EAPS 100: Planet Earth

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 Goals for this Module

You should be able to accomplish the following tasks…

• Describe how sediment accumulates into flat layers and is lithified into rock

• Interpret the depositional environment of common rocks

• Describe the principle of superposition and determine the relative ages of

sedimentary rocks

• Describe how geologists use sedimentary rocks to learn about the Earth’s
history

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Lithification

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Sediment Deposition

Deposition

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Sediment Deposition

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 Delta Sedimentation

Ocean

Deep Marine Deposits

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Angle of Repose

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 Delta Sedimentation

Ocean

Deep Marine Deposits

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Sediment Deposition

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 Sediments Form Flat Layers
The slope of sedimentary rocks going offshore is typically very shallow.

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Lithification
Increased confining pressure as the

sediments get buried lead to the

transformation from loose sediment
to rock (lithification).

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 Compaction and Cementation

Both processes reduce pore space and work together to turn

sediment into a sedimentary rock
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Example of Lithification
Sandstone

Beach Sand

Microscope View
Sand Grain

Calcite Cement

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Common Sedimentary Rocks

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Conglomerate
Conglomerates are composed of large,
jumbled clasts of other rocks that have
been cemented together.

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Conglomerate

What can we say about the environment in which

conglomerates are deposited?

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 Conglomerate

Inferences that we can make about conglomerate deposition

1) They were deposited in a high energy environment

2) They likely did not travel far from where the class were
produced

3) The most frequent places that meet these requirements

are rivers near mountains or coastal areas with high
topography

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Sandstone

Sandstones are composed of sand sized

clasts. The clasts are typically well
rounded and composed of the most
durable minerals.

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 Sandstone

Inferences that we can make about sandstone deposition

1) Sandstones represent clasts that have been worn down

during transport over potentially long distances.

2) The most frequent places that meet these requirements

are major rivers and coastal areas.

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Coal

Coal is a sedimentary rock almost entirely

composed of organic matter. It typically
contains abundant plant fossils.

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 Coal

Inferences that we can make about coal deposition

1) Coal was deposited in a biologically productive (i.e. lot’s

of organic matter) terrestrial (i.e., plants were present)
environment.

2) The most common places that meet these requirements

are swampy areas.

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 Shale
Shale is composed of small clay and silt
sized clasts.

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 Shale

Inferences that we can make about shale deposition

1) The small clasts that make shale could only be deposited

in low energy environments (i.e., still water).

2) The most common places that meet these requirements

are offshore in the ocean and in large lakes.

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Limestone

Limestone is composed of carbonate

minerals that either directly precipitated
from seawater or were biologically made
by animals as shells. This rock type is
typically full of marine fossils.

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 Limestone

Inferences that we can make about limestone deposition

1) Marine fossils indicate that most limestone was

deposited in the ocean in areas where lots of shelly
material is made.

2) The most common place that meets this requirement is a

reef.

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Principle of Superposition

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Sediment Deposition

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Principle of Superposition

Sedimentary rocks are originally deposited

as horizontal layers that can grade into
different types of rock laterally according to
changes in depositional environment.
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Principle of Superposition
Youngest Layer
Oldest Layer

Since these layers are stacked one on top

of another, we can also tell their relative
ages.
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 Principle of Superposition
One way to contextualize the principle of
superposition is by looking at the papers
on your desk. If you are somwhat messy
and tend to throw down new mail or
documents, you inevitably end up with a
stack where the oldest documents are at
the bottom and the newest at the top.

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Sedimentary Sequences

Youngest Layers

Oldest Layers

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 Interpreting Environmental Change

The principle of superposition is reasonably straightforward,

but incredibly powerful for reconstructing geologic history.
Particularly when you remember that different sedimentary
rocks are telling us about different environments.

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Example Sedimentary Sequence
Shale

Limestone

Shale
Imagine that we have walked up to a cliff and
Sandstone see this sequence of sedimentary rocks. What
can we learn about changing environments in
Coal this area?

Sandstone

Conglomerate
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Example Sedimentary Sequence
Conglomerates need to be deposited in
high energy environments like large rivers
or areas close to high topography.

Conglomerate
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Example Sedimentary Sequence
Sandstones are composed of clasts that
have been transported long distances and
typically are deposited in rivers or along
coasts.

Sandstone

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Example Sedimentary Sequence
Coal is composed of plant organic matter
and typically forms in swampy areas.

Coal

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Example Sedimentary Sequence
Sandstones are composed of clasts that
have been transported long distances and
typically are deposited in rivers or along
coasts.

Sandstone

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Example Sedimentary Sequence

Shale

Shale is composed of small clasts that

must be deposited in low energy
environments, like still water.
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Example Sedimentary Sequence
Limestone

Limestones are composed of many bits of

shells from marine organisms and typically
form in reefs.
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Example Sedimentary Sequence
Shale

Shale is composed of small clasts that

must be deposited in low energy
environments, like still water.
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Example Sedimentary Sequence
Still Water
Younger
Reef

Still Water

River or Coastline
So, what are some possible
Swamp explanations for this sequence?

River or Coastline

Conglomerate Older
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 Example Sedimentary Sequence

It appears that the sequence went from terrestrial (rivers,

swamps, and coastlines) to marine (deep still water and
reefs). This could be explained by the area sinking and
gradually being submerged by the sea or a rise in sea-level
that covers the land with water. We will talk about what
could drive each of those options in a later module.

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Principles of Lateral Continuity

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 How do we create regional stratigraphy?

Now you know how to back out a geologic history from a

single outcrop. However, can you extend this interpretation
across a region.

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Principle of Lateral Continuity

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Sedimentary Sequences
Records the same period of time

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 Geologic Formations

Geologic formations are groups of sedimentary rocks that are similar

and distinctive enough in appearance to be distinguished by a
geologist. They must also be large enough to be plotted on a map.
Groups of formations that are similar are known as groups.

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Geologic Mapping
Similar rocks can mapped as
geologic formations using
the principles of original
horizontality, superposition,
and lateral continuity.

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Stratigraphy

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 Regional Stratigraphy

By using these correlations, geologists can piece together the history

of a specific region.

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Principles of Original Horizontality

and Cross Cutting Relationships

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Principle of Original Horizontality

Sedimentary rocks are originally deposited

as horizontal layers that can grade into
different types of rock laterally according to
changes in depositional environment.
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 Principle of Original Horizontality
However, sometimes sedimentary rocks are
tilted for reasons that we will discuss
during the modules on plate tectonics.

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 Principle of Original Horizontality
We can infer that this outcrop near Zumaia,
Spain is recording 1) deposition of
sedimentary rocks, 2) tilting and uplift, and
3) erosion.

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Principle of Cross-cutting Relationships
Magma moves by making cracks that
it can flow through. These are called
dikes.

Basalt dike
Since the dike cracked
the sedimentary rocks,
it must be younger.
Sedimentary

Layers

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 Principle of Cross-cutting Relationships

Since the fault fractures the

layers, the fault must be younger
than the sedimentary rocks.

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Unconformities

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Putting It All Together

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