
and 50% English. Intern teachers, however, considered that English
should be the dominant language used in class and should be used
80% of the time. This perception is in line with the amount of En-
glish that the Ministry of Education in Taiwan has stipulated for
classroom use, 70%.
The participants were also asked to consider which English skill
areas should receive focus in the classroom, with participants
allowed to choose as many components as they considered
important. The results show that they didn't prefer one particular
language component or skill over others (see Table 5). All four
groups, over 75% of the respondents, indicated that grammar,
listening, reading, speaking, and vocabulary were very important
Table 5
Participants' perceptions towards instructional focus.
Majors Minors Graduate
(N ¼ 36) (N ¼ 8) Ss
(N ¼ 11)
N % N % N %
instructional focuses. Pronunciation was chosen by over 80% of the
intern teachers as an important instructional focus, but it was not
considered as important by many participants in the other three
groups. Similarly, writing was considered highly important by over
80% of intern teachers, 60% of English majors, and slightly over 50%
by the other two groups. Given the great emphasis on preparing for
high-stakes exams to enter senior high school or university, it is
noteworthy that, in general, the participants favored incorporating
all the language skills into class instruction, though of different
percentages. This is especially true for the intern teachers, who had
been immersed in classroom contexts for the previous few months.
5. Discussion
The purpose of the present study was to investigate the per-
ceptions of pre-service English teachers, including interns, in a
setting where English is a foreign language, towards the concepts
associated with English as a lingua franca. In addition to investi-
gating the participants' perceptions towards the ELF concepts, the
researchers also sought to explore differences among the four
groups of pre-service English teachersdundergraduate majors,
undergraduate minors, graduate students, and interns. The study
found that the participants expressed a positive viewpoint toward
many of the principles associated with an English as a lingua franca
orientation. There were, however, some differences among the four
groups of participants with the English minors expressing stronger
opinions. These results have important implications for teaching
Interns and learning English in expanding circle settings.
(N ¼ 16)
5.1. Support for ELF concepts
N %

Instructional focus (Multi) In response to the first research question concerning the per-
Grammar 32 89% 6 75% 8 73% 13 81%
ceptions of different groups of pre-service English teachers
Listening 32 89% 6 75% 9 82% 15 94%
Pronunciation 18 50% 3 38% 6 55% 13 81% regarding English as a lingua franca, the study found that despite
Reading 32 89% 6 75% 8 73% 16 100% the fact that the participants had never taken a formal course in
Speaking 29 81% 6 75% 9 82% 13 81% English as an international language, English as a lingua franca, or
Vocabulary 30 83% 6 75% 10 91% 14 88% World Englishes as part of their teacher training program, they
Writing 22 61% 4 50% 6 55% 12 75%
were supportive of many of the principles associated with ELF
 J.E. Curran, C.-l. Chern / Teaching and Teacher Education 66 (2017) 137e146
perspectives. In general, the participants agreed that the focus of
English teaching and learning should be on using English for real-
life communication, and to provide opportunities for students to
share ideas relating to their own culture and learn more about
other cultures. There was also support for the ideas that different
varieties of English should be respected and introduced to students,
and that in the classroom, all four language skills should be
emphasized and students' L1, Mandarin Chinese, could be
employed to assist them in learning a foreign language. These re-
sults are similar to observations made in previous studies con-
ducted in Taiwan and other settings (Chien, 2014; Dewey, 2012;
Jenkins, 2007; Ke & Cahyani, 2014; Liou, 2010; Luo, 2017; Wang &
Ho, 2013). Although the participants in the present study have
been educated based on a model where English is a foreign lan-
guage, and where standardized testing plays a large role in stu-
dents' academic advancement, they were aware that this model
doesn't adequately address the current international use of English
today. Some possible reasons for these observations are that due to
advances in technology, such as the Internet, university students
are exposed to English as it is used internationally, and they use this
information to extend their own level of knowledge (Tsai, 2004). In
addition, Jenkins (2009) has noted that younger generations from
expanding circle countries have likely been in situations requiring
the use of English as a lingua franca, and are thus more open to
recognizing and supporting concepts associated with ELF.
The participants also supported using a mix of English and
Chinese in their future teaching contexts. They rejected the idea
that only English should be used in the classroom and were sup-
portive of using Chinese to explain difficult concepts. Teaching
effective code-switching strategies to their students was also
regarded as important. Such views are consistent with researchers
who advocate that English teachers who share their students'
native language will be better able to assist students who are
developing their English language skills (Kirkpatrick, 2012a, 2012b;
Seidlhofer, 1999).
5.2. Some participants' attachment to a native-speaker model
The second research question addressed participant background
and its connection to viewpoints expressed about English as a
lingua franca. While there was general support among the partic-
ipants for the concepts associated with English as a lingua franca,
there was a diversity of opinions expressed towards some of the
items in the survey, particularly those in Table 1. Of the four groups,
the English majors and interns were more supportive of statements
that reflected a native-speaker model. They were similar to pre-
service teachers in other studies (Dewey, 2012; Jenkins, 2007;
Suzuki, 2011) as they considered the native speaker of English,
especially British or American English, as the preferred model.
Jenkins (2007) has noted that for many teachers who are not native
speakers of English, aiming for native-like proficiency in English is a
goal, and these non-native-speaking teachers work very hard to
attain that ideal. Participants in other studies have noted that trying
to achieve a native-like accent is a reflection of what students have
been taught since childhood, and that in Taiwan, when one ach-
ieves a native-like accent, it is assumed that one has a higher level
of proficiency (Ke & Cahyani, 2014; Lei, 2015; Liou, 2010). For the
English majors and the interns, another factor contributing to a
greater preference for a native-speaker model may be the current
employment situation for prospective teachers in Taiwan. Due to a
low birthrate and an oversupply of teachers, securing a full-time
teaching position is very difficult. Thus the English majors and in-
terns in the study, in an effort to be viewed as more qualified in job
interviews, could have perceived that sounding more like a native
speaker provided some type of leverage.
143
While both the English majors and interns agreed that students
should be exposed to English spoken by a range of native speakers
(Table 1, Statement 4), there was a significant difference between
these two groups in their level of support. The fact that the intern
teachers favored a wider range of native-speaker models is prob-
ably the result of being in a classroom context where their mentor
teachers' expectations, textbook models, and institutional demands
all play a role. However, it was beyond the scope of this study to
determine precisely why these intern teachers thought students
should be exposed to English spoken by a range of native speakers.
Classroom observations and interviews are needed to further
explore the exact reasons for this result.
5.3. The English minors are unique
The English minors were least likely of the four groups to agree
with the ideas of having native speakers as a role model or
sounding like a native speaker. For seven of the ten statements in
Table 1, the English minors appeared to be most definite when they
expressed their points of view. In addition, the means for two of the
statements showed a significant difference between the English
minors and one of the other groups. While for Statement 2 the
English majors supported the idea that it was important for stu-
dents to sound like native speakers of English, the English minors
were more likely to disagree. This was also true for Statement 18
concerning whether native speakers of English should be role
models for Taiwanese students. While the interns were supportive,
the English minors were more likely to disagree.
The attitudes expressed by the English minors were somewhat
surprising because the process involved in gaining entry to the
program to minor in English is highly competitive. The overall
English proficiency of the English minors tends to be quite high and
they are typically highly committed to their courses in the
Department of English. Many also see qualifying to study for a
minor in English as the first step towards becoming an English
teacher. It was expected that given their background, the English
minors might be more supportive of the statements on the survey
that reflected the traditional native-speaker model of teaching and
learning English. However, this was not the case. The English mi-
nors, coming from different fields of study, perhaps have a broader
perspective on English teaching and learning, and thus use English
as a tool to learn more about their respective disciplines rather than
just as a subject to study. Thus the English minors may have at-
tributes that make them better suited to the demands of an inter-
national context where English is a lingua franca. Being able to
apply their English knowledge and skills to another subject area
may have also helped the English minors to feel more confident
about their English skills and not feel a need to emulate a particular
native-speaker model. Pre-service teachers with backgrounds like
the English minors might also be better suited for classrooms
where English is taught as a language for real communication and
not a subject for the sole purpose of passing examinations. Not only
do the English minors share the language of their students and
understand the challenges of studying English, they have been able
to see how English can be applied in other contexts (Seidlhofer,
1999). They were thus more willing to adopt a broader view of
English learning (Alatis, 2005). Given the design of the current
study, it is only possible to speculate why the English minors were
most supportive of many of the principles associated with ELF. The
results are, however, worthy of further exploration via in-depth
interviews.
Although not significant, another noteworthy finding showed a
difference of opinion between the English minors and the interns.
This concerned Statement 15 in Table 2, which asked if the focus on
an English program should be to prepare students for
144 J.E. Curran, C.-l. Chern / Teaching and Teacher Education 66 (2017) 137e146
communication with non-native speakers of English. The English
minors expressed more support for this idea than the interns. This
finding lends additional support to the idea that the interns were
perhaps more focused on the role of English in helping their stu-
dents achieve their educational goals, which would typically
involve passing standardized tests. The English minors, however,
could envision a more expansive role for their future students'
English learning.
5.4. Where did the graduate students stand?
Unlike the other three groups, the graduate student participants
were more neutral when expressing their opinions towards the
statements on the survey. They also didn't show any significant
differences of opinion with the other three groups of participants.
In addition to their different academic status, the graduate students
may also have stood in contrast to the other groups with regard to
their backgrounds and the courses they were taking. Since not all of
them majored in English as undergraduates, their previous aca-
demic experiences might have influenced their opinions. It is also
possible that being slightly older and working towards a graduate
degree may have exposed them to concepts related to English as a
lingua franca that students in the other groups had not encoun-
tered. But without additional investigation, it is difficult to know
exactly why this group was more cautious in their opinions.
5.5. Intercultural communication
All four groups of pre-service English teachers in this study
strongly supported using English as a way to learn and share cul-
tural information and gain greater awareness of intercultural dif-
ferences (Table 3). While such results indicate support for an ELF
orientation towards language and culture, this result likely needs
additional investigation. Chao (2016) has cautioned that while
many Taiwanese teachers view themselves as having high levels of
multi-cultural awareness, their practices in the classroom didn't
quite reflect this. In her study, Chao (2016) noted that the majority
of the instructors focused more on the culture of English-speaking
countries than on teaching their students about intercultural
knowledge and skills. Baker (2015) has commented that while
culture is an indispensable part of language learning, it is currently
a “blind spot” within English-language teaching materials, where
discussions of culture more often involve native-speaker models.
This reliance on this type of model may negatively impact students
if they too readily accept and adopt it as the standard (Chao, 2015).
Students who experience failure in intercultural communication
may attempt to use the strategies that native speakers employ
because the students haven't been taught how to overcome
communication difficulties when working with non-native English
speakers (Ke, 2012). A more appropriate focus, as Modiano (2001)
notes, would be to document the accommodation strategies used
by non-native English speakers when they interact with each other.
Research such as this will provide guidance to teachers and stu-
dents on more productive ways to improve cross-cultural
communication amongst non-native speakers of English when
they use English as a lingua franca.
5.6. Teacher training needs to look to new models
Many researchers who have examined the topic of English as a
lingua franca cite the idea that teacher training will play an
important role in preparing tomorrow's English teachers to help
their students prepare for the language challenges in an increas-
ingly globalized world (Graddol, 1997, 2006). If the focus shifts from
a native-speaker model of language teaching and learning, topics
such as how the local context is viewed in the training of non-
native English-speaking teachers, the effectiveness of western
teaching methodologies, and how non-native speakers of English
become skilled educators all need to be examined (Braine, 2010;
Modiano, 2001). Without investigations such as these, educators
in expanding circle countries like Taiwan often express support for
an English as a lingua franca orientation but are unsure how to
incorporate those principles into their classrooms (Luo, 2017).
Compounding this dilemma is the pressure from educational
policy-makers to adopt a more international perspective (MOE,
2016), while teachers and students may still be accustomed to
the traditional native-speaker orientation towards English learning
(Liou, 2010; Wang, 2012; Young & Walsh, 2010). This study is a first
step towards helping future teachers develop an English as a lingua
franca perspective in their practice. Without a greater under-
standing of how pre-service teachers approach the topic of ELF and
how their attitudes affect their practice as they venture out to
become practitioners, it will be difficult to make changes in the
current system.
It is unlikely that English teaching will reflect an English as a
lingua franca perspective until there are changes in curricula and
materials (Seidlhofer, 2004). In their daily practice, most teachers
and students in expanding circle countries where English is taught
as a foreign language are exposed to materials and messages that
promote a native-speaker norm as the ideal (Seidlhofer, 1999). It is
thus necessary to expose students to other varieties of English to
counteract the idea that one model of English is the correct model
(Matsuda & Friedrich, 2011). A native-speaker model should not be
the basis for a curriculum in “international English” because most
second language learners of English are more likely to be
communicating with other second language learners than with
native speakers, and it is counterintuitive to link the term “inter-
national English” with one particular variety of English (McKay,
2006; Widdowson, 1994). As the range of individuals who use
English expands, the language itself will continue to evolve. This
view of English is certainly quite different from traditional per-
spectives associated with English teaching and learning in EFL
settings (Ke & Cahyani, 2014).
Current research related to English as a lingua franca is at odds
with traditional principles associated with the training of English
teachers (Dewey, 2012). Several researchers have called for inquiry-
based approaches, with the ultimate aim of transforming programs
that prepare students to become L2 English teachers (Dewey, 2012;
Johnson, 2006; Sifakis, 2007). While such efforts would be useful,
the time investment is extensive. Given these considerations, the
authors recommend a multi-pronged approach towards incorpo-
rating discussions of English as a lingua franca into teacher prep-
aration programs:
C A discussion of World Englishes, English as a lingua franca,
and intercultural communication should be included in the
curriculum. The discussion should provide opportunities for
students to engage in critical reflection on the beliefs and
attitudes they hold towards language learning and whether
these are compatible with the current educational context
and the international environment for English language use.
C Professional development workshops should introduce in-
formation about English as a lingua franca to secondary
school teachers. In addition to making the teachers aware of
this research area, such workshops can also prepare sec-
ondary school teachers to serve as mentor teachers for
interns.
C Faculty members of teacher training institutions should
cooperate with those who formulate policy to work towards
 J.E. Curran, C.-l. Chern / Teaching and Teacher Education 66 (2017) 137e146
changes in textbooks and testing that encompass an ELF
approach.
It is hoped that efforts such as these will enable teachers to
employ teaching methods and strategies that they see as best
benefitting their students (McKay, 2002, 2006). A key feature of an
English as a lingua franca orientation towards English language
learning and instruction is recognition of the unique attributes that
local English teachers bring to the teaching context (Kirkpatrick,
2006, 2007, 2012a, 2012b; Seidlhofer, 1999). They understand the
language learning challenges faced by their learners and share the
same language and cultural background as their students.
6. Conclusion
Due to the influences of trade, technology, and the media,
among others, English is now used as an international language of
communication. This has led to efforts by language researchers to
document how English is used by the millions who speak the
language in a variety of settings. Although English is being used by
increasing numbers of people, the way English is taught, particu-
larly to those who reside in expanding circle countries, has
remained focused on traditional approaches. This has led to con-
cerns among researchers that students are unprepared for the
challenges they could face when they are required to use English in
their academic work or future employment.
This study examined the perceptions of four groups of pre-
service English teachers in TaiwandEnglish majors, students
minoring in English, graduate students, and internsdtowards En-
glish as a lingua franca. The purpose of the research was to assess if
pre-service English teachers in a teacher preparation program in an
expanding circle country had any knowledge of principles associ-
ated with an ELF perspective and if that knowledge would affect
choices they might make in their future teaching practice. Although
their teacher preparation program didn't include a formal discus-
sion of World Englishes or English as a lingua franca, the partici-
pants expressed support for many of the key concepts characteristic
of an ELF perspective including a focus on using English for real
communication, respect for all varieties of English, a willingness to
learn more about intercultural communication, and an emphasis on
developing all four language skills. Of the four groups, the English
majors and interns were more likely to support ideas that reflected
a traditional native-speaker model of English teaching and
learning. The graduate students were neutral in their responses to
most items on the survey. The English minors were more likely to
show support for an ELF perspective. While the study didn't
examine specific reasons for the participants' attitudes, the English
minors may have been able to visualize a broader role for English
because they have seen the language used in another academic
discipline.
Teacher training programs in EFL settings should emphasize an
international perspective on English teaching and learning so that
when pre-service teachers are in classrooms in the future, they can
help their students to develop the ability to communicate effec-
tively with the wide range of individuals who use English around
the world today (Jenkins, 2006; Modiano, 2001). The present study
lends support to the fact that amongst pre-service teachers in
expanding circle countries, there is awareness and interest in
looking to new models of teacher training that embrace an English
as a lingua franca perspective, and this interest has reached a
tipping point. Therefore, teacher training institutions need to
respond to these trends.
145
Funding source
This study was sponsored by the Ministry of Science and Tech-
nology, Taiwan, under grant number NSC 101-2410-H-003-066.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their thanks to the students
who volunteered their time to complete the survey.
References
Alatis, J. E. (2005). Kachru's circles and the growth of professionalism in TESOL.
English Today, 21(02), 25e34. https://doi.org/10.1017/S026607840500204X.
Baker, W. (2015). Culture and complexity through English as a lingua franca:
Rethinking competences and pedagogy in ELT. Journal of English as a Lingua
Franca, 4, 9e30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jelf-2015-0005.
Braine, G. (2010). Nonnative speaker English teachers: Research, pedagogy, and pro-
fessional growth. New York: Routledge.
Breiteneder, A. (2009). English as a lingua franca in Europe: An empirical
perspective. World Englishes, 28, 256e269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
971X.2009.01579.x.
Chao, T.-C. (2015). Constructing a self-assessment inventory of intercultural
communicative competence in ELT for EFL teachers. The Asian EFL Journal, 17(4),
94e120.
Chao, T.-C. (2016). A preliminary study of Taiwanese NNETS' self-assessment of
intercultural communicative competence in English language teaching. Taiwan
Journal of TESOL, 13(1), 71e103.
Chiang, M.-H. (2014). Impacts of globalization: Hegemonic threats of English in
Taiwan. Sino-US English Teaching, 11, 238e247.
Chien, S.-C. (2014). Varieties of English: Taiwanese attitudes and perceptions.
Newcastle and Northumbria Working Papers in Linguistics, 20, 1e16.
Common European framework of reference for languages. (2003). Learning, teach-
ing, assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Dewey, M. (2012). Towards a post-normative approach: Learning the pedagogy of
ELF. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca, 1, 141e170. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/
jelf-2012-0007.
Graddol, D. (1997). The future of English. London: British Council. Retrieved from
https://www.britishcouncil.jp/sites/default/files/eng-future-of-english-en.pdf.
Graddol, D. (2006). English next. London: British Council. Retrieved from http://
www.data.ulis.vnu.edu.vn/jspui/bitstream/123456789/2165/1/learning-
research-english-next.pdf.
Haberland, H. (2011). Ownership and maintenance of a language in transnational
use: Should we leave our lingua franca alone? Journal of Pragmatics, 43,
937e949. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2010.08.009.
Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an international language. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Jenkins, J. (2006). Current perspectives on teaching World Englishes and English as
a lingua franca. TESOL Quarterly, 40, 157e181. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/
40264515.
Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a lingua franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Jenkins, J. (2009). English as a lingua franca: Interpretations and attitudes. World
Englishes, 28, 200e207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971X.2009.01582.x.
Jenkins, J. (2011). Accommodating (to) ELF in the international university. Journal of
Pragmatics, 43, 926e936. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2010.05.011.
Jenkins, J., Cogo, A., & Dewey, M. (2011). Review of developments in research into
English as a lingua franca. Language Teaching, 44, 281e315. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1017/S0261444811000115.
Johnson, K. E. (2006). The sociocultural turn and its challenges for second language
teacher education. TESOL Quarterly, 40, 235e257. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/
40264518.
Kachru, B. B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The English
language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk, & H. G. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the
world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures (pp. 11e30). Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kachru, B. B. (1990). World Englishes and applied linguistics. World Englishes, 9,
3e20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467e971X.1990.tb00683.x.
Kachru, B. B. (1996). World Englishes: Agony and ecstasy. Journal of Aesthetic Edu-
cation, 30(2), 135e155. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3333196.
Ke, I.-C. (2012). English as a lingua franca (ELF) in intercultural communication:
Findings from ELF online projects and implications for ELT in Taiwan. Taiwan
Journal of TESOL, 9(2), 63e93.
Ke, I.-C., & Cahyani, H. (2014). Learning to become users of English as a lingua franca
(ELF): How ELF online communication affects Taiwanese learners' beliefs of
English. System, 46, 28e38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2014.07.008.
Kirkpatrick, A. (2006). Which model of English: Native-speaker, nativized or lingua
146 J.E. Curran, C.-l. Chern / Teaching and Teacher Education 66 (2017) 137e146
franca? In R. Rubdy, & M. Saraceni (Eds.), English in the world: Global rules, global
roles (pp. 71e83). London: Continuum.
Kirkpatrick, A. (2007). World Englishes: Implications for international communication
and English language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kirkpatrick, A. (2012a). English as an Asian lingua franca: The ‘lingua franca
approach’ and implications for language education policy. Journal of English as a
Lingua Franca, 1, 121e139.
Kirkpatrick, A. (2012b). English as an international language in Asia: Implications
for language education. In A. Kirkpatrick, & R. Sussex (Eds.), English as an in-
ternational language in Asia: Implications for language education (pp. 29e44).
Dordrecht: Springer.
Kuo, I.-C. (2006). Addressing the issue of teaching English as a lingua franca. ELT
Journal, 60, 213e221.
Lau, K., & Lin, C.-Y. (2014). The role of English as a lingua franca in social integration:
The case of the international students of a university in Taiwan. The Asian
Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1, 36e49.
Lei, J.-I. (2015). An autoethnography of an L2 English learner in Taiwan: Where is
the end of the tunnel? English Teaching & Learning, 39(3), 61e78. http://dx.doi.
org/10.6330/ETL.2015.39.3.03.
Liou, Y.-S. (2010). Who wants EIL? Attitudes towards English as an international
language: A comparative study of college teachers and students in the greater
Taipei area. In , College English: Issues and trends, selected papers from the third
conference on college English: Vol. 3. ) (pp. 133e157). Taipei: National Chengchi
University.
Luo, W.-H. (2017). Teacher perceptions of teaching and learning English as a lingua
franca in the expanding circle: A study of Taiwan. English Today, 33(1), 2e11.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0266078416000146.
Matsuda, A., & Friedrich, P. (2011). English as an international language: A curric-
ulum blueprint. World Englishes, 30, 332e344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
971X.2011.01717.x.
Mauranen, A. (2012). Exploring ELF: Academic English shaped by non-native speakers.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McKay, S. (2002). Teaching English as an international language: Rethinking goals and
approaches. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McKay, S. (2006). EIL curriculum development. In R. Rubdy, & M. Saraceni (Eds.),
English in the world: Global rules, global roles (pp. 114e129). London: Continuum.
Ministry of Education, Republic of China (Taiwan). (2016). Ministry of Education
objectives for 2016 (January-December). Retrieved from http://english.moe.gov.
tw/ct.asp?xItem¼16462&ctNode¼11410&mp¼1.
Modiano, M. (2001). Ideology and the ELT practitioner. International Journal of
Applied Linguistics, 11, 159e173.
Quirk, R. (1985). The English language in a global context. In R. Quirk, &
H. G. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the world: Teaching and learning the language
and literatures (pp. 1e10). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Seidlhofer, B. (1999). Double standards: Teacher education in the expanding circle.
World Englishes, 18, 233e245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-971X.00136.
Seidlhofer, B. (2001). Closing a conceptual gap: The case for a description of English
as a lingua franca. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 133e158.
Seidlhofer, B. (2004). Research perspectives on teaching English as a lingua franca.
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 209e239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/
S0267190504000145.
Seidlhofer, B. (2005). English as a lingua franca. ELT Journal, 59, 339. https://doi.org/
10.1093/elt/cci064.
Sifakis, N. (2007). The education of teachers of English as a lingua franca: A
transformative perspective. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 17,
356e375. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1473-4192.2007.00174.x.
Suzuki, A. (2011). Introducing diversity of English into ELT: Student teachers' re-
sponses. ELT Journal, 65, 145e153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccq024.
Tomlinson, B. (2006). A multi-dimensional approach to teaching English for the
world. In R. Rubdy, & M. Saraceni (Eds.), English in the world: Global rules, global
roles (pp. 130e150). London: Continuum.
Tsai, C.-C. (2004). Beyond cognitive and metacognitive tools: The use of the Internet
as an ‘epistemological’ tool for instruction. British Journal of Educational Tech-
nology, 35, 525e536. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0007-1013.2004.00411.x.
Tsou, W., & Chen, F. (2014). EFL and ELF college students' perceptions toward En-
glishes. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca, 3, 363e386. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1515/jelf-2014-0021.
Wang, L.-Y. (2012). Moving towards the transition: Non-native-speaker norms and
responses to varieties of English in the era of global spread of English. The Asian
EFL Journal Quarterly, 14, 47e78.
Wang, C., & Ho, C.-T. (2013). Impact of international education on students' attitude
toward English as lingua franca. In International academic workshop on social
science (IAW-SC 2013) (pp. 762e766). Hong Kong: Atlantis Press. http://
dx.doi.org/10.2991/iaw-sc.2013.169.
Widdowson, H. G. (1994). The ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly, 28, 377e389.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3587438.
Young, T. J., & Walsh, S. (2010). Which English? Whose English? An investigation of
‘non-native’ teachers' beliefs about target varieties. Language, Culture and Cur-
riculum, 23, 123e137. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07908311003797627.