Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AUTHORS’ NOTE: An earlier version of this article was presented at the 2004 meeting of the
AHRD Academy of Human Resource Development held in Austin, Texas.
Human Resource Development Review Vol. XX, No. X Month XXXX xx-xx
DOI: 10.1177/1534484308318760
© 2008 Sage Publications
Problem Statement
The field of industrial and organizational psychology (I/O psychology) pro-
vides ample research that commitment in the workplace has demonstrated an
improvement in employees’ performance and ultimately the performance of the
overall organization (Katzenbach, 2000). The field of I/O psychology is con-
cerned with human behavior in work contexts and defined as “the scientific study
of the relationship between man and the world of work” (Guion, 1965,
p. 817). I/O psychology is concerned with utilizing knowledge gathered from sci-
entific inquiry to solve problems in the world of work. Example problems include
hiring better employees, reducing absenteeism, improving communication,
increasing job satisfaction, productivity, and improved performance (Muchinsky,
2002). Evident by the lack of published HRD articles around the topic of work-
place commitment, HRD lags behind in constructing interventions, strategies,
and practices to improve commitment in the workplace. Whereas I/O psycholo-
gists have illustrated that workplace commitment leads to improved employee
and organizational performance, there is little research and understanding of how
HRD practitioners can develop employees so that they are more committed to
their job and the organization. Thus there is a gap in understanding how commit-
ment is to be created and supported by individuals within the organization.
Because HRD’s purpose is to improve organizational performance through
increased productivity, efficient work processes, and individual contributions
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Fornes et al. / WORKPLACE COMMITMENT 3
Any process or activity that, either initially or over the long term, has the potential
to develop adults’ work-based knowledge, expertise, productivity, and satisfaction,
whether for personal or group/team gain, or for the benefit of an organization,
community, and nation, or ultimately, the whole of humanity. (p. 322)
Method
A structured review of the literature on commitment was conducted. Selection
of articles, content analysis, and concept mapping are discussed in this section.
Selection of Articles
Content Analysis
Content analysis was conducted to identify and organize variables and con-
cepts related to commitment in the workplace. Content analysis is a research
tool used to determine the presence of certain concepts within text, by quanti-
fying and analyzing the presence, meaning and relationships of concepts, then
making inferences about the messages within the text to draw out conclusions
(Palmquist, 2003; Palmquist, Carley, and Dale, 1997). To conduct the content
analysis the articles were searched for categories based on the research ques-
tions (Palmquist, 2003). These categories consisted of (a) organizational and
employee outcomes of workplace commitment or the consequences of com-
mitment, (b) antecedents that are related to workplace commitment, and (c)
processes to improve employees’ commitment.
Concept Mapping
The categories were then processed using concept mapping. Concept map-
ping is a structured process focused on a topic or construct of interest that pro-
duces an interpretable pictorial view or concept map of ideas and concepts and
how these are interrelated (Novak, 1990). The links between the concepts can
be one-way, two-way, or nondirectional (Novak, 1977). Concept mapping
lends itself to the comparison of semantic connections across texts and
attempts to represent the relationship(s) between ideas, beliefs, attitudes, and
information available to an author within a text. These relationships can be
represented as logical, inferential, causal, and/or sequential relationships
(Crooper, Eden, & Ackerman, 1990).
In concept mapping the information gathered from the content analysis was
sorted into three clusters consisting of the (a) antecedents, (b) consequences or
Organizational Commitment
Organizational commitment involves both organizational and supervisory
commitment and is directed by organization attributes such as values and orga-
nizational behaviors (Morrow, 1993). Supervisory commitment is defined as
the strength of identification with the supervisor and the internalization of the
supervisor’s values. Identification occurs when the subordinate admires cer-
tain attributes of the supervisor, such as attitudes, behaviors, and accomplish-
ments. Internalization occurs when the subordinate adopts the attitudes and
behaviors of the supervisor because the supervisor’s attitudes and behaviors
are congruent with the subordinate’s value systems (Becker, 1992; Gregersen
& Black, 1993).
Commitment to the organization is related positively to a variety of desir-
able work outcomes including employee job satisfaction, motivation, and per-
formance, and related negatively to absenteeism and turnover (Mathieu &
Zajac, 1990). Organizational commitment is defined as the psychological and
emotional attachment of employees to their organizations (Mathieu & Zajac,
1990; Meyer & Allen, 1991; Morrow, 1993). Organizational commitment is
the measure of strength of the employee’s identification with the goals and val-
ues of the organization (Mowday et al., 1982). Individuals committed to the
organization exert extra effort, desire organizational membership (Morrow,
1993), protect company assets, and share company goals and values (Meyer &
Allen, 1997).
Organizational commitment can be measured as either attitudinal or calcu-
lative. Attitudinal commitment is the employee’s emotional attachment and
identification with the organization (Cohen, 2003; Meyer & Allen, 1997;
Mowday et al., 1982; Porter, Steers, Mowday & Boulian, 1974). Attitudinal
commitment is referred to as affective commitment (Meyer, Allen, & Smith,
1993), or internalization and identification (O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986).
Employees continue with the organization because they want to do so (Meyer
& Allen, 1997; Mowday et al., 1982) and feel proud to be part of the organiza-
tion, respecting its values and accomplishments (O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986).
The calculative or “side-bet” (Becker, 1960), also referred to as continu-
ance (Meyer & Allen, 1997) and compliance (O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986),
signifies the extent to which employees feel committed to their organization
by virtue of the cost that they feel is associated with leaving it and their need
to remain with the organization (Becker, 1992; Meyer & Allen, 1997).
Employees remain with the organization because of the perceived cost of leav-
ing (Meyer & Allen, 1997).
The correlation between antecedents and attitudinal measures is stronger
than those measures of the calculated approach (Hrebiniak & Alutto, 1972;
Meyer & Allen, 1997; O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986) therefore the attitudinal
commitment approach provides a clear and focused measurement of organiza-
tional commitment and performance outcomes (Cohen, 2003). Thus, in this
article organizational commitment is used simultaneously with attitudinal
measures of commitment.
Individual Commitment
Individual employee commitment is guided by attributes that directly affect
the person and is defined as the psychological and emotional attachment of
individuals to their jobs, careers, work groups or teams, and peers (Cohen,
2003). Individual commitment is the strength of the employee’s identification
with the values of other individuals and peers within the organization (team
commitment), and his/her work (job commitment) and careers (career com-
mitment). Team commitment is an individual’s identification and sense of
cohesiveness with other members of a group. Team commitment enhances
social involvement and reinforces the ties that the individual forms with the
organization (Randal & Cote, 1991). Job commitment is the degree to which
a person identifies psychologically with his/her work. The importance of work
is the degree to which work performance and internalization of organizational
values affects self-esteem and self-image (Lodhal & Kejner, 1965; Rabinowitz
Summary of Antecedents
In summary (see Figure 1), the antecedents to workplace commitment are pre-
sented in terms of organizational and individual commitment. Antecedents of
commitment are actions or elements that cause commitment to occur. These
antecedents produce employee perceptions that lead to positive consequences for
the organization and individual. Organizational commitment antecedents (clarity
of purpose, equity and fairness, empowerment, congruency, feedback and recog-
nition, autonomy, and interesting work) lead to an employee’s perception of
support received which creates an emotional attachment to the organization
(organizational commitment). The antecedents to individual commitment (con-
gruency, feedback and recognition, autonomy and interesting work) lead to
meaningfulness of work, career, peers, and self, creating an attachment to the job,
career, and work teams (individual commitment). Organizational and individual
commitment results in positive outcomes and implications for the organization
and the individual (both proximal and distal outcomes of commitment). Figure 1
illustrates the relationship among employees’ perceptions and of workplace com-
mitment by illustrating the relationship between the antecedents and outcomes.
Antecedents precede the employee perception stimulating commitment and out-
comes which influence individual and organizational success. For example, clar-
ity of purpose leads to an emotional commitment to the organization.
The conceptual model suggests that antecedents promote organizational com-
mitment (including the organization and its supervisors) and individual commit-
ment (including one’s job, career, and team) by fostering working conditions that
stimulate positive outcomes benefiting both the organization and individual.
Organizational
Interesting work Willing to engage in organizational citizenship
Commitment
Extra-role performance
Clarity of purpose
Perceived Support of Accountability
Organizational and
Equity and fairness Increased job satisfaction and work motivation
Improved Performance
Feedback & recognition
Improved Production
Congruency
Interesting work Individual
Employee Commitment
Feedback & recognition
Autonomy Perceived Meaningfulness of Increased employee Well-being
Self-Awareness
commitment enables them to make and deliver products or services that con-
stitute a sustainable competitive advantage. Workplace commitment is an
essential factor for organizational survival and effectiveness (Buchanan, 1974).
Commitment has been defined as the degree of pledging or binding of the
individual to a set of behaviors that motivates one to act (Kiesler, 1971). Once
identification with the organization begins, individuals are likely to become
concerned with the broader interests of the organization including its reputa-
tion, survival, and continued success. This broader interest will generate activ-
ity and resource exchanges between firm and employee (Rousseau, 1998).
Organizational and individual commitments are means to optimize individual
and organizational efficiencies and productivity through interventions focused
on commitment antecedents. A framework for operationalizing interventions
for HRD professionals to improve workplace commitment and performance
emerged from the concept mapping process. The concept mapping process
produced the following seven propositions and interventions based on the
antecedents of workplace commitment: congruency, interesting work, clarity
of purpose, equity, feedback, empowerment, and autonomy.
Congruency
Proposition 1: Aligning employee’s values, abilities, skills, and interests with orga-
nizational values and culture will have a positive impact on organizational and
individual commitment improving organizational and performance outcomes.
Interesting Work
Proposition 2: Organizations that ensure interesting work and allow for job variety,
independence or discretion in sequence, methods, procedures, and quality con-
trol will improve organizational, individual, and job commitment.
that provides job variety and job enrichment to provide cross-training in a vari-
ety of positions.
Clarity of Purpose
Equity and fairness maintain a balance between and within the organization
and its employees. Affective commitment and commitment between peers and
supervisors is strengthened when employees’ perceptions are of a fair, trusting,
and equitable environment (Kim & Mauborgne, 1993; Konovsky & Cropanzano,
1991; Rhodes & Steers, 1981).
Proposition 4: Organizations that build systems that provide for equal and fair treat-
ment of all employees will improve organizational commitment.
Feedback
Organizations that build systems that promote continuous feedback for improved
and constant communication will increase both organizational and individual
commitment leading to improved performance.
Empowerment
Autonomy
Proposition 7: Organizations that design work environments that allow for inde-
pendence and discretion in scheduling work and determining procedures
improves organizational and individual commitment.
Performance Implications
LOW HIGH
Individual Employee Commitment
Conclusion
Potential spillover into other areas such as commitment to one’s family and
nation may affect society at large (Cohen, 2003). If the quality of an
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Fornes et al. / WORKPLACE COMMITMENT 15
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Sandra L. Fornes, EdD, is the executive director of the Hidden Angel Foundation
as well as an HRD professional focused on organizational performance through
the development of improved selection and placement systems, team development,
and organizational climate. Her research interests include workplace develop-
ment and improved quality of life for individuals with disabilities.
Tonette S. Rocco, PhD (Ohio State University), is associate professor in the Adult
Education and Human Resource Development Program. Research interests
include continuing professional education, equity and privilege (specifically in
terms of race, sexual minorities, age, and disability), teaching for social justice,
and employability/career development.