NONRESIDENT

TRAINING
COURSE
June 2017

Aircrew Survival Equipmentman (PR)

NAVEDTRA 14218B
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
1. Parachute Familiarization .................................................................................. 1-1
2. Emergency Personnel and Drogue Parachute Systems .................................... 2-1
3. Premeditated Personnel Parachuting (P3) and Cargo Airdrop
System/Equipment ............................................................................................ 3-1
4. Aircrew Personal Protective Equipment ............................................................ 4-1
5. Rescue and Survival Equipment........................................................................ 5-1
6. Inflatable Survival Equipment ............................................................................ 6-1
7. Seat Survival Kit ................................................................................................ 7-1
8. Compressed Gases, Cylinders, and Transfer Units ........................................... 8-1
9. Industrial Sewing Equipment ............................................................................. 9-1
10. Fabrication and Manufacture ........................................................................... 10-1
11. Oxygen Components and Test Stands ............................................................ 11-1
12. Survival Radios and Beacons .......................................................................... 12-1
13. Aviation Life Support Systems (ALSS) Configuration Management,
Administration, and Documentation ................................................................. 13-1

APPENDIXES PAGE
I. Glossary and Acronyms ................................................................................... AI-1
II. References ...................................................................................................... AII-1
III. Answers to End of Chapter Questions ............................................................ AIII-1

Index ................................................................................................................... Index-1

iv
 CHAPTER 9

INDUSTRIAL SEWING EQUIPMENT

The Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR) 13(series) technical manuals list an enormous number of
repairs for emergency escape parachute systems, seat pans, survival vests, survival equipment, flight
and protective clothing, and Search and Rescue (SAR) equipment in all types of naval maintenance
activities. Every one of these repairs has a specific procedure to follow in order to ensure the safety of
the aircrew using the Aviation Life Support Systems (ALSS).
The Naval Special Warfare Command (NAVSPECWARCOM) instructions and technical manuals also
list numerous repairs for cargo parachute systems and Premeditated Personnel Parachuting (P3)
systems in all types of Special Operations Parachute Rigger (SOPR) naval maintenance activities. All
repairs and modifications require strict compliance to ensure the safety of the parachutist using the
life support system.
Regardless of the duty station, the Aircrew Survival Equipmentman (PR) is tasked with repairing,
modifying, and fabricating non-aeronautical equipment to support the command mission. In order to
accomplish this tasking a PR must know how to operate and maintain industrial sewing equipment.
A sewing machine is a power tool that can assist you with making good, safe repairs for any project.
However, if you don’t have the correct one, the task is hard or impossible to complete. You need the
right machine for the job; whether it is lightweight, medium weight, or heavyweight, there is a machine
designed to perform each task.
This chapter contains the principles of operation, maintenance, troubleshooting for the rotary and
oscillating sewing machines.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
1. Recognize safety/hazard awareness and general safety components for industrial sewing
equipment.
2. Identify the classes of industrial sewing machines.
3. Determine the principles of operation for Consew 206RB industrial sewing machines.
4. Recognize the preventative maintenance procedures for Consew 206RB industrial sewing
machines.
5. Determine adjustments and timing procedures for Consew 206RB industrial sewing machines.
6. Determine the troubleshooting procedures for Consew 206RB industrial sewing machines.
7. Determine the principles of operation for Singer 31-15 industrial sewing machines.
8. Determine adjustments and timing procedures for Singer 31-15 industrial sewing machines.
9. Determine the principles of operation for Consew 733R industrial sewing machines.
10. Determine adjustments and timing procedures for Consew 733R industrial sewing machines.

9-1
SEWING MACHINES
Before you can learn to operate and maintain a sewing machine, you must learn the language of
sewing equipment and the safety requirements. The Maintenance Instructions with Illustrated Parts
Breakdown, Industrial Sewing Equipment technical manual, NAVAIR A6-215PC-MEB-000 is the
Navy’s authoritative source for industrial sewing equipment. Therefore, this chapter is to broaden the
knowledge and increase the skills you need to operate and maintain them.

Safety/Hazard Awareness and Precautions

There will undoubtedly be a safety program to follow for the shop or area in which you will be working.
The following general safety rules are furnished as a guide.

! WARNING !
This equipment employs voltages that are dangerous and may be fatal if
operating or maintenance personnel contact them. There are mechanical
safety devices associated with this equipment that must be maintained
in a constant state of readiness to preclude injury to personnel and/or
damage to equipment. Exercise extreme caution when working with or
handling this equipment. Some components are extremely heavy.

• DO NOT put your fingers under the presser foot while sewing.
• DO NOT lower the presser foot without two or more layers of material under it.
• DO NOT operate the machine without wearing approved eye protection.
• DO NOT start sewing until the motor has reached full speed.
• DO NOT turn the balance wheel away from the operator more than one-fourth of a turn while
the needle is threaded, or the thread will break.
• DO NOT try to push or pull material as it is being fed through the machine.
• ALWAYS hold both the needle and bobbin threads taut when starting to sew.
• ALWAYS keep your fingers at the side of the needle while sewing, NOT in front.
• ALWAYS operate the machine at a low rate of speed to avoid making lines that are not straight.
• DO NOT remove the bobbin or needle until the power switch is off and motor is discharged.
• DO NOT wind the bobbin unless the presser foot is raised and the thread is removed from the
thread take-up lever.
• DO NOT leave the machine until the power switch is OFF and motor is discharged.
• DO NOT leave the work area until:
◦ The power switch is OFF and motor is discharged.
◦ The machine head is covered.

9-2
General Safety Components
The safety needle guard (Figure 9-1) is a safety feature used during sewing. The metal needle guard
is attached to the presser foot bar to prevent any unintentional touching of the needle during sewing.
As far as needle guards are concerned, many PRs have had their fingers pierced and, in some cases,
needles have broken off in the finger. Consider yourself fortunate if you have not been injured. When
operators are distracted, needle guards help deter or prevent an injury by their machines.
The safety eye protection (Figure 9-2) required must meet the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) Z-87.1 standard (“Z-87+” is stamped in the corner of the lenses). They only provide protection
from impact and/or debris. A broken needle flying into the eye is a fear that PRs share. A clean, well-
oiled sewing machine and a good quality needle will decrease the chances of breaking a needle and
injuring your eye. Safety glasses are required when operating all industrial sewing machines.

Figure 9-1 — Safety needle guard. Figure 9-2 — Safety eye protection.

The belt guard is a safety feature used during sewing. The metal guard is attached to the balance
wheel pulley on the sewing machine head and helps to prevent your finger(s) or loose clothing
catching in the pulley/belt system.
Clutch motors operate by winding up the motor and using
a clutch and brake system to power the industrial sewing
machine. They are mounted underneath the sewing table
with vibration absorbing rubber motor mounts. They power
the machine with a belt system and treadle.
Servo motors (Figure 9-3) use less electricity than the
standard clutch motor. An external speed control allows
you to safely and efficiently control your machine. Servo
motors are silent when treadle is not depressed. They
feature an easy to use speed adjustment knob and a shaft
controls the revolutions per minute (RPM). Although this
motor is not required, it does present itself as a better
motor to the clutch motor for safely controlling the sewing
machine treadle.
Figure 9-3 — Servo Motor.

9-3
Classes of Industrial Sewing Machines
There are two types of sewing machines—rotary and oscillating. Both are operated by electric motors
and are fitted with rheostats and special clutch arrangements that enable the operator to control the
speed.
When it comes to classifying sewing machines into oscillating and rotary, the important part is the
rotary hook and the oscillating shuttle. The rotary class machine has a hook and the oscillating class
machine has a shuttle. Both are out of sight in the base of the machine, but they do the very important
job of forming each stitch after the needle passes thread through the fabric.
The four major components of sewing machines are the bed, uprise, arm, and the face (Figure 9-4).
The BED houses the lower feeding mechanism to the sewing hook assembly; the UPRISE houses
the feeding regulator and the balance wheel is connected to the arm shaft in the ARM, which operates
the needle bar mechanism in the FACE of the machine.

Rotary Sewing Machines

Rotary sewing machines have a hook that
makes two complete revolutions to complete
one stitch. The following are examples of rotary
sewing machines:
• The Consew 206RB (Figure 9-4) is a
single-needle, compound (drop and
needle fed) with alternating pressers,
and makes a federal standard 301 lock
stitch. The 206RB-5 has a stitch range
knob located on front of the uprise; the
knob on the 206RB-3 is located on the
lever which is also on the uprise. They
are used for medium to heavy work.
• The Consew 199R and 199R3 have
interchangeable parts and drop feed
action. They make a federal standard
301 lock stitch when set for straight
stitch. The 199R3 can make a federal
standard 308 zig-zag stitch with a center
row of stitches. The 199R also makes a Figure 9-4 — Consew 206RB sewing machine.
federal standard 304 zig-zag stitch. This
equipment is used for light to medium work.
• The Singer 111W155, and Consews have many interchangeable parts and compound feed
action with alternating presser feet. They make a federal standard 301 lock stitch and are used
for medium to heavy work. Each machine is equipped with a safety clutch.

9-4
Oscillating Sewing Machines
Oscillating sewing machines have an oscillating
shuttle that, instead of rotating in a full circle, rocks
back and forth through half of one revolution to
complete one stitch. The descriptive term “oscillating
shuttle” refers to the action of the sewing hook (the
way it makes a stitch in unison with the needle). In this
system, the hook picks up the upper thread from the
needle and carries it down around the bottom of the
bobbin cage. Once it has done this, the hook reverses
its direction and returns to its original location. Two
common oscillating sewing machines are the 31-15
and 7-33.
• The Singer 31-15 is an oscillating shuttle type
machine. It uses a drop feed action, makes a
Figure 9-5 — Consew 733R (class 7)
federal standard 301 lock stitch, and is used for
sewing machine.
light to medium work.
• The Singer 7-33 and the Consew 733R (Figure 9-5) are oscillating shuttle-type machines with
many interchangeable parts. They have drop feed action with alternating presser feet. They
make a federal standard 301 lock stitch and are used for heavy work. The Consew 733R
is also equipped with reverse feeding, foot operated lift, upper thread tension release, and
linkage driven fore and aft movement of rear presser foot.
Each model of sewing machine operates differently and has leading particulars to accommodate the
various types of fabric being sewn (Table 9-1).
Table 9-1 Leading Particulars

Maximum
Operating Foot
Needle Stitches Per
Model Needles Speed Stitches Clearance
Thread Inch (SPI)
Per Minute (Inch)
(SPM)
Consew 135 X 17 3,300 Left hand Twist 3 1/2 to 32 1/2
206RB
Consew 16 X 95 2,700 to 3,200 Left hand Twist 5 to 32 15/64
199R, 199R3
Singer 135 X 17 3,600, 3,500, Left hand Twist 3 1/2 to 32 1/2
111W155 3,600
Singer 31-15 16 X 87 2,200 Left hand Twist 7 to 32 5/16

Singer 7-33 7 X 1 or 550 Left hand Twist 2 to 8 9/16

Consew 733R 7X5 7/8
1000,
1000H
Schmetz

9-5
CONSEW 206RB SEWING MACHINE
Description
The Consew 206RB sewing machine (Figure 9-6) is a single-needle, compound-feed sewing machine
with alternating presser feet. This sewing machine makes the federal standard 301 lockstitch and
sews medium-heavy fabrics. It has a vertical-
axis rotating hook.
This sewing machine is a rotary-type sewing
machine equipped with two presser feet; one
is a vibrating presser foot, and the other is a
lifting presser foot. The front (vibrating) presser
foot, the needle, and the feed dogs move in
unison. Together, they move the cloth away
from the operator with each completed stitch.
The rear (lifting) presser foot holds the fabric in
place while the vibrating presser foot rises and
moves forward to start the feeding action for
another stitch.
This sewing machine is capable of operating
at a speed of 3,300 SPM. The stitch regulator
provides a range of 2 1/2 to 32 SPI. Figure 9-6 — Consew 206RB sewing machine.
The Consew 206RB’s alternating presser feet give it a more positive feeding action than previous
models. The Consew 206RB is an ideal sewing machine to use on medium-heavy fabrics such as
vinyl and canvas.

Preventive Maintenance
All sewing machines are subject to a pre-operational and a 28-day inspection.

! CAUTION !
Always refer to NAVAIR A6-215PC-MEB-000 technical
manual when performing maintenance or timing/adjustments
to industrial sewing machines.

Be sure to complete pre-operational inspections in accordance with applicable maintenance

requirement card (MRC), NAVAIR AG-280GT-SMA-MRC-000 to ensure equipment is not binding and
is clean and properly oiled.
Perform a 28-day inspection as the applicable chapter in the NAVAIR A6-215PC-MEB-000 technical
manual requires. If the sewing machine becomes sluggish, an accumulation of dust and lint or a loose
power belt may be the cause. To prevent the buildup of dust and lint, cover the sewing machine when
it is not in use.

9-6
Cleaning and Oiling
Before you attempt to oil or operate the sewing machine, wipe it down with a low-lint cloth. During
normal maintenance, you may use approved cleaning solvent to clean the sewing machine.
After you use a sewing machine, clean and oil it. A clean and well-oiled sewing machine gives you
many hours of trouble-free operation. You may clean hard-to-reach places with a soft-bristle brush or
with air pressure. Clean the outside of the sewing machine head, the oil pan, the machine stand, and
the motor casing with a clean dust cloth or air pressure. Never use air pressure above 25 pounds per
square inch (psi) for this purpose.

NOTE
At least once a year, thoroughly clean and oil the machine.
Figures 9-7 through Figure 9-9 show the oiling points on the
Consew 206RB sewing machine. Do not use too much oil; usually
1 drop of oil at each oiling point is sufficient. An excessive amount
of oil will soil the project being sewn. Recommend using a 10W
mineral-base oil. Use of castor-base oil is no longer required. If
this type of oil is not available through normal supply chains, use
the mineral oil or Singer Type B or D.

Figures 9-7 shows the (front view) oiling points on the Consew 206RB sewing machine.

Figure 9-7 — Front view of Model 206RB sewing machine showing oiling points.

9-7
Figure 9-8 shows the (rear view) oiling points on the Consew 206RB sewing machine.

Figure 9-8 — Rear view of Model 206RB sewing machine showing oiling points.
Figure 9-9 shows the (side view) oiling points on the Consew 206RB sewing machine.

Figure 9-9 — Side view of Model 206RB sewing machine showing

oiling points.
9-8
Replacing the Needle
The selection of needles by class, variety, and size for
different machines and materials is necessary to eliminate
thread breakage, needle breakage, skipped stitches, and
fraying of the thread. Needles for the various machine
classes are selected and ordered by needle number and
size. The needle numbers consist of a class number and
variety number separated by a ‘‘X”; for-example, the class
and variety needle 135 X 17 is used in the Consew 206RB
sewing machine.
Sewing machine needles (Figure 9-10) have a long groove
on one side, and either a short groove or a scarf on the
opposite side. The purpose of the grooves is to allow
the thread to fall back into the needle when it enters the
material to prevent the thread from breaking or fraying;
Figure 9-10 — Sewing machine needle.
therefore, it is important that the long groove be placed in
the machine properly. Needles are sized by the diameter or
gauge of the needle and the needle eye. The selection of the correct size needle is determined by the
size and type of thread and material used.
The needles used in the Consew 206RB series sewing machine have seven parts (Figure 9-10): the
shank, shaft, short-thread groove, long-thread groove, scarf, eye, and point.

How to Attach the Needle

The Consew 206RB is set up to use a needle of class and variety 135 X 17. The size of the needle
should be determined by the size
of the thread, which must pass
freely through the eye of the
needle. Figure 9-11 shows the
needle housing area for needle
attachment. Follow these steps to
attach the needle:
• Turn the machine pulley
over toward you until the
needle bar moves up to its
highest point.
• Loosen the needle set
screws and put the needle
up into the needle bar as
deeply as it will go, with
the long groove of the
needle facing the left.
• Tighten the needle screw
securely.

Figure 9-11 — Needle housing.

9-9
Thread
Though you should always use left twisted thread for upper (needle) thread, you can use right or left
twisted thread for lower (bobbin) thread.

Winding the Lower Thread on the Bobbin

The steps for winding the lower thread on the bobbin are as follows:
• Push a bobbin on the bobbin winder spindle (Figure 9-12) as far as it will go.
• Pass the thread from the thread stand downward through the eye in the tension bracket, then
between and around the back of the tension disc.
• Bring the thread forward toward the bobbin. Wind clockwise several times around the bobbin
from below.
• Push the lever toward the other side so that the pulley and V belt will engage, and then start
the machine.
• The pulley will automatically be free from the belt and will stop when the bobbin is filled with
thread.

Figure 9-12 — Bobbin housing.

Uneven Winding
If the thread does not wind evenly on the bobbin, loosen the screw in the tension bracket; move the
bracket to the right or to the left as required, and then tighten the screws.

Amount of Wound Thread

The adjustment screw can be turned in or out to increase or to decrease the amount of thread wound
on the bobbin.

Winding Strength
Adjust the strength of the winding with the nut.

9-10
Removing and Inserting the Bobbin
Lift the needle bar to its highest point, place the feed dog in its travel, turn the machine pulley, and
open the slide plate.
Pass your left hand under table into opening on drip pan. With the left thumb and index finger, open
the hinged latch and pull bobbin case and bobbin from rotary hook. While the latch is open, retain
the bobbin in the bobbin case. Releasing the latch and turning the open side of the bobbin case
downward will cause the bobbin to drop out.
Hold the bobbin between the thumb and forefinger of your right hand and pull out a length of about 5
cm of thread. Holding the bobbin case in your left hand, turn the open side up and place the threaded
bobbin into it.
With the right hand, guide the thread into the slot in the edge of the bobbin case. Then, pull the thread
to the left under the tension spring and into the delivery eye (Figure 9-13). In order to keep the bobbin
from dropping out of the case
when it is turned with the open
side down, always keep the hinged
latch at the front of the bobbin
case open.
Take the threaded bobbin case
by the latch and press the bobbin
case onto the center stud until the
latch catches the undercut with a
click. Permit about 5 centimeters
(cm) of bobbin thread to hang
down freely. Be sure to push the
slide plate to the right before
beginning to sew.

Figure 9-13 — Bobbin tension spring.

9-11
Threading the Machine
Raise the needle bar to its highest point and lead the thread from the thread stand in the following
order:
1. From the thread stand, lead the thread from back to front through the upper guide hole in the
pin (Figure 9-14, view 1) on the top of the machine arm, then again from right to left through
the lower guide hole in
this pin.
2. Pass thread in a weaving
fashion through the three
holes in guide (Figure
9-14, view 2). Pass thread
from right to left, over and
between the tension discs.
Continue around the
disc, wrapping the thread
clockwise around the
tension pin (Figure 9-14,
view 3).
3. Pull thread downward and
from right to left beneath
and around thread
controller (Figure 9-14,
view 4). Continue to pull
thread upward against
the pressure of the wire
spring into the fork (Figure
9-14, view 5) in the thread
controller.
4. Guide upward through the
point of controller discs
(Figure 9-14, view 6) and
thread guide (Figure 9-14,
view 7) and from right to
left through the eye of the
take-up lever (Figure 9-14,
view 8), down through
the upper thread guide
(Figure 9-14, view 7),
through the middle thread Figure 9-14 — Threading the machine.
guide (Figure 9-14, view
9), through the lower thread guide felt (Figure 9-14, view 10), through the needle bar thread
guide (Figure 9-14, view 11), and then left to right through the eye of the needle (Figure 9-14,
view 12).
5. After threading, hold the end of thread with your left hand and turn the machine pulley with
your right hand so that needle thread may pick up bobbin thread. Put the ends of thread back
through under the presser foot for starting operation.

9-12
Removing Your Work
Raise the thread take-up lever to its highest point. As the thread take up lever is just slightly beginning
its downward movement, lift the presser foot and draw the material back and to the left. Cut the
threads close to the material.

Regulating the Thread Tensions

For ordinary stitching, the tension of the upper and lower threads should be equal so as to lock both
threads in the center of the material. Figure 9-15 displays an example of the correct thread tension.

Figure 9-15 — Correct thread tension.

If the tension on either thread is stronger than on the other, imperfect stitching will result. If the tension
on the upper thread is greater than the lower thread, it will lie straight along the upper surface of the
material. Figure 9-16 displays an example of tight thread tension.

Figure 9-16 — Tight thread tension.

If the tension on the lower thread is greater than the upper thread, the lower thread will lie straight
along the underside of the material. Figure 9-17 displays an example of loose thread tension.

Figure 9-17 — Loose thread tension.

Tension of the Upper (Needle) Thread

Before adjusting the tension of the upper (needle) thread, be certain that the presser foot is let down
and not in a lifted position. To adjust tension, turn the serrated nut on tension device to the right to
increase tension and to the left to decrease tension.

9-13
Tension of the Lower (Bobbin) Thread
The larger screw near the end of the spring at the outside of the bobbin case controls the lower
(Bobbin) thread tension. Turning the screw to the right (clockwise) will increase the thread tension,
while turning it to the left (counter-clockwise) will decrease it.

Adjusting the Pressure on the Material

Adjust the presser foot pressure by turning the adjustment screw located on the top center of the
sewing machine arm. Turn the screw to the right to increase pressure and to the left to decrease
pressure.

Adjustments and Timing for the Consew 206RB Machine

Adjustments and timing are the most important steps when working on any machine.

Stitch Length Setting

While pressing the stopper (Figure 9-18), turn the stitch length dial to the left or right to align the stitch
length number with the reference line on the stopper. The larger the number, the longer the stitch
length will be.
To reverse stitching, press down on the reverse stitching lever.

NOTE
When turning the stitch length dial from a larger setting to a smaller
setting, it will be easier to turn the dial if the reverse stitching lever
(Figure 9-18) is pushed to the halfway-down position.

Figure 9-18 — Stitch length adjustment.

9-14
Bobbin Thread Tension Adjustment
Adjust the bobbin thread tension by turning the screw clockwise to increase tension or
counterclockwise to decrease it (Figure 9-19).

Needle Thread Tension Adjustment

Adjust the needle thread tension by turning the serrated nut right or left on the tension adjustment
assembly.

Feed Dog Height Adjustment

Proper feed dog height is necessary to obtain proper feeding action. To set the feed dog, proceed as
follows:
• Turn the balance wheel toward the operator until the feed dog reaches its highest point (Figure
9-20), and observe the relationship of the feed dog and the throat plate.
• If the valley between the teeth is level with the top of the throat plate, the feed dog height is
correct.

Figure 9-19 — Bobbin adjusting screw. Figure 9-20 — Feed dog height.

9-15
If the valley is not level, loosen the bell crank screw (Figure 9-21, view 1), adjust the height of the
feed dog up or down as necessary to obtain the proper feed dog height, and tighten the screw.

Figure 9-21 — Bell crank and set screws.

Needle Bar Height Adjustment

Loosen the screw and raise or lower the needle bar as required, tightening the screw when finished
(Figure 9-22).

Figure 9-22 — Needle bar adjustment screw.

9-16
Hook and Needle Timing
For this sequence, we will consider that the machine has no timing marks on the needle bar. After
adjusting your needle bar height, set the stitch length to zero. Turn the balance wheel toward you until
the needle bar reaches its lowest point.
• Remove the throat plate, the feed dog, and the presser feet.
• Turn the balance wheel toward the operator until the needle is raised two millimeters (mm)
from its lowest point.
The point of the sewing hook should be at the center of the needle scarf, and the measurement
between the hook point and the upper end of the needle eye should be 2.4 mm. The clearance
between the hook point and the needle hollow should be about .05 to .1 mm for the hook and needle
bar to be in time. If not, proceed to the following steps:
• Loosen the three setscrews closest to the face of the machine on the safety clutch, and turn
the hook shaft to align the hook point with the center of the needle.
• Re-tighten the three screws and check timing of the sewing hook.
• Hook point and needle hollow adjustment can be made by loosening two screws (Figure 9-23)
and moving hook to the right or the left as needed. Re-tighten when done.

NOTE
One of the two screws is on the “V” ditch of the hook
shaft and must remain there during adjustment.

Figure 9-23 — Hook point and needle hollow.

9-17
Presser-Feet Height Adjustment
To adjust the presser bar lifter proceed as follows:
• Loosen the screw (Figure 9-24, View 1) sufficiently, raise the presser bar lifter and loosen the
set screw (Figure 9-24, View 2).
• Move the lift presser foot up or down for correct height, and re-tighten screws.

Figure 9-24 — Presser bar screws (with cutaway).

9-18
Alternating Presser Feet
To adjust the presser foot proceed as follows:
• Lower the presser bar lifter.
• While holding the vibrating presser foot (Figure 9-25), loosen the hexagon screw and move the
presser foot up or down as needed.
• Re-tighten all screws.

NOTE
If the height of the lifting presser foot changes you must
adjust the vibrating presser foot.

Vibrating Presser Foot Timing

Set the lift of the alternating presser feet to equal and then loosen the two screws and adjust the
rotating position of the cam faster or slower as needed. Re-tighten all screws.

Figure 9-25 — Lifting presser foot.

9-19
Adjusting the Bobbin Case Opener
The bobbin case opener facilitates the passage of the needle thread loop by slightly nudging the
bobbin case holder, creating a slight rotating movement of the same. This movement at that very
instant opens a clearance gap between the notch on the bobbin case holder and the tab of the hood
retainer, permitting the needle thread loop to be drawn easily through the gap. Figure 9-26 shows the
bottom of Consew 206RB.

Figure 9-26 — Bottom of Consew 206RB sewing machine.

Adjust the bobbin case opener (Figure 9-27) as follows:

Clearance between the opener and the projection hook:
Loosen the screw. Adjust the clearance between the projection of hook
and the opener by moving thread and releasing shaft bushing to the right
or left as required. The standard clearance between two parts is 0.8 mm.
Tighten the screw securely.
Position of the opener cam:
Place one of the screws, which is indicated by “S”, on V ditch of the hook
shaft.
Adjusting operation:
Turn the machine pulley until the opener presses the projection of the
hook extremely on its travel. Press the opener to the projection of the
hook, and make the right side clearance between the notch on the
bobbin case holder and the tab of the hook retainer 0.2 mm. Perform this
Figure 9-27 — Bobbin adjustment by loosening the screw.
case area for the Consew
206RB sewing machine.

9-20
Adjustment of the Clearance between Feed Forked Connection and the Feed Fork Collar
Figure 9-28 shows the top cover removed on the Consew 206RB sewing machine.
Incorrect clearance between the fork of the feed forked connection and feed fork collar will bring
irregular stitch length, overheating, or other issues. To adjust the clearance, open the cover plate.
• To increase the clearance, loosen the screw and turn the screw to the left or counter clockwise.
• To decrease the clearance, loosen the screw and turn the screw to the right or clockwise.
Make this adjustment while turning the machine pulley toward you to ensure correct clearance. Re-
tighten screws when you have reached the desired tension.

Figure 9-28 — Top with cover removed.

9-21
Adjusting the Thread Controller Spring
The thread controller spring (Figure 9-29) should hold the slack of the upper thread until the needle
reaches to the goods, and it should pause while raising the needle and passing the upper thread
through the bobbin case.
• For more controller action on the thread, loosen the stop screw and move the stop to the right.
• For less action, move it to the left. Tighten the screw.
To adjust the tension of the spring, loosen the serrated nut and the screw.
• Turn the tension stud slightly to the left to strengthen the tension (to lighten the tension turn to
the right) with a screw driver.
• Tighten the screw and nut when complete.

Figure 9-29 — Thread controller spring.

9-22
Adjusting the Spring Tension of Safety Clutch
A safety clutch protects the sewing hook and its mechanism. If you need to adjust the spring tension,
use the following procedure.
• Depress the button in the bed plate of the machine with your left hand. At the same time, turn
the machine pulley strongly so that the safety clutch disengages.
• Lay down the machine head toward the other side. Hold the safety clutch (left) (Figure 9-30)
and turn the safety clutch (right) until you see the screw through the hole.
• To strengthen the tension of the spring, turn the screw to the right.
• To loosen, turn to the left.
• When done adjusting, depress the button. At the same time, turn the machine pulley until the
safety clutch re-engages.
This completes all the necessary timing and adjusting on the Consew 206RB sewing machine. If you
still have a problem, refer to the troubleshooting portion of the NAVAIR A6-215PC-MEB-000 technical
manual.

Figure 9-30 — Spring tension of the safety clutch.

9-23
Troubleshooting
While making adjustments to or timing the sewing machine, you may overlook a step or a faulty part.
The troubleshooting chart (Table 9-2) will help you locate and correct most problems.
Table 9-2 — Troubleshooting chart

Fault Probable Cause Remedy

Stitching Problems
Needle improperly installed Remove and install correctly
Needle threaded from wrong side Thread needle left to right
Damaged or wrong variety
Replace with proper needle
(length) needle
Needle bar out of time Time the needle bar
Hook guard out of adjustment Adjust hook guard
Skipped stitches or
failure to stitch Hook tip damaged Grind or replace hook
Hook out of time Time hook
Needle bar bent Straighten or replace needle bar
Needle wandering to and from Tighten needle bar vibrator frame
operator hinge and guide
Goods not held to throat plate on Set presser bar properly and/or
up stroke needle increase pressure on presser foot

Improper needle thread tension Adjust needle thread tension

Improper bobbin thread tension Adjust bobbin thread tension

Stitches not locking in
center of goods Run upper thread through tension
Upper thread not in tension disc
disc
Improper release lever
Adjust releasing lever
adjustment
Upper thread has insufficient Place thread in tension disc and test
tension or is out of disc tension
Hold tail thread while starting
Tail threads loose
operation
Thread jamming Bobbin case position finger too
Adjust bobbin case position finger
tight
Bobbin case position finger not
Engage finger with bobbin case
engaged in case
Hook out of time Time the hook and needle

9-24
 Table 9-2 — Troubleshooting chart (cont)

Fault Probable Cause Remedy

Needle piercing its own thread Adjust thread controller

Time needle bar, check needle for

Hook piercing thread
damage, and/or time hook
Thread breakage Excessive upper and lower
Adjust both tensions
thread tensions
Backlash in bobbin Use backlash eliminator
Thread breakage occurs when Adjust or repair thread tension
goods are removed for machine release unit or lifting bracket
Feeding Problems
Feeding less than
Feed driving eccentric out of time Time feed eccentric
indicated or backward
Stitch length set at minimum Set stitch length
Feed driving rock shaft loose Tighten pinch screw
Will not feed
Presser bar out of adjustment Adjust presser bar
Feed dogs too low Adjust feed dogs
Goods moving
Improper vibrating time Time vibrator
sideways
Miscellaneous
Problems
Operating machine without
Unthread when running without fabric
material
Failure to hold free ends of
Maintain pressure
thread for first stitches
Bobbin case opener incorrectly
Readjust opener
set
Thread jamming Needle thread not between
Thread discs
tension discs
Hook too high Lower hook
Turning balance wheel
Remove jam
backwards with needle threaded
Thread, dirt, lint under bobbin
Remove, clean, and replace case
case
Improper oil or accumulation of Clean with recommended solvent
Sluggish
foreign matter and lubricant

9-25
SINGER 31-15 SEWING MACHINE
Description
The Singer 31-15 sewing machine (Figure 9-31) is an
oscillating-type sewing machine that has a maximum
speed of 2,200 stitches per minute. These sewing
machines also make the federal standard 301 lockstitch
and are commonly called tailoring machines. The 31-15
sewing machine is intended for sewing clothing such as
flight suits and is excellent for sewing lightweight canvas
up to 8 ounces.
The Singer 31-15 sewing machine has a stitch range of 7
to 32 SPI, a clearance of five-sixteenths of an inch under
the presser foot, and uses a drop-feeding action.
Figure 9-31 — Singer 31-15 sewing
Preventive Maintenance machine.
Preventive maintenance for the Singer 31-15 sewing machine is the same as that for the Consew
206RB sewing machine. Although the preventive maintenance is the same, the oiling points differ
because of the design of the machine.

! CAUTION !
Always refer to NAVAIR A6-215PC-MEB-000 technical
manual when performing maintenance or timing/adjustments
to industrial sewing machines.

All sewing machines are subject to a pre-operational and a 28-day inspection. Be sure to complete
pre-operational inspections in accordance with applicable maintenance requirement card (MRC),
NAVAIR AG-280GT-SMA-MRC-000 to ensure equipment is not binding and is clean and properly
oiled.
Perform a 28 day inspection as required by the applicable chapter in the NAVAIR A6-215PC-
MEB-000 technical manual. If the sewing machine becomes sluggish, an accumulation of dust and
lint or a loose power belt may be the cause. To prevent the buildup of dust and lint, cover the sewing
machine when it is not in use.

9-26
In Figure 9-32 through Figure 9-34, the blue arrows show the oiling points for the 31-15 sewing
machine. When you oil this machine, remember that 1 drop of a 10W mineral oil at each oiling point is
sufficient. Too much oil may soil the project being sewn.

Figure 9-32 — Front view of oiling points on the model 31-15 sewing machine.

Figure 9-33 — Rear view of the model 31-15 sewing

machine.
9-27
 Figure 9-34 — Bottom view of oiling points on the model 31-15 sewing machine.

Timing and Adjustments

The 31-15 sewing machine is the simplest sewing machine in the parachute loft. As with all
oscillating-shuttle machines, the main timing point is the needle bar. Once the needle bar is properly
set, only minor adjustments are necessary to have a smooth-running sewing machine. Remember,
always refer to the troubleshooting chart before making any adjustment.

Timing the Needle with the Shuttle

When the needle and shuttle are correctly timed, the point of the shuttle on its forward stroke must
pass across the center of the diameter of the needle at a point one-sixteenth of an inch above the eye
of the needle when the needle is on its upstroke.
To time the machine so the needle and shuttle
operate properly, proceed as follows. Be sure that
the needle is a class 16 and a variety 87 (16 x 87).
Place the needle into the needle bar as far as it
will go.
Be sure the long thread groove faces the left and
the eye of the needle is in line with the shuttle
point. Remove the faceplate and loosen the needle
bar connecting stud pinch screw. Turn the balance
wheel toward the operator until the needle bar is
on its upstroke and the point of the shuttle is in the
center of the diameter of the needle. Adjust the
needle bar so that the eye of the needle is one-
sixteenth of an inch below the shuttle point. Then,
retighten the needle bar connecting stud pinch
screw (Figure 9-35).

Figure 9-35 — Setting needle bar.

9-28
 NOTE
The main timing point for the 31-15 sewing machine is the needle bar.

Adjusting the Feed Dog Height

For average weight material, a full tooth should be visible when the feed dogs are at their highest
point.
To adjust the feed dog height proceed as follows:
• Loosen the feed lifting crank pinch screw (Figure 9-36) in the feed lifting crank and move the
feed bar up or down as required.
• Retighten the feed lifting crank pinch screw.

Figure 9-36 — Adjusting feed dogs.

Centering the Feeding Action

To adjust the feeding action proceed as follows:
• Set the sewing machine to its maximum stitch length.
• Loosen the feed-driving rockshaft crank pinch screw.
• Rotate the feed-driving rockshaft so that the feed dog’s movement is an equal distance from
the front and rear of the throat plate slots.
• Then, retighten the feed-driving rockshaft crank pinch screw.

9-29
Setting Side Play of Feed Dogs
Use the following procedure to set the side play of feed dogs:
• Loosen the adjusting screw locknuts (Figure 9-37).
• Adjust the feed-driving rockshaft to center the side play of the feed dogs by turning the
adjusting screws left or right as needed; then, retighten the adjusting screw locknuts.
• Be sure the adjusting screw locknuts hold the feed-driving rockshaft snugly in place without
binding.

Figure 9-37 — Centering feeding action.

Timing the Feed-Driving Eccentric

Use the following procedure to time the feed-driving eccentric:
• Set the stitch regulator to its lowest point. This gives the operator maximum stitch length of 7
SPI.
• Rotate the balance wheel toward the operator until the feed dogs complete their movement aft
and before they begin to drop.
• At this point, the needle must be on the down stroke and 1/8 of an inch above the throat plate.
If this does not occur, perform the following trial-and-error sequence:
◦ Open the cover located on the rear of the up rise.
◦ Rotate the balance wheel until the feed-driving eccentric setscrew becomes visible.
◦ Loosen the screw.

9-30
 ◦ Place your finger or a screwdriver on the feed-driving eccentric (Figure 9-38) to hold the
eccentric in place, and rotate the balance wheel a short distance.
◦ Retighten the feed-driving eccentric
setscrew.
◦ Continue repeating this procedure
until the feed driving eccentric is
properly timed.

Setting the Presser Bar

Use the following procedure to set the presser
bar:
• Turn the balance wheel until the feed
dogs are just below the top of the throat
plate.
• Loosen the presser bar guide lever
setscrew.
• Push the presser firmly against the throat
plate, aligning the slot between the toes
of the presser foot with the hole in the
throat plate. Figure 9-38 — Feed-driving eccentric.

• Tighten the presser bar guide lever setscrew.

This completes the timing and adjustment procedures for the Singer 31-15 sewing machine.

9-31
SINGER 7-33 AND CONSEW 733R SEWING MACHINES
Description
The class 7 sewing machine is a lockstitch heavy duty machine, and is intended for use in sewing
heavy canvas, nylon webbings, and other material not adaptable to the lighter duty sewing machines.
There are several models of Class 7 sewing machine (Figure 9-39); however, all of them have the
same basic repair and upkeep procedures.
The only difference between the 7-33 and the 733R is that the 7-33 is manufactured by Singer and
the 733R is manufactured by Consew. The operation and maintenance techniques are identical. The
procedure for operating the 7-33 sewing machine is the same as for the 31-15 sewing machine. As
with all sewing machines, the balance wheel of the 7-33 and the 733R should always turn toward the
operator. The Singer 7-33, and the Consew 733R and are oscillating shuttle-type machines with many
interchangeable parts. They have drop feed action with alternating presser feet. The Consew 733R is
set up to use a needle of class and variety 7 X 1 or 7 X 5. They make a federal standard 301 lock
stitch and are used for heavy work. The Consew 733R is also equipped with reverse feeding, foot
operated lift, upper thread tension release, and linkage-driven fore and aft movement of rear presser
foot. These sewing machines are capable of operating at a speeds of 550 SPM. The stitch regulator
provides a range of 2 to 8 SPI. The Singer 7-33 has a presser foot clearance of nine-sixteenth inch.
The Consew 733R has a presser foot clearance of seven-eighths inch. The Consew 733R-3 is the
selected model for this chapter. The main physical difference is that this model incorporates a
ratcheting hand wheel on the front.

Figure 9-39 — Class 7 heavy duty sewing machines.

9-32
Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance for the Singer 7-33 sewing machine is the same as that for the Consew
733R-3 sewing machine. Although the preventive maintenance is the same, the oiling points differ
because of the design of the machine.

! CAUTION !
Always refer to NAVAIR A6-215PC-MEB-000 technical
manual when performing maintenance or timing/
adjustments to industrial sewing machines.

All sewing machines are subject to a pre-operational and a 28-day inspection. Be sure to complete
pre-operational inspections in accordance with applicable maintenance requirement card (MRC),
NAVAIR AG-280GT-SMA-MRC-000 to ensure equipment is not binding and is clean and properly
oiled (Figure 9-40).
Perform a 28-day inspection as required by the applicable chapter in the NAVAIR A6-215PC-
MEB-000 technical manual.
If the sewing machine becomes sluggish, an accumulation of dust and lint or a loose power belt may
be the cause. To prevent the buildup of dust and lint, cover the sewing machine when it is not in use
(Figure 9-41).

Figure 9-40 — Cleaning and oiling the Figure 9-41 — Covering the sewing
sewing machine. machine.

9-33
Timing and Adjustments
The timing and adjustments for the Singer 7-33 and Consew 733R-3 (Figure 9-42) sewing machines
are the same. To provide optimum results, you must follow the correct sequence when timing the
Consew 733R-3 sewing machine.
The steps are as follows:
• Time the needle bar. NOTE
The needle bar is the main timing point in all
• Set maximum stitch length.
oscillating shuttle type machines. This is because
• Set the feed dog height. under normal conditions the shuttle drive is fixed
with tapered pins that allow no adjustment.
• Center the feeding action.
• Time the feed driving cam.
• Adjust total lift.
• Adjust relative lift.

Figure 9-42 — Consew 733R-3 sewing machine.

9-34
Timing of the Needle Bar
Figure 9-43 shows the needle bar timing procedures and the locations on the sewing machine. The
steps are as follows:
• Remove the throat plate and feed dogs.
• Ensure the needle is the right class and variety and is properly installed and the long thread
groove is to the left and seated all the way in the needle bar.
• Turn the balance wheel until the needle reaches its lowest point.
• Continue turning the balance wheel toward the operator until the shuttle point comes in line
with the center of the needle. The needle should have risen approximately 1/4”.
• Raise or lower the needle bar as needed, until the top of the eye of the needle is 1/8” below
the point of the shuttle.
• Once the needle bar is positioned, tighten the needle bar clamp screws.

Figure 9-43 — Consew 733R-3 needle bar timing.

9-35
Adjusting the Shuttle Sideways
Figures 9-44 through Figure 9-47 show the four basic steps to adjust the shuttle.
• Loosen the shuttle yoke clamp pinch screw.
• Using two rawhide mallets move the shuttle
assembly to or from the needle until the NOTE
distance between the needle and the shuttle
It may be necessary to move the
point is .003 to .005”, or as close as possible
shuttle to or from the needle when
without touching.
the needle size is changed.
• Tighten the shuttle yoke clamp pinch screw.
• Install the throat plate and feed dogs.

Figure 9-44 — Needle and shuttle Figure 9-45 — Location of pinch screw
hook. underneath sewing machine.

Figure 9-46 — Adjusting shuttle hook. Figure 9-47 — Tighten pinch screw.

9-36
Adjusting the Feed Driving and Feed Lifting Rockshaft
Figure 9-48 shows the feed drive and feed lifting rockshaft adjustment procedures. To adjust the
centers:
• Loosen the feed driving or feed lifting rockshaft center lock nuts at both ends of the shaft
selected for adjustment.
◦ To move the shaft left, loosen the left center and tighten the right center.
◦ To move the shaft right, loosen the right center and tighten the left center.
• Tighten one of the lock nuts while preventing the center from turning.
• Back off 1/2 turn on the center that is still free.
• Hold the center from turning and tighten the remaining lock nut.
Grasp the rockshaft and check for end play by trying to move the shaft from end to end. Also check
for binds. If either are present, loosen the lock nuts and adjust as necessary.

NOTE
The feed rockshafts pivot on pointed screws (feed driving and feed
lifting rockshaft centers) that are adjusted to eliminate lost motion
(end play or slack). Setting these centers too tight causes binding. If
the centers are too loose, the same effect will result.
The feed driving rockshaft centers are used to center the feed dogs
sideways in their slots in the throat plate. The feed lifting rockshaft
centers are used to center the feed lifting connection sideways, to
prevent binding at the connection joint and at the eccentric.

Figure 9-48 — Drive and lifting rockshaft centering.

9-37
Setting the Feed Dog Height
Figure 9-49 shows the feed dog height adjustment procedures. To adjust the height:
• Turn the balance wheel towards the operator until the feed dogs reach their highest position.
• If the valley of the feed dog is level with the top of the throat plate, the feed dog height is
correct. If not, correct it by:
◦ Loosening the feed lifting rockshaft crank pinch screw and pushing the feed bar up or down
to obtain the proper feed dog height.
◦ Then tightening the pinch screw.

NOTE
Proper feed dog height is necessary to obtain proper feeding
action. Set it prior to timing the feed driving eccentric.

Figure 9-49 — Adjusting the feed dog height.

9-38
Centering the Feeding Action
Figure 9-50 shows the feeding action centering adjustment procedures. To adjust the height proceed
as follows:.

NOTE
To properly time this class machine the feeding action
must be timed and the stitch length must be set
before the feed driving cam is timed.

• Set the maximum stitch length (2 SPI).

• Turn the balance wheel toward the operator and observe the movement of the feed dogs to
see if they strike the throat plate. If the feed dogs strike the front or back of the throat plate,
proceed as follows:
◦ Loosen the feed driving rockshaft crank pinch screw underneath the machine bed and push
the feed dogs away from the point where it strikes.
◦ Tighten the pinch screw.
◦ Observe the movement of the feed dogs, if they strike, repeat the steps.

Figure 9-50 — Feed action centering.

9-39
Timing the Feed Driving Cam
Figure 9-51 shows the feed driving cam timing adjustment procedures. To adjust the timing proceed
as follows:
• Set maximum stitch length.
• Turn the balance wheel toward the operator until the feed dogs have moved as far away as
possible, but before they start to drop.
• The needle should be about 1/2” above the throat plate when entering the work; if it is not,
proceed as follows:
◦ Loosen the feed driving cam setscrew (Figure 9-51).
◦ Hold the cam and turn the balance wheel about 1/4 turn.
◦ Tighten the setscrews.
◦ Repeat the steps as necessary to achieve proper distance.

Figure 9-51 — Feed driving cam adjustment.

9-40
Adjusting the Total Relative Lift of the Pressers
Figure 9-52 shows the total relative lift adjustment procedures. To adjust the pressers proceeded as
follows:
• Loosen the lock nut.
• Move the connection:
◦ Down to attain maximum lift.
◦ Up to attain less than maximum lift.
• Tighten the lock nut.

Figure 9-52 — Total relative lift of the pressers.

9-41
Adjusting the Relative Lift of the Alternating Presser Feet
Figure 9-53 shows the relative lift adjustment procedures. To adjust the pressers proceeded as
follows:

NOTE
Proper adjustment of the relative lift of the alternating presser
feet should allow the presser feet to lift the same amount. You
can observe this adjustment while turning the balance wheel and
watching the action of the presser feet.

• Turn the balance wheel until the presser feet are both on the throat plate.
• Loosen the presser bar guide clamp pinch screw.
• Turn the balance wheel until the presser bar moves about 1/4” up or down in its guide clamp.
• Tighten the presser bar guide clamps pinch screws.
• Watch the action of the presser feet while turning the balance wheel.
◦ Observe the relative lift of the presser feet.
◦ If adjustment is still indicated, repeat the steps.

Figure 9-53 — Relative lift adjustment.

9-42
How to Attach the Needle
Move the needle bar to the highest point. Loosen the needle set screw. Insert needle up as far
as possible, setting its long groove towards the left. Tighten the needle set screw securely. The
procedure for ordering needles is the same as for the 7-33 and the 733R sewing machines. Refer to
Table 9-3 for the relative sizes of needles and thread.

Table 9-3 — Relative Sizes of Needles and Thread

Needle Class Classes of Needle
Machine Needle Sizes Cord Size
and Variety Work Sizes
19, 21, 22, Medium
7-33 7X1 23, 24, 25, to heavy 24 3 cord
26, and 27 canvas
Heavy
28, 29, 30,
7-33 7X5 canvas and 28 6 cord
and 31
webbing
19, 21, 22, Medium
7 X 1 or 23, 24, 25, to heavy 24 3 cord
7X5 26, and 27 canvas
7-33R 1000,
1000H Heavy
28, 29, 30,
Schmetz canvas and 28 6 cord
and 31
webbing

Proper Thread Routing

Figure 9-54 shows the proper thread routing
procedures:

NOTE
Proper thread routing is particular
to different thread sizes.

1. Turn the balance wheel until the thread take-

up lever is at the highest point.
2. The starting point will be at the thread guide,
top center of arm, through the wax pot (if
installed).
3. Pass the thread through the pre-tension disc Figure 9-54 — Thread routing for Consew
down to the thread tension wheel (2 turns 733R-3.
with 6 cord or 3 cord), (1 turn with FF or E thread) through the thread spring controller.
4. Go back down through the slack thread regulator.
5. Go up through the take-up lever on the face through the thread guide on the presser bar, and
needle bar.
6. Complete by going through the eye of the needle.
9-43
Make the tension adjustment by turning the two thumb nuts located on the machine face. Turning the
thumbscrews clockwise will increase thread
tension and counter-clockwise will decrease
thread tension (Figure 9-55).
It is important to have the upper sewing thread
routed correctly through the face of the
machine in order to have proper tension
(Figure 9-56).

Figure 9-55 — Tension adjustments.

Figure 9-56 — Thread controller.

9-44
Bobbin Replacement
Figure 9-57 shows bobbin replacement procedures:
• The bobbin thread adjustment screw is located on the shuttle cylinder. Turning the adjustment
screw in either direction will increase or decrease tension.
• Pull on the bobbin thread while adjusting to feel the effects of the adjustment. The tension
should be very light, but some tension is necessary.
• To change the bobbin, insert the opener tool into the shuttle cylinder area. Press down on the
spring loaded latch to swing open the cylinder. The bobbin should drop out if the cylinder is
positioned downward.
• When re-installing the bobbin, ensure that the thread is under the bobbin tension spring and
the bobbin turns the opposite way from the way the thread is dispensed.

Figure 9-57 — Bobbin replacement.

9-45
SUMMARY
Maintaining ALSS requires the safe and proper use of industrial sewing equipment. This chapter has
dealt with various classes of industrial sewing equipment for use in fabrication and manufacturing
ALSS as well as non-aeronautical equipment. Sewing machines are a necessity for performing the
duties of a PR. They are tools of the trade. Naval technical publications and TDs will direct you to
perform many repairs. It is extremely important that you hone your sewing skills to perform these
tasks. Always mentally prepare yourself for sewing. Think about what you are doing; never approach
any sewing project without motivation. Be critical of all your measurements, measure twice and cut
only once. Producing a quality product while operating industrial sewing machines only develops with
a focused mind. Always perform your pre-operational inspection and wear your personal protective
equipment. Remember, safety always comes first.

9-46
 CHAPTER 10

FABRICATION AND MANUFACTURE

As an Aircrew Survival Equipmentman (PR),
you need to know what materials are best
suited for the job at hand if you are to be a
master craftsman of your trade (Figure 10-1).
Therefore, to lay the groundwork to aid you in
becoming a skilled PR, this chapter discusses
most of the common textile materials, tapes,
webbing, thread, cords, knots, and seams
you will use with most Aviation Life Support
Systems (ALSS).
You can accomplish many required repairs by
replacing missing or worn hardware. There
are occasions when minor repairs require
hand sewing because machine sewing is
impractical or impossible. For instance, it might
be advisable to make minor repairs to aircraft
upholstery by hand sewing the repair in the
aircraft rather than by bringing the item to the
shop. On the other hand, you will use sewing
machines for most sewing. Seams created with Figure 10-1 — PR pride and professionalism.
a sewing machine are often sewn more quickly
and are usually more durable than hand-sewn
seams. The sewing machine also gives the seam a better appearance. To do your job correctly, you
must be able to identify and craft the various types of handmade and machine-made seams.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
1. Identify terminology and special hand tools used to cut, lay out, and fabricate specified
projects.
2. Identify the hardware and procedures used to cut, lay out, and fabricate specified projects.
3. Determine the seams and knots used to design fabrication patterns.
4. Recognize safety precautions to follow when utilizing the tools and equipment to cut, lay out,
and fabricate specified projects.

10-1
TEXTILE MATERIALS AND TERMINOLOGY
Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibers. A textile or cloth is a flexible material
consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibers (yarn or thread). These are terms that textile
manufacturers use—terms that are standard throughout the textile industry. The Navy uses these
standardized textile terms to identify and classify materials on Navy stock lists.
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) corporation was formed to develop standards
on characteristics and performance of materials, products, systems, and services. In ASTM
terminology, standards include test methods, definitions, recommended practices, classifications,
and specifications. The Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR) 13(series) technical manuals refer
to the ASTM standards for the repair and modifications sections of all ALSS. Table 10-1 lists ASTM
standards available, but is not all inclusive.

Table 10-1 — Reference Documents

Reference Title Scope

Standard Terminology This terminology consists mostly of definitions
ASTM-D-123
Relating to Textiles specific to the textile industry.
Test Methods for Sewing These test methods can be used to evaluate
ASTM-D-204
Threads sewing threads of any fiber.
Seam engineering, the determination of the best
Standard Practice for
ASTM-D-6193 stitch type, seam configuration, and thread type
Stitches and Seams
that should be used for a particular assembly.
The primary concern in repairing an assembly is to maintain the basic structural integrity designed
into the assembly. This is necessary for the safety of the aircrew who uses the parachute assembly or
parachute restraint harness.
Technical Directives (TDs) are letter- and
message-type directives that direct engineering
changes and onetime inspections of ALSS
equipment. In addition, TDs provide the
technical information necessary to properly
inspect or alter the configuration of ALSS or
equipment.
TDs in the form of Aircrew System Changes
(ACCs) and Aircrew System Bulletins (ACBs)
contain terms and fabrication requirements to
comply with repair and modification instructions.
However, it is important to understand the
textile terminology ACCs and ACBs use to
comply with these repair instructions. Figure
10-2 is an example of textile terminology that
you will find in TDs and the NAVAIR 13(series)
technical manuals.

Figure 10-2 — Texile terminology for repairs.

10-2
Fiber and Filament
Fiber is the basic unit in the fabrication of textile yarns and fabrics. Vegetable, animal, and mineral
fibers are natural fibers; nylon, dacron, and rayon are synthetic fibers, usually referred to as filaments.
A filament is an individual strand of material and can be any length. Fibers and filaments are the
smallest unit in any type of cloth (Figure 10-3). An example is a silk fiber, which may vary in length
from 300 to 1,000 yards. Synthetic filaments may be several miles long.

Staple
The staple is the smallest unit within a naturally
occurring fiber, or a synthetic filament cut in
short lengths to combine with other fibers in
manufacturing a variety of materials. In reference
to the naturally occurring fibers, staple denotes
quality or fineness, such as “long staple” cotton.

Yarn
Yarn is a continuous strand of textile fiber or
filament in a form suitable for manufacturing
textile materials. Fiber strength, size, and length;
the size of the yarn; and the tightness of twist all
influence the strength of yarn. Yarn strength and
weight determine the strength of textile fabrics is
determined by yarn strength and weight.
The following processes are used to create yarn: Figure 10-3 — Fiber and filament.

• A number of fibers twisted together

• A number of filaments twisted together
• A number of filaments laid together without twisting
Yarns formed by twisting a number of filaments together are multi-filament yarns. Ply yarn consists of
two or more single yarns twisted together.

10-3
Selvage and Raw Edges
The selvage edges of material, as in Figure
10-4, are the edges of cloth, tape, or webbing
that are woven to prevent raveling. When the
material is cut, the resulting edge at the cut is a
raw edge. A selvage edge of a woven fabric so
formed as to prevent raveling, as compared to
a cut edge, which will ravel.

Warp
Warp describes threads that run lengthwise of
the cloth, parallel to the selvage edge. If there
is a difference in the strength of the warp and
filling threads, the warp threads are usually
stronger, because they form the framework
for the material and support most of the strain
during the weaving process. Figure 10-4 shows
both warp and filling threads.
Figure 10-4 — Selvage edges.
Filling
Filling is also referred to as a woof, weft, or
pick and describes threads that run crosswise to the cloth as it comes from the loom. This term is
not the same as filling in the sense of sizing, which means the addition of substances that give body
or decrease porosity of the material. Warp and filling threads must be determined in pattern layout,
because patterns (unless otherwise stated) are always cut with the warp and filling.

Weave
The weave is an interlacing of two sets of threads (warp and filling) to form a specific pattern. The
weave, or construction, of the material affects many of the cloth’s properties, such as tensile strength,
air permeability, and elongation.

Bias
A bias is a diagonal line of a cut, fold, or seam across a piece of textile material at an angle of
45 degrees to the direction of the filling threads in the material. Bias construction saves material,
prevents tearing between sections, and provides elasticity (when the article requires elasticity for
satisfactory performance). The bias direction of the fabric has a greater stretching quality than the
straight direction. Figure 10-4 shows a bias cut.

10-4
Tensile Strength
Tensile strength is the amount of force a material can withstand without breaking. The tensile
strength of a fabric is stated in pounds-per-inch width for both warp and filling. The tensile strength of
webbings and tapes is stated for the full width.

Cloth Weight
The cloth weight is the weight of a cloth, or fabric, in ounces per square yard. All fabrics have a
designated cloth weight. For instance, a square yard of cotton duck may weigh 8 ounces; therefore, it
is called 8-ounce duck.

Construction Features and Uses of Various Textile Materials

When repairing an item, make sure that the replacement is composed of a like material. Just as you
wouldn’t repair a hole in a life raft with a patch of tweed fabric, if a canopy needs repair, you won’t use
7.25-ounce nylon duck.
There was a time when natural fibers were the only source for our fabrics and associated materials,
but today, improvements in synthetic filaments provide plenty of choices of fabric. Of course, both
natural and synthetic fibers have advantages and disadvantages. Because you cannot use synthetic
or natural fiber materials exclusively, you must decide which one best serves your purpose. There
are many different types of fabrics and cloth (meaning any textile material over 12 inches wide from
selvage to selvage).
Many factors, such as tightness of yarn twist, number of threads per inch, porosity of the yarns, and
the type of weave used in its formation, determine the construction of cloth. The weave is one of the
most important factors. The two basic weaves are plain and twill (Figure 10-5). The plain weave is the
simplest method of weaving and gives the smoothest surface of the fabric. It consists of the filling
threads passing over one warp thread and under the next warp thread. The twill weave is a more
complicated weave in which the filling threads pass over and under more than one warp thread,
producing a diagonal pattern on the surface of the fabric.

Figure 10-5 — Basic weave.

10-5
Cotton
Cotton is a natural plant fiber, usually white. The fibers or “staples” are between 3/8 and 2 inches
long. Chemically, it is almost pure cellulose. Cotton fabrics, webbing, and tapes readily absorb water
unless treated. They dry more slowly than the synthetic fabrics and are more susceptible to mildew
and fungus growth. Never ignore the presence of mildew because it seriously affects the tensile
strength of cotton and other fabrics. Heat is less damaging to cotton than to the synthetics. Always
consider insect damage, however, because cotton is a food for certain cellulose-eating insects, and
cotton makes good nesting or cocoon-spinning material for rodents and insects.

Nylon Cloth (Rip-stop)

Rip-stop is a type of nylon cloth used in canopy manufacture. The weave pattern of the nylon cloth
consists of reinforced ribs, in both the warp and the filling, forming a uniform pattern of squares. The
cloth is designed to keep hole damage to a minimum when rips or tears develop in the canopy.
Nylon is an extremely tough and elastic synthetic fiber. It absorbs very little water, dries quickly, is
mildew- and moth-proof, and is not affected by most ordinary oils, greases, or cleaning fluids.
However, it is sensitive to some chemical fumes, excessive heat, and direct rays of sunlight.

! WARNING !
Nylon melts and drips when it is subjected to fire. This characteristic requires that
precautions be taken when nylon is worn where there is a risk of fire. Melted nylon on the
skin can cause the most serious of burns.

Polyamide Fabric
Polyamide fabric, also known by the trade
name “Nomex” is a fire-resistant synthetic cloth
used in the construction of flight suits (Figure
10-6). This fabric has no melt point or drip
characteristics when subjected to fire. Nomex
material is lightweight and does not support
combustion, but it does begin to char at 700
Fahrenheit (°F) to 800 °F. The fabric, similar to
nylon, is abrasion resistant and nonabsorbent.

Duck
Duck is a comparatively firm, coarse, plain-
weave cotton fabric with weight per square
yard from 6 to 50 ounces. It is frequently called
canvas, and it is primarily used to construct
protective covers because of its durability and
wearing characteristics.

Figure 10-6 — Nomex aircrew flight garmet.

10-6
Rubber
Because they are watertight, rubber and rubberized fabrics are used to manufacture anti-exposure
suits and flotation equipment. Rubberized materials are susceptible to deterioration if subjected to
heat and mildew. Foam rubber is thick and resilient and is used for padding in upholstery and aircraft
crash pads.

Leather
Cowhide or horsehide may be used for reinforcing patches where heavy wear occurs or for
reinforcing patches for grommets and chafing strips on seat belts.

Naugahyde
Naugahyde, an American brand of artificial leather (or “pleather” from plastic leather), is a composite
of a knit fabric backing and expanded polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic coating. Artificial leather has
replaced the natural product to a large extent for seat pad, crash pad, and upholstery coverings.

Vinyl
Vinyl is a plastic material with several uses in the fabric shop. Vinyl is available in various thicknesses,
depending on its intended use. It may be used for seat covers or ventilating clothing. The type used
for ventilating clothing consists of two layers of flexible vinyl film. Vinyl is vapor tight and has a smooth
surface.

! CAUTION !
Do not clean vinyl with ammonia detergents. They will bleach the vinyl.

Clean it with soap and water.

Cordura
Cordura is the brand name for a collection of fabrics used in a wide array of products including
luggage, backpacks, trousers, military wear, and performance apparel. Cordura fabrics have
exceptional strength-to-weight ratio in addition to abrasion and tear resistant and long-lasting
durability. Cordura is also commonly known by fleet PR’s as “ballistic nylon”.

Herculite
Herculite is the brand name for synthetic fabric that will endure extreme temperatures and weather
elements. These white or grey materials weigh approximately 19.6 ounces per square yard and come
in 50-inch widths. They are fire, water, weather, and mildew-resistant.

Rayon
Rayon is a manufactured regenerated cellulose fiber. It is not a natural fiber, yet it is not synthetic.
It is a fiber formed by regenerating natural materials into a usable form. It is made by chemically
converting purified cellulose, primarily from wood pulp, into a soluble compound.

10-7
Fill Rip-stop Nylon
Fill rip-stop nylon is a type of nylon cloth
utilized in canopy manufacture. The weave
pattern of the nylon cloth consists of reinforced
ribs, in both the warp and the filling, forming
a uniform pattern of squares. The cloth keeps
hole damage to a minimum when rips or tears
develop in the canopy.

Webbings and Tapes

Since cloth is a fabric wider than 12 inches,
any fabric with less than 12 inches between
selvage edges is called either webbing or
tape. Weight determines if the fabric is called
webbing or tape (Figure 10-7).

Webbings
The heavier of the two is webbing. Webbing
weighs over 15 ounces per square yard and is Figure 10-7 — Webbing and tape.
less than 12 inches wide. As you would expect,
webbings are used for the toughest holding
and reinforcing jobs. Slings, harnesses, safety belts, and reinforcing and securing straps are made
of nylon webbing and are available in a wide variety of tensile strengths. The personnel parachute
harness has a tensile strength range of 6,000 to 8,700 pounds. Some nylon webbings are of tubular
construction, which makes them very strong. Tubular webbings are between 1/2 and 1 inch wide, with
tensile strengths ranging from 1,000 to 4,000 pounds.

Tapes
In addition to webbings, there are the
lightweight tapes of a twill weave construction.
You can use tapes for reinforcing many types of
fabric covers. Tapes can weigh up to 15 ounces
per square yard and are woven in the same
manner as fabric. Some are bias in order to
help bind curved edges that require stretching
qualities. These bias tapes are sometimes
referred to as binding tapes.
Many shops commonly use Velcro tape as
a fastening or closing device (Figure 10-8).
Velcro tape consists of two parts: the hook and
the pile. The hook tape is nylon and consists
of a series of small hooks. The nylon pile, or
loop tape, has many small loops. When the two
parts of the tape are joined, the hooks engage
with the loops and hold the two tapes together.
Figure 10-8 — Hook and pile tape.

10-8
Threads and Cords
The following paragraphs explain the differences between threads and cords.

Threads
Filaments (nylon) or staples (cotton) are twisted together to form yarn. Since the yarn is too small
for practical use, two or more yarns are twisted together to form thread or ply yarn. The strength of
a thread depends upon the size and number of yarns that make up the thread. The thread numbers
on spools indicate the size of the yarn and the number of yarns piled (or twisted) together to give the
necessary strength to the thread. For example, a 16-4 thread indicates that the thread was made
from a single size of yarn, 16, and that four of these single yarns were twisted together to make the
thread. The finer the yarn in a thread, the higher the thread’s. Silk and nylon thread sizes, however,
are indicated by letters; A is finer than B, and the farther down the alphabet, the coarser the thread.
Thread is twisted to the left or twisted to the right, depending on its use. The sewing machine always
uses left-twist thread because the action of the stitch-forming mechanism tends to ravel or break
right-twist thread. Hand sewing may use left- or right-twist thread. The terms that designate left-twist
threads are machine, machine twist, left twist, and Z twist. A cord or thread has left (or Z) twist if,
when held in a vertical position, the twist of the yarn follows the slope of the central portion of the
letter.
Right (or S) twist, on the other hand, follows the slope of the central portion of the letter S, as shown
in Figure10-9.

Figure 10-9 — Thread twist.

10-9
Cords
Unbraided and braided cords are covered in the following paragraphs.

Unbraided Cords
Unbraided cord is twisted together in the same manner as thread, as Figure 10-9 shows. The
difference between threads and cords is that cords are stronger and larger in diameter than threads.
Nylon cords play an important part in the repairing of life support items. To identify nylon cord, you
must remember that the larger the number, the larger and stronger the cord.

Braided Cords
A braid is three or more strands of material entwined together. Cords also come braided and in two
types: a solid woven cord or a cord with a hollow channel center, as Figure 10-10 shows. Solid woven
cords are flat. Hollow channel cords sometimes contain several straight, individual threads, known as
the core. This core increases the strength of the cord and keeps the outer braided cover round.
Parachute suspension lines are made from this type of cord.

Figure 10-10 — Braided cords.

Nylon Cord
Canopy suspension line cord. Round parachutes use nylon cord, usually made to MIL-C-5040H,
Type III (550 pounds). Nylon is available and provides good elongation to reduce opening shock for
parachutes. Ram-air parachutes began with heavier Dacron line (polyester), then progressed to a
lighter Dacron, Kevlar and Spectra. Ram-air canopies need low-elongation lines to maintain trim and
good durability due to the rubbing slider. Today, many canopy manufacturers offer a choice of Dacron,
Kevlar or Spectra.
The cord used for suspension line may be of several constructions: sheath, sheath and core, braid,
webbing, and twisted. Sheath and core is normally found on military personnel canopies. This
construction resists kinking, snagging, and twisting. Most of the strength is contributed by the core
threads. The braid is the most efficient in strength for its weight in volume. But braid is subject to
snagging if not finished or coated. Braid is usually Chinese finger trapped and zig-zag sewn to attach
it to parachute connector links.

10-10
Nylon Cord (MIL-C-5040H)
This nylon cord is the MIL-C-5040H for military suspension lines. The colored core threads (up to
three) identify the core manufacturer. Nylon cords play an important role in repairing life support
items.

NOTE
Military specifications (MIL-X-XXX and MSXXX) are being converted from military standards
to industry standards. For the textile and hardware specifications now owned by the
Parachute Industry Association (PIA), only the owner designator letters have been changed.
Some textile examples are: MIL-C-7020, which is now PIA-C-7020, MIL-W-4088 is now
PIA-W-4088, and MIL-T-5038 is now PIA-T-5038. Hardware examples are: MS22021 is now
PS22021 and MS70101 is now PS70101.
New hardware or textiles received with the new designations have been reviewed by the
appropriate government agency and are acceptable for use.

! WARNING !
Nylon cord has a melting point of 471.2 °F (244 °C), HOT drippings
from cord on the skin can cause the most serious of burns.

The ends of the nylon cord should be seared when cut or knotted. Table 10-2 identifies the leading
particulars of MIL-C-5040H Nylon Cord.
Table10-2 — MIL-C-5040 Nylon cords

Tensile
Cord Strength Identifying Core or Feet per Percent
Type (minimum) Marks Coreless Pound Elongation
in-lbs
I 100 Striped or Plain Core 4-7 1050 30
Manufacturer’s
Identification
IA 100 Coreless 1050 30
(ID) Yarn in
Sleeve
Black dotted
II 400 4-7 315 30
stripe
Manufacturer’s
IIA 225 ID Yarn in Coreless 495 30
Sleeve
III 550 Plain Core 7-9 225 30
IV 750 Plain Core 11 165 30

10-11
Figure 10-11 and 10-12 show the manufactures identification marks for various nylon cords (MIL-C-
0450H). Figure 10-13 shows Type III nylon cord and manufacture identification line.

Figure 10-11 Figure 10-12

— Nylon cord — Nylon cord
samples. identifying marks.

Figure 10-13 — Type III nylon cord.

Dacron (Polyester) Cord

The heat-stretched coreless cord (T-C-2754) is used for suspension lines on many sport main and
reserve canopies. By heating and tensioning the line, it retains its original length longer; heat setting
improves cord’s memory. The specification describes a 600 pound and a 925 pound cord. The 600
pound cord is often used for suspension lines and the 925 pound cord is used steering lines on ram-
air canopies. Dacron stretches less and demonstrates greater resistance to ultraviolet light (UV) than
nylon. Since it is difficult to dye, it is available in white (natural) only.

Kevlar Cord
Kevlar cord (MIL-C-87129) is strong and, therefore, smaller in diameter for a given strength. This
means a canopy with Kevlar lines will glide better than one with Dacron lines since there will be
less line drag. Kevlar stretches less than Dacron so openings will be sharper. On the other hand
Kevlar has poor abrasion resistance. Dirt and sand particles will enter, abrade and weaken the line
quickly. Several coatings are or treatments available to improve abrasion resistance and reduce drag.
Kevlar also requires different handling/sewing techniques and it took the manufacturer a long time
to discover the secrets. Originally, Kevlar was only available in a golden yellow, its natural color. It is
available in sage green, royal blue, and black.

Spectra
Spectra was first introduced early in 1985 and is a high modulus polyethylene fiber designed for
marine use. It is available in two types: Spectra 900 and Spectra 1000. Only Spectra 1000 should be
used for parachutes. The Spectra 900 stretches unevenly, it can not be finger-trapped and cannot
be sewn or knotted properly. Spectra also requires different handling/sewing techniques and it took
the manufacturer a long time to discover the secrets. Spectra line is available in two strengths: 500
pounds and 825 pounds.

10-12
Spectra is about the same diameter as Kevlar for a given strength but it is much less durable. Line
with a tensile strength of 550 pounds has the diameter of a pencil lead. This results in a much lower
weight, lower volume packed parachute. Rubber band stows present a new problem as each bight of
lines is very small. Spectra weighs less than Kevlar and since its more durable, a lower strength cord
(e.g. 500 pounds) can be used. Since the lines of the canopy produce less drag, both forward speed
and glide are improved. Spectra has a low elongation and excellent memory making line adjustments
rarely necessary.
Spectra begins to lose its strength between 230 °F and 240 °F. There is no permanent weakness, the
Spectra lines return to full strength when the temperature returns to normal. Scissors must be very
sharp to cut Spectra but a hot knife will cut through with ease.

Storage of Textile Materials

You must know the general principles of caring for and storing various materials, because many differ
greatly in their resistance to damage such as moisture, heat, mildew, fungus, insects, and rodents.
Certain insects, however, will eat almost anything, mice will build nests in almost any kind of stored
fabric material, and there are hundreds of fungus growths that thrive under moist tropical atmospheric
conditions. Conditions in various parts of the world vary widely in regard to humidity, heat, cold, and
the presence of insects. You must take such conditions into account when storing and protecting
materials. Attain the following ideal storage conditions as nearly as possible: a dry room with a
temperature of 70 °F, absence of direct sunlight, protection against insects and mice, wooden shelves
for storage, and air conditioning or some other method of humidity control.
The following are some of the characteristics of materials you should know to be responsible for
keeping them in storage. Nylon absorbs very little water, dries quickly, is mildew proof, and is not
affected by most ordinary oils, greases, or cleaning fluids. It is moth-proof, and because it is not an
animal fiber like wool or silk, it does not offer food to hungry insects. However, if insect larvae develop
from eggs laid inside the folds of stored fabrics, they may eat their way out. Soiled or greasy spots in
a fabric attract insects.
Soot and certain chemical fumes are highly injurious to nylon, and direct heat and exposure to the
sun’s rays seriously weaken it.
Rayon has many of the characteristics of nylon. Direct heat or the sun’s rays damage it more easily
than they do nylon, and rayon is more combustible. Rayon fabrics “take a set” (form a crease) more
easily than other fabrics, and if left stored in folds for too long, they will form permanent creases.
Cotton fabrics, webbings, and tapes readily absorb water unless treated. They dry more slowly than
synthetic fabrics and are more susceptible to mildew and fungus growth.
Never ignore mildew. It seriously weakens cotton or other fabrics. Heat is less damaging to cotton
than to synthetics. Bugs or their larvae will eat cotton or use it to make cocoons or nests.
In all cases, fire is a constant threat to fabrics. Smoking should not be permitted where fabrics are
handled or stored. Rayon fabrics are almost explosive when set afire. Nylon, although harder to
ignite, will burn but does not explode in the process. Be careful to learn the storage problems peculiar
to any specific locality or climatic conditions to ensure safe storage of these materials.
Understanding the construction and characteristics of various fabric products will enable you to
intelligently use and storage of these materials.

10-13
Engineering Requirements for Fabrics
For a parachute to serve its purpose, it must be reliable. To be reliable, parachutes must meet certain
engineering requirements.
Though you are responsible for servicing parachutes rather than designing them, the difference
between a parachute packer and a capable parachute rigger is knowledge of why the system works
the way it does. Almost anyone can learn to pack a parachute, but when you have learned the
engineering and aerodynamic principles that affect parachute reliability, you will know why it is so
important to be a conscientious and precise worker. And you will see to it that those who work for
you do their job exactly right. First, the sections below list and explain the engineering requirements
for parachutes. After reviewing those requirements, you will learn why nylon is the textile parachute
construction most often uses.

Air Permeability
The term air permeability refers to the measured volume of air in cubic feet that flows through 1
square foot of cloth in 1 minute at a given pressure. If a material gets wet and shrinks, it has less air
permeability, because the weave draws together and less air gets through. This is the reason for a
very important rule: Do not, for any reason, pack a wet parachute. Wet parachute assemblies have
reduced air permeability and can also freeze at high altitudes. Air permeability affects the reliability,
opening time, opening force, canopy drag, and stability of the parachute assembly.
The proper ratio of air entering a parachute canopy to air passing over the canopy gives a parachute
good performance. The greater the airflow through a canopy, the slower the opening time. This
is why canopy designs differ. Personnel parachutes require a quick opening time, but a slower
opening time is more desirable for deceleration and cargo parachutes because the braking force in
those parachutes builds up over a longer period of time, which enables the parachute assembly to
withstand and decelerate greater loads.

10-14
Strength
The term strength refers to a fabric’s ability to resist strain or rupture by external forces. Strength is
expressed as tensile strength and measured in pounds per square inch. The strength of the fabric
determines the strength of the parachute and therefore is a very important requirement for a safe,
reliable parachute. Refer to Table 10-3 for tensile strengths of fabrics, webbings, and tapes.
Table 10-3 — Tensile Strengths (Nylon)

Type Measurement Tensile Strength (in-lbs)

A 2.75
B 5.50
Threads E 8.50
F 11.00
FF 16.00
3 24
Cords
6 50
1/2 inch 1000
9/16 inch 1500
Tubular Webbing
3/4 inch 2300
1 inch 4000
I 9/16 inch 525
II 1 inch 600
III 1 1/4 inch 800
IV 3 inch 1800
V 5 inch 3000
Webbing VI 1 3/4 inch 1800
VIII 1 3/4 inch 3600
X 1 3/4 inch 8700
XI 1 3/4 inch 1200
XIII 1 3/4 inch 6000
XIX 1 3/4 inch 10000

10-15
 Table 10-3 — Tensile Strengths (Nylon) (cont)
Type Measurement Tensile Strength (in-lbs)
II 3/8 inch 18
II 1 inch 900
II 2 inch 1700
III 3/8 inch 200
III 1/2 inch 250
Tapes III 3/4 inch 400
III 1 inch 525
IV 1 inch 1000
IV 1 1/8 inch 1100
IV 1 1/2 inch 1500
VI 3/4 inch 425
I 100
Shroud Line
III 550

Elongation
The term elongation describes deformation, lengthening, or stretching caused by a tensile force.
Elongation is similar to stretching a rubber band. The ability to elongate gives stretch to a fabric.
Elongation is expressed as the percentage of stretch over the original length. For instance, if a tape
has 10 percent elongation, a 10-inch piece will stretch to 11 inches before it breaks. Parachute
specifications call for 20-25 percent elongation.

Elasticity (or Elastic Recovery)

The term elasticity describes the ability of a fabric to elongate (or stretch) when tension is applied,
and to recover its original shape when the tension is released, again like stretching a rubber band that
comes back to its original size when released. To test the elasticity of a material, stretch it 4 percent,
and then measure to see how closely it returns to its original length. A fabric that returns to within
75 to 95 percent of its original length after being stretched is said to have satisfactory elasticity. A
parachute made from fabric with good elasticity is stronger and gives less opening shock.

Weight
Lightweight fabric is an absolute necessity for all parachute canopies. A canopy of lightweight material
opens faster. Lightweight cargo and deceleration parachutes also enable the aircraft to carry more
weight in cargo and fuel.

10-16
Resistance to Abrasion
This term refers to a fabric’s ability to withstand wear and rubbing. In its lifetime, a parachute is
subjected to a great deal of abrasion. Deceleration parachutes, for example, slide along the runway.
For this reason, deceleration parachute riser webbings and personnel parachute harnesses and risers
are treated with Merlon to make them more resistant to abrasion damage.

Resistance to Mildew and Insects

Moths and other insects love to feast on fabrics; mildew and other fungi thrive on them in warm,
damp climates. Parachutes mildew or insects damage are unsuitable for Navy use. Therefore, it is
necessary that parachute fabric be as resistant as possible to this type of damage.

Moisture Regain
This term refers to the percentage of moisture that a bone-dry fiber absorbs from the air under
standard conditions of temperature and humidity (65 percent relative humidity and 70 °F). Less
than 5 percent moisture regain means that the fibers build up static electric charges when rubbed. If
static electricity builds up, the parachute assembly is more difficult to service. Static electricity also
adversely affects the opening time of a parachute assembly.
The ability to take on dye (color) is another important consideration when selecting parachute fabrics.
The percentage of moisture regain possible in a fabric determines whether it can be successfully
dyed. Dying gives the fabric color, which is important for a parachute canopy. Rescue teams can
easily spot multicolored canopies from the air. Pickup crews can quickly identify colored deceleration
canopies on runways. Also, yellow dye in a canopy makes it more resistant to ultraviolet damage from
sunlight, which relates to the next engineering requirement on this list.

Resistance to Sunlight
Ultraviolet light, which is found in sunlight and is responsible for painful sunburns, reduces the
strength of fabrics. All parachutes are exposed to some sunlight. Military specifications for parachute
materials state that fabrics should not lose more than 25 percent of their original strength after 50
hours of exposure to sunlight. Investigations into causes of deceleration parachute failures have
shown strength loss of more than 50 percent after 50 hours of exposure to sunlight.

Resistance to Heat
In addition to sunlight, heat and friction are natural enemies of a parachute. Fire on an aircraft may
expose personnel and deceleration parachutes to great amounts of heat. A deceleration parachute
coming into contact with a runway also generates friction and heat. Line-overs are another cause
of friction and burn holes in parachute canopies. Line-overs occur when an improperly stowed
suspension line is drawn over the canopy during deployment.

Resistance to Chemicals
Because parachute assemblies are exposed to various chemicals, it is important to know which
chemicals are harmful and which are not. Most damaging are mineral-type acids, such as battery
acid.

10-17
Nylon
Nylon is the most widely used fabric in the parachute shop. In the following paragraphs, we examine
the good and bad characteristics of nylon in parachute construction.
No fabric known to man measures up perfectly to all the engineering requirements for parachute
construction. But nylon comes closer, by far, than any other fabric. Nylon, when the PR properly
handles it, has more good than poor qualities. The following are the good characteristics of nylon:
• Strength – Nylon is one of the strongest synthetics made.
• Elongation – Nylon stretches from 18 to 40 percent, which is well above military specifications
of 20 to 25 percent.
• Elasticity – Nylon returns to 100 percent of its original length.
• Weight – Because nylon fibers are very strong for their weight, nylon fabrics are much lighter
than many other fabrics of comparable strength.
• Resistance to abrasion – No fabrics can last forever, but nylon still tests better in this category
than any other material tested for parachute use.
• Resistance to mildew and insects – Nylon has no food value. This makes it unappetizing to
moths and other insects. It cannot support the growth of mildew. However, poorly maintained
nylon fabric that is soiled with food particles will lose this benefit, so it is crucial that the fabric
remain clean.
Despite these benefits and the fact that the quality of nylon is always improving, you must keep the
following limitations in mind when handling nylon:
• Moisture regain – As stated above, if the percentage of moisture a fiber absorbs from the air is
less than 5 percent, the fiber is difficult to dye and builds up static electricity when rubbed. The
moisture regain of nylon is only 4.2 percent, so you can expect static electricity to develop as
you service the assembly.
• Resistance to sunlight – Nylon is susceptible to damage from direct sunlight. Yellow dye
improves resistance to ultraviolet light damage, which is why it is added to deceleration canopy
material. In addition, a chemical known as Chemstrand “R” is added to nylon yarn during
manufacture to make the nylon more resistant to ultraviolet light.
• Heat resistance – Nylon has a relatively low melting point, 482 °F, which makes it very
susceptible to damage from heat. This is why it is so important to stow suspension lines
properly. In the rapid deployment sequence, lines crossing each other will break from the
friction heat they generate.
All types of parachute textiles and components have natural enemies including sunlight, abrasion,
heat, chemicals, insects, and fungi. If you keep these in mind, you will easily see which elements to
avoid when you store parachute fabrics.

10-18
SPECIAL HAND TOOLS
Parachute Tools
Parachute Tools are considered special tools and are different based on the parachutes that you
perform maintenance on. They come in various shapes and sizes. The list below is only the basic
parachute tools that can be found in the parachute loft, it is not a complete list.
• A Suspension Line Separator (Figure 10-14) is a tool used to aid in keeping suspension lines
and canopy skirt in order while packing a parachute.
• A Shot Bag (Figure 10-15) is a bag filled with lead shot used to hold the canopy in place during
packing.
• A Long Bar (Figure 10-16) is a long metallic or wooden bar used in parachute packing and
used as an aid in closing a parachute container.
• A Fid (Figure 10-17) is a small, flat hand tool of metal or wood used during the packing process
to straighten end flaps and to insert corner flaps into a finished pack.

Figure 10-14 — Figure 10-15 — Figure 10-16 — Figure 10-17 — Fid.

Suspension Line Shot Bag. Long Bar.
Separator.

• A Packing Hook (Figure 10-18) is a special hook used to draw suspension lines into place in
hesitater loops.
• Pull-up Cords (Figure 10-19) are nylon cords of varying lengths used to pull up the sides and
ends of the container flaps over the container cover and to pull the cones through the
grommets. They are also used to pull the suspension lines into place in some types of
containers.

Figure 10-18 — Packing Hook. Figure 10-19 — Pull-up Cords.

10-19
• A Temporary Locking Pin (Figure 10-20) is a metal pin inserted through the eye of the locking
cones to hold the side flaps in place until the ripcord pin is inserted.
• A Bodkin (Figure 10-21) is a large-eyed, blunt needle instrument for inserting thread, tape,
ribbon, or line through a loop, hem, or channel. Used to feed suspension lines through canopy
radial seams or to stow suspension line bights in certain parachute container assemblies.
• A T-Handle Bodkin (Figure 10-22) has a handle in the shape of the letter “T” made of solid
metal.

Figure 10-20 — Figure 10-21 — Bodkin. Figure 10-22 — T-Handle

Temporary Locking Pin. Bodkin.

• A Finger-Trapping Fid (Figure 10-23) is made of plastic or stainless steel and used to insert
braided suspension line.

Figure 10-23 — Finger-Trapping Fid.

10-20
Fabrication Tools
When working in the fabric shop, you will find that you need tools that the average tool room does
not commonly stock. Therefore, we must discuss some of the specific tools the fabric shop uses. The
tools used for fabric and rubber maintenance are not highly complicated, but they are designed for a
specific purpose. In your hands, these tools can help produce a quality product.

Shears
As Figure 10-24 shows, a pair of shears consists of two
cutting edges hinged so that when the shears are closed,
the cutting edges cross each other in close contact. This
shearing action is used for cutting fabrics. The large loop
in the handle is for two or three fingers, and the small
loop is for the thumb. The blades are not straight but are
slightly curved toward each other so that when closing,
the spring action of the blades holds the two cutting edges
firmly together.
Always keep the shears sharp. If the shears are not sharp
enough to effectively cut the material, sharpen them,
disassembling the shears and sharpening one shear
at a time. The bottom shear has a blunter angle than
the upper, so exercise care in the cutback or angle of
sharpening. Also in sharpening, start at the point or toe of Figure 10-24 — Shears.
the shear and move toward the heel of the shear.
This drives the heat, generated in grinding, to the heel of the shear where there is more metal to
radiate it. Grinding toward the toe or point drives the heat to the lesser metal and can burn the metal
and draw the temper out. After grinding the shear, reassemble it loosely at first so that the first closing
removes the wire edge resulting from the grinding.
Pinking shears (Figure 10-25) have a saw-toothed inner edge on the blades for making zigzag cut.
This tool is for cutting a series of Vs along fabric edges to
minimize fraying. Cloth edges that are unfinished will easily
fray, the weave becoming undone and threads pulling out
easily. The sawtooth pattern does not prevent the fraying
but limits the length of the frayed thread and thus
minimizes damage. If pinking shears become dull, return
them to the manufacturer for sharpening.
Remember, always keep the shears sharp. Do not drop
your shears, as this springs the blades and reduces their
cutting ability. Do not use them to puncture metal objects
or to pry things open. Do not use shears as knives to
remove stitching; you may injure yourself or damage the
stitches you are cutting. (For this job, use an upholsterer’s
knife or a stitch cutting tool.) When shears are beyond
shop maintenance capabilities, return them to supply for a
replacement.
Figure 10-25 — Pinking Shears.

10-21
Table-Mounted Snap Fastener Press
The snap press, shown in Figure 10-26, allows you to install snap fasteners by mass production.
The key parts of this press are the chuck and die. For each type and size of snap fastener, there
is a corresponding chuck and die. The chuck is the upper tool, and the die is the lower tool. Use
the adjustment screw to prevent pressure damage to the chuck and die. When set correctly, this
adjustment screw will set the clearance of the chuck and die to 1/32 inch, about the thickness of bond
typing paper, which is adequate for most snap fasteners.

Hand Press
If you need a portable glove fastener installation tool,
you can use the hand press. The Durable Fastener
hand press mates the socket and button and the stud
and eyelet. You will use this often as you replace
Durable Fasteners on soundproofing, cushions, or
other related items that require a portable installations
tool.

Knives
A knife, because of its familiarity, can be one of the
most abused tools. At its best, a knife has a well-
sharpened blade and a secure handle. Do not use
any knife as a screwdriver, a punch, or a pry to open
can lids. Always cut away from you, and keep your
hands out of the way of the blade.
To sharpen a knife, use an oil stone and apply the
same basic principle as for sharpening shears. Do not
sharpen a knife blade on a grinding wheel, because
the metal is too thin. A grinding wheel generates
too much heat for the thickness of the metal. To
sharpen a knife, clean the oil stone of all gum and dirt
accumulation. Put two or three drops of medium-light
oil on the stone. Lay the knife on the stone with the
back of the knife slightly raised. Draw the knife toward
you with a diagonal stroke from heal to toe with the
cutting edge advancing. Turn the knife over and move
the blade away from you, cutting edge advancing,
moving from heel to toe. Repeat these steps several
times. The edge is sharp if you feel a decided drag
when passing it lightly over a wet thumbnail. No drag
indicates the edge is not sharp.

Figure 10-26 — Table mounted snap

fastener press.

10-22
Measuring Devices
The ruler, tape measure, and carpenter’s square, as shown below, are used often to repair fabric
and rubber articles. These may become special tools by the addition of special marks to show a
commonly used scale or measurement.
The 12-inch steel machinist’s rule is used for laying out and measuring small work (Figure 10-27).

Figure 10-27 — 12-inch steel machinist’s ruler.

The carpenter’s square is a steel tool in the form of a right angle (Figure 10-28). One arm is 24 inches
long, and the other is 18 inches long. Carpenters use it to lay out the framework of buildings and to
square off wood materials. The fabrication and parachute worker uses it for layout work and
measuring.
The tape measure is a convenient tool (Figure
10-29). It is used to measure large objects, yet
it is portable and can be carried in a pocket.
The tape measure is flexible and allows you to
measure curved objects. Use these measuring
devices (ruler, tape measure, and carpenter’s
square) to achieve accurate and professional
results.

Figure 10-28 — Carpenter’s square.

Figure 10-29 — Tape measure.

10-23
To comply with technical directive specifications, be sure to exactly measure items such as the patch
overlaps, length of lines on life rafts, and every other job you do that requires special measurements.
Take great care when measuring and cutting the material; always “measure twice and cut once.” Use
the old article for a pattern whenever possible. When it is not available, make a sketch of the item,
showing all the necessary dimensions, and work from that.

Reading the Scale of a Rule or Tape

In one sense, the term “scale” means the scale of a drawing. In another sense, it means the
succession of graduations on any graduated standard of linear measurement, such as the
graduations on a steel tape or thermometer.
The more common rules and tapes are divided into fractions, inches, and feet. Explained here are the
scales on a 12-inch steel machinist’s rule (Figure 10-30).

Figure 10-30 — Scale for the 12-inch steel machinist’s rule.

The rule is divided into twelve inches. The inches are further divided into eighths, sixteenths, thirty-
seconds, and sixty-fourths.
Look at the rule. There is a small
numeral marked on the end of the
rule nearest the 1-inch mark. This
numeral indicates the number of
divisions per inch (Figure 10-31).
When referring to fractions, always Figure 10-31 — Division per inch.
use the reduced name. This is
the smallest numerator (top number) and denominator (bottom number). For example, 3/6 can be
reduced to 1/2 by dividing both the top and bottom by 3. Generally, you can reduce fractions to their
lowest forms by repeated division by 2 or 3.
Look at the section between the “2” and the “3” on the edge marked with an “8” for eighths
(Figure 10-32).
There are eight equally spaced lines.
The lengths of these lines differ and
indicate different fractions or parts
of an inch. The longest line is in the
center and is equal to 4/8- or 1/2-
inch. Each half-inch is divided in half
by a slightly shorter line indicating Figure 10-32 — 1/8-inch scale.
2/8- or 1/4-inch on the left and 6/8- or
3/4-inch on the right.
Each 1/4-inch is divided in half by the shortest line which indicates 1/8-inch, and will indicate
1/8-, 3/8-, 5/8- and 7/8-inch.

10-24
Now turn the rule and look at the edge with a 16 marked on it (Figure 10-33).

Figure 10-33 — 1/16-inch scale.

There are now 16 equal divisions between each inch. Since 2/16-inch reduces to 1/8-inch, divide
each 1/8-inch into two equal parts producing 1/16-, 3/16-, 5/16-, 7/16-, 9/16-, 11/16-, 13/16-, and
15/16-inch.
Common tapes and rules usually are not graduated smaller than sixteenths. However, precision
measurements require smaller graduations.
Look at the back of the machinist’s rule. Find the edge marked 32 (Figure 10-34) and once again look
between the numbers “2” and “3.” To read this rule, remember:

Figure 10-34 — 1/32-inch scale.

1. Sixteen divisions (16/32) are equal to 1/2-inch.

2. Eight divisions (8/32) are equal to 1/4-inch.
3. Four divisions (4/32) are equal to 1/8-inch.
4. Two divisions (2/32) are equal to 1/16-inch.
To read 2 5/8-inches on the scale, first find the two inch mark, then determine the number of 32nds in
5/8-inch. To determine the number of 32nds in 5/8-inch, remember four divisions or 4/32 are equal to
1/8-inch. If 1/8-inch is equal to 4/32-inch, then 5/8-inch is equal to 20/32-inch as shown:
◦ If 1/8 = 4/32, then 5/8 = 20/32-inch
◦ (4 x 5 = 20)
1. Find the 20/32-inch reading on the scale as shown above.
2. Write the new fraction 2 20/32-inches.

10-25
Finally, look at the edge marked 64 (Figure 10-35). Each inch is now divided into 64 equal parts. To
read this rule, remember:
1. Thirty-two divisions (32/64)
are equal to 1/2- inch.
2. Sixteen divisions (16/64) are
equal to 1/4- inch.
3. Eight divisions (8/64) are
equal to 1/8-inch. Figure 10-35 — 1/64-inch scale.
4. Four divisions (4/64) are equal to 1/16-inch.
5. Two divisions (2/64) are equal to 1/32-inch.
To read 2 3/4 -inches on this scale, first find the two inch mark. Next, determine the number of 64ths
in 3/4 -inch.
To determine the number of 64ths in 3/4-inch, remember every sixteen divisions or 16/64 are equal to
1/4-inch. If 1/4-inch is equal to 16/64-inch, then 3/4-inch is equal to 48/64-inch as shown:
◦ If 1/4 = 16/64, then 3/4 = 48/64-inch
◦ (16x3=48)
1. Locate the number 48 between the 2- and 3- inch marks on the scale.
2. Write the new fraction 2 48/64-inches.

Reading a Metric Rule

The metric system is based upon multiples of ten. For example, there are 10 millimeters in a
centimeter and 100 centimeters in a meter (Figure 10-36).

Figure 10-36 — Metric ruler.

The example provided will deal only with millimeters (mm). The meter is the starting point. From that
point, there are two scales for measuring. A meter divided by 100 equals a centimeter (cm), 1/100 or
0.01 meter. Next divide a centimeter (cm) by 10. This will equal a millimeter (mm), 1/1000 or 0.001
meter. Now let’s look at a section of the rule between 2 cm and 3 cm. There are 10 equal divisions
which are equal to 1/10 cm or 1 mm. To measure 26 mm, first locate the longest line designated 2 cm
or 20 mm. Next count 6 additional lines to find 26 mm.
There is a table for converting from U.S. Common to metric or vice versa in the NAVAIR 13(series)
technical manuals.

10-26
Sailmaker’s Palm
The sailmaker’s palm has a small metal
disk insert set in rawhide and stitched
into a leather glove-type device. It is
worn in the palm of the hand and used
to aid in pushing a sail needle through
the material being sewn or tacked
(Figure 10-37).

Awl
The awl is another instrument used as
an aid in sewing heavy material where
pushing the sail or hand sewing needle
through the material becomes difficult. It
is a sharp-pointed instrument with a Figure 10-37 — Sailmaker’s palm.
handle attached and is used for
punching holes in a heavy fabric or material prior to inserting the needle. Never use a hot needle or
iron as a substitute for the awl (Figure 10-38).

Star Punch
The star punch or leather punch is a very useful tool for punching
holes through material to be fastened with snap fasteners or speedy
rivets (Figure 10-39).

Figure 10-38 — Awl. Figure 10-39 — Star punch.

10-27
Webbing Cutter
The webbing cutter (Figures 10-40 and 10-41) is necessary for cutting and sealing webbing or any
synthetic material. It is fast and easy to use so it will speed up your production time. It is a general
purpose hot knife for cutting and heat sealing narrow fabrics, rope, or cord.
To operate, simply slide the webbing over the knife (red hot blade) and press downward to cut and
seal with minimal effort. Cutting time is usually less than one second, depending upon material
thickness and heat setting.

! WARNING !
The cutting blade becomes red hot when in use. The red hot blade can cause the most
serious of burns.
Nylon melts and drips when it is subjected to fire. This characteristic requires taking
precautions when wearing nylon where there is a risk of fire. Melted nylon on the skin can
cause the most serious of burns.

Figure 10-40 — Hot webbing cutter. Figure 10-41 — Cold webbing cutter.

10-28
HARDWARE
Looking back through the first two sections of this chapter, you see that we have discussed textile
materials and tools. This section is also concerned with a different type of material often used in the
fabric shop. We call it hardware. Grommets, glove fasteners, and interlocking fasteners are pieces
of hardware you use during your daily work. You must install pieces of hardware to covers, bags,
and clothing to strengthen or to secure these items. Not only do you have to be able to identify this
hardware, you also have to know how to install it properly.

Grommets
Use grommets whenever it is necessary to reinforce holes for lacings in covers, bags, panels, and
upholstery. There are two parts to grommets: the grommet (or collar) and the washer. The two types
of grommets you will use are plain and spur grommets, as Figure10-42 shows.
The plain grommet uses a plain washer; whereas the spur grommet uses a toothed washer that bites
into the material to form a grip. The spur grommet, because of its strength, is used where the pull will
be particularly strong, or in large covers. Leather is sometimes used at corners to reinforce the area
where grommets are installed. Grommets are made of aluminum, brass, or chrome-plated brass.
They are available in several sizes (00, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.); the smaller the number, the smaller the size of
the grommet.

Figure 10-42 — Plain and spur grommets.

10-29
To install grommets, you must proceed through a series of operations. Locate and mark where a
grommet installation is needed. Be sure you set the grommet far enough from the edge of material to
prevent it from tearing. Select the correct punch by matching its size to the size of the grommet collar,
as Figure 10-43 shows.

Figure 10-43 — Inside diameter measurements.

10-30
After using the leather cutting punch to cut a hole in the fabric, mate the parts of the grommet. Place
the grommet on the finished side of the material and the washer underneath. Determine the correct
size chuck and die. Assemble the grommet, washer, punch, and die, as illustrated in Figure 10-44.
Now you are ready to flatten the collar. You can accomplish this operation in a variety of ways,
depending upon the availability of tools.

Figure 10-44 — Grommet collar, cloth, and washer in grommet set.

Grommet Set Installation

A grommet set, consisting of a punch and die, is used to install grommets in material. Figure 10-44
illustrates a grommet set. The grommet set has to be the same size as the grommet for a proper
grommet installation. Use a rawhide mallet to strike the punch.
This action flattens the grommet. The grommet set installation is useful because of its simplicity and
portability.

10-31
Grommet Press Installation
You may have a table-mounted grommet press or a hand press as mentioned above. Using either
type of press requires an assortment of chucks and dies. Install the die in the bottom of the press and
the chuck in the top of the press. Set the press and check for a clearance of the thickness of heavy
paper between the chuck and die. This prevents damage from striking the chuck and die together.
Pulling the handle securely flattens the grommet.

Glove Fasteners
The most common type of fastener used on clothing and other items made of fabric and rubber is the
glove fastener. The glove fastener is commonly called the “snap fastener.” In many instances, the
glove fastener has replaced the conventional button. Glove fasteners are dependable and are used
for their holding and firm gripping ability. Figure 10-45 shows the types of glove fasteners most
commonly used. The main difference between the fasteners is size. The Segma Dot is the smallest;
the Durable Dot is the largest type of glove fastener. Each fastener is made of four parts: button,
socket, stud, and eyelet, as illustrated in Figure 10-45. The socket and button are matched to form the
snap. The stud and eyelet form the part to which the socket and button snap.

Figure 10-45 — Glove fasteners.

10-32
Press Installation
Cut a hole the size of the collar of the button and insert the button in the material. Place the correct
chuck and die into the press shown in Figure 10-46. The die is the lower and the chuck is the upper
tool, and both are shown in Figure 10-46. Fit the socket to the chuck. Lay the button in the die and
complete the attachment by depressing the handle or foot pedal. Cut the proper size hole in the
material to receive the eyelet. Place the correct chuck and die in the press. Insert the collar of the
eyelets through the hole from the back of the material. Fit the stud into the chuck. Lay the eyelet on
the die and complete the attachment.

Figure 10-46 — Durable dot fastener installation.

Hand Installation
Cut a hole the proper size for the collar of the glove fastener button. Insert the button in the material
and place the socket over the collar of the button. Make an indentation in a wooden block for holding
the head of the button. Flatten the collar of the button with a solid drive pin punch. Assemble and
install the stud and eyelet on the other pieces of material so the base of the eyelet is on the backside
of the material. Flare and flatten the collar of the eyelet in a manner similar to the installation of the
button and socket.

10-33
Three-Way Locking Fasteners
There are times when you need to use a snap fastener that has extra security. When you must have
this type of fastener, use either the three-way locking snap or the curtain fastener.

Three-Way Locking Snaps Fasteners (Pull-the-Dot)

Three-Way Locking Snap Fasteners (Pull-the-Dot) are three sided locking snap fasteners. Similar to
the Durable model but they open only when pulled on one particular side. The three-way locking snap
fastener (Pull-the-Dot) is stocked in one size only—regular. It is used on flight clothing, parachute
containers, and back pads (Figure 10-47). This fastener opens only when lifted from the side, with the
dot located on the top of the button. When installing this snap fastener, ensure that you install the
three-way locking snap in the position that you want to be opened.

! CAUTION !
Never use this type of snap where any quick-opening devices or quick-releasing
action is required.

Figure 10-47— Three-way locking snap-type fastener.

Curtain Fastener
The curtain type fastener (Lift-the-Dot) is stocked in
two sizes—large and small (Figure 10-48). These
fasteners have many uses, especially for truck and
boat covers. The small lift-the-dot is the same as the
large one and designed on a smaller scale for use
on lighter work where the bulkiness and weight of the
large lift-the-dot are not desired.

Figure 10-48 — Curtain fasteners.

10-34
Interlocking Slide Fasteners
Tasks are accomplished more easily and quickly through the use of interlocking fasteners. For
example, they save precious seconds for aircrew members when they don their flight clothing or
exposure suits. These fasteners also provide the repairman with easy access to items that require
inspections. Figure 10-49 shows the types of interlocking slide fasteners (zippers) flight clothing and
other items of aviation equipment use.

Figure 10-49 — Slide fasteners.

10-35
Interlocking Slide Fastener Construction
An interlocking slide fastener consists of two chains of teeth (hollow cones or scoops) facing each
other. When the teeth are brought together at the proper angle, each tooth fits within the scoop of the
tooth opposite it. Figure 10-50 shows the parts of an interlocking fastener.
When the interlocking slide fastener is
closed, its teeth cannot be parted except
through the use of the slider, which, when
moved, displaces teeth at the proper
angle for meshing and unmeshing. The
small clips (stops) at the top and bottom
of the interlocking slide fastener prevent
the slider from running off the track.
Separating-type slide fasteners do not
have a bottom stop, but have a pin on
one side and retainer arrangement on the
other to allow the two parts of the slide
fastener to separate.

Interlocking Slide Fastener Operation

When operating an interlocking slide
fastener installed in a garment of soft,
nappy material or that is lined with wool or
fur, do so with care to prevent the nap or
wool from jamming the slider.
Very often, grease or oil deposits lodge
between the tiny hollow parts of the teeth
and accumulate dirt and lint. This causes
stiff operation of the slider. Clean a dirty
or gummed chain with an old toothbrush
or a pipe cleaner saturated with Stoddard
solvent or other similarly approved
cleaning solvent. After each cleaning,
lubricate the chain by applying one drop of
oil or a small amount of graphite between
your thumb and forefinger and running the
chain up and down between your fingers
several times. Zipper ease is a brand Figure 10-50 — Slide fastener parts.
name stainless lubricant in easy-to-use
stick form, that assures smooth, trouble-free operation of all zippers - metal or plastic. It is a special
blend of waxes and lubricants that resists exposure to water and heat. Just apply like a crayon to
zipper teeth. It is non-staining and prolongs zipper life.

10-36
A brief inspection will determine whether a slider (or pull tab) (Figure 10-51) is the locking or non-
locking type. Always be certain that the locking type pull tab is lifted at right angles to the slider before
attempting to remove it.

Interlocking Slide Fastener Tools

In addition to common tools such as
screwdrivers, pliers, awls, knives, scissors, and
needles, the parachute loft equipment should
include a well-equipped slide fastener kit.
The interlocking slide fastener kit (zipper repair
kit) contains all the parts necessary to repair
any size or type of interlocking slide fastener,
plus the following special tools: end cutters, or
nippers, used for removing stops and teeth;
stop-closing pliers, specially designed to span
over the slider and clamp the stops in position;
and pull-up pliers, designed to close the slider
without a pull tab. Another handy tool in slide
fastener repair is an awl with a bent tip. This
tool may be used to close the chain by hand.

Repairing the Interlocking Slide Fastener

Figure 10-51 — Slide fastener pull tabs.
You cannot repair a torn or ripped interlocking
slide fastener bead; you must completely
replace it. If the bead is damaged near the top or bottom of the interlocking slide fastener, and if
the damaged ends can be cut off to shorten the interlocking slide fastener without hampering the
usefulness of the garment, you can make an effective repair.
Loose or missing teeth and stops can cause trouble. If teeth or stops are not tightened, they will
eventually be lost and tear the bead. In repairing such damage, see that the loose stop is in position
(almost touching teeth), and then set it tightly with stop-closing pliers. Set any loose teeth parallel
with the other teeth in the chain, and then apply pressure with the stop-closing pliers. Set any loose
teeth parallel with the other teeth in the chain and apply pressure with the stop-closing pliers. If a
replacement stop is not available in the repair kit, use a soft wire or heavy thread as a temporary stop.
You may run into trouble moving the slider on the chain either because the jaws of the slider are too
tight or because of a dirty chain. To loosen the slider, insert a screwdriver between the jaws, and very
gently pry them apart until they operate freely.
Should the slider become jammed with fur, wool, or other material, carefully remove such matter with
a pin or needle while gently pulling the slider until it is released. If it is so badly jammed that it resists
all efforts, remove the slider by carefully bending the jaws apart and returning the jaws to their original
position. Then replace the slider on the chain (described later).

10-37
Most pull tabs have two small projections fitting into slots on each side of the slider. To remove the
pull tab, use two pairs of pliers, one on each side, and twist in opposite directions. Reverse this
procedure when replacing pull tabs. You only need to squeeze replacement pull tabs onto the slider.
To repair a damaged slider, first remove it. The following paragraphs explain the proper procedure for
removing and replacing a slider on the chain following repairs:
To remove the slider from the regular type interlocking slide fastener (non-separating), carefully rip
the stitches from the bottom of the interlocking slide fastener to expose the ends of the tape. Then
remove the bottom stop and slip the slider off the bottom of the chain and entirely off the beads and
tape, as shown in Figure 10-52.

Figure 10-52 — Removing the slider.

To replace the slider on a regular-type interlocking slide fastener, thread the two bottom beads into
the wide end of the slider. Hold the tape so that the bottom teeth correctly match; then, draw the
slider upward until the teeth mesh for several inches. Without allowing the teeth to separate, clamp
the bottom stop close to the teeth and over both beads. Replace the tape ends and ripped stitches by
hand or by machine.
To remove a damaged slider on a separating type slide fastener, carefully rip the stitches at the TOP
of the slide fastener, on the retainer side only, thus exposing the end of the tape. Remove the top
stop; slip the slider off the top of the chain, and completely remove it from the bead and tape. Repair
or replace the slider.
To replace the slider on a separating type interlocking slide fastener, thread the bead on the retainer
side into the narrow end of the slider, and allow the slider to slip down the chain. Replace the tape
end and ripped stitches by hand or machine.

10-38
To replace the slider on the top of a regular, non-separating type interlocking slide fastener with the
aid of pull-up pliers, slip the tool over the bottom stop, clamp together, and pull upward. Close the
entire chain in this manner. Thread the two top beads into the narrow end of the slider, holding the
teeth meshed until they enter the slider.
Replace the top stops, tape ends, and ripped stitches.

Shortening an Interlocking Slide Fastener

To shorten an interlocking slide fastener, first determine the length required. The chain should
be about 1/2 inch shorter than the opening in the material or garment. Mark the desired length,
measuring from the bottom stop upward.
Open the chain to any point below this mark and cut directly across the tape about 1 inch above the
mark. Cut the excess teeth from the marking point to the end of the tape and replace the two stops,
crimping them firmly.

Installing an Interlocking Slide Fastener

The installation of an interlocking slide fastener varies with the type of job. Some are curved, some
have rounded comers, and some are hidden. The following paragraphs explain the installation of a
straight slide fastener.

Slide Fastener Presser Foot

To install a slide fastener neatly and easily, use a slide fastener presser foot on the sewing machine.
The slide fastener presser foot serves not only as a guide for a neat row of stitches, but also prevents
the foot from riding up on the chain.
The sewing machine manufacturer can
supply a regular slide fastener presser foot
(right or left) for any sewing machine, or one
can be made locally (Figure 10-53). File or
grind the left side of an old presser foot to
permit sewing to within 1/8 inch of the chain.

Figure 10-53— Presser feet.

10-39
Fabrication
When sewing, always stretch the slide fastener and not the materials; this will keep your work flatter
and neater. Use tailor’s chalk to lay out the location to place the slide fastener on your material.
Tailor’s chalk is a type of chalk that is designed to make temporary markings on cloth. Using this
chalk, you can make markings where fabric needs to be cut or stitched, and the chalk can also be
used to mark out cutting or hemming lines on projects as they are constructed. Once the markings
are no longer useful, they can be easily brushed off or washed out, leaving no residue behind.
When making a bag or cover with two closed ends, lay the piece of material right side down, and
place the slide fastener right side down on top of the material where the opening is to be located. Sew
a row of stitches completely around the outer edge of the tape, as in Figure 10-54.

Figure 10-54 — Installing a slide fastener (step 1).

Turn the material over. Using shears to feel for the points, cut the material directly down the center of
the chain and cut a V at each end, as in Figure 10-55.

Figure 10-55 — Installing a slide fastener (step 2).

10-40
Turn the edges of the material under, exposing the chain. Allow sufficient space between the chain
and the folded edge of the material to prevent the slider from rubbing the edge of the hems. Cutting
the V at each end of the chain allows you to sew neat, square corners (Figure 10-56).

Figure 10-56 — Installing a slide fastener (step 3).

Procuring Slide Fasteners

There are two types of slide fasteners: separating and non-separating. Use a non-separating
slide fastener, type A, where only a small area needs to be opened; for example, the opening in a
parachute bag. Use a separating slide fastener, type B, where it is necessary to spread the opening
for easy access, such as on a jacket or the legs and waist of an anti-g coverall.
To determine the size or service weight of a slide fastener to install on a fabric assembly, consider the
weight of the material and the stress it will undergo. The size range and services of slide fasteners
are as follows:
1. Size 0 – light service
2. Size 1 – light to medium service
3. Size 2 – medium service
4. Size 3 – medium to heavy service
5. Size 4 – heavy service
Materials used in slide fastener construction vary from plastic and nylon to cotton, rubber, and metal.
There are two common grades of slide fastener chains. Grade I is of brass construction, and Grade II
is made of other metal alloys or synthetic materials.
A closely woven cotton fabric is commonly used for the tape of a slide fastener; match the color of this
tape to the main fabric color when installing a slide fastener.
On certain items of survival equipment using slide fasteners, it is mandatory that the slider remain
stationary where it is positioned on the chain. An equipment container or item of flight clothing
accidentally opening in flight could cause a lot of trouble for the aircrew member. Use a locking style L
slider to prevent the unintentional opening of a slide fastener that requires positive security.

10-41
Two common types of locking style L sliders are the pin type and cam type. The pin type locks when
the pull tab is pressed flat onto the chain, inserting its pin between two teeth on one side of the chain.
The cam type also locks when the pull tab is pressed flat onto the chain, causing friction between the
chain and the cam to prevent the slider from moving.
Slide fasteners installed where the movement of the slider is not critical may have a style S standard
non-locking slider. The style S slider is normally used on slide fasteners where accidental openings
do not create a problem.
The amount of enclosure required determines the length of a slide fastener. When ordering slide
fasteners from class 5325 of the Federal Stock Catalog, refer to the dimension column, which lists
both the length of the chain and the width of the tape. The size of a slide fastener is referred to as its
service weight.
Activities should specify the brand of chain that requires stops and sliders (Talon, Crown, or any other
make).
Slide fasteners in stock are supplied in the nearest length ordered. When you receive them, cut the
chain to the desired length; stops can be salvaged and reused on the cut chain.

SEAMS AND KNOTS

The following paragraphs present a variety of seams and knots.

Hand-Sewn Seams
By now, you have seen that sewing is perhaps the most useful skill that a fabrication and parachute
specialist should develop. Few fabric maintenance jobs are performed without some kind of sewing.
While most sewing is done with a sewing machine, there are occasions when using machines is
impractical or impossible. In fact, sometimes sewing by hand is not only more efficient but even
specified by technical order.
Some of the hand stitches you will use are the basting stitch, running stitch, hidden stitch, overthrow
stitch, and baseball stitch. Use the one that best suits the particular job. To use these stitches
properly, first become acquainted with their applicable definitions and general procedures.
A stitch is a unit of thread formation. A seam consists of a series of stitches (hand- or machine-sewn)
joining two or more pieces of material. All seams should possess strength, elasticity, durability, and a
good appearance. The strength of a seam depends upon the type of stitch used, type of thread used,
number of stitches per inch, tightness of seam, construction of seam, and size and type of needle
used. The appearance of a seam depends on how the seam is made. Even though you desire a good
appearance, your first considerations are elasticity, durability, and strength.
The material being sewn determines the elasticity a seam requires. If the material possesses an
elastic quality, the seam should possess this same quality. If the seam does not possess the same
elastic quality as the material, the stitches may break when stress is applied. A seam should be as
durable as the material it joins.
Tightly woven fabrics are more durable and have a smoother finish; therefore, they tend to slide on
one another. To reduce wear due to sliding, set the stitches tight and deep enough into the material to
reduce wear caused by rubbing on other surfaces.

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When hand sewing cloth, turn under 1/2 inch of the material as reinforcement and insert the needle
through both plies. When hand sewing thick materials, such as leather and felt, do not turn the edges
under.
To hand sew any seam, you must know how to prepare for the job. Select the proper needle and
thread. Choose a thread that matches the thread of the material as nearly as possible. Use the
smallest size needle that allows the thread to pass easily through the eye of the needle. To thread
the needle, pass one end of the thread through the eye and continue to pull it through until the ends
meet. The resulting double thread should be no longer than an arm’s length. Tie a binder’s knot at the
end of the doubled thread.
For sewing seams that require only one thread, pull only about 6 inches of thread through the eye,
and then tie an overhand knot in the other end of the thread. Again, use no more than an arm’s length
of thread.
The overhand knot is the simplest knot made. It is important because it forms a part of many other
knots. To practice making this knot, get a short piece of cord and make a loop in it. Then pass the end
through the loop and pull the loop tight. If two pieces of thread side by side are formed in a loop, the
resulting knot is called a binder’s knot. This knot is identical to the overhand knot except that it uses
two threads.
Most permanent hand-sewn seams in fabrics are locked with two half hitches at intervals of 6 inches.
These half hitches prevent any break in the seam from going past an interval. Lock all seams at the
end with two half hitches, a square knot, or a surgeon’s knot. A half hitch is simply an overhand knot
whose loop passes around another item, such as a thread or an edge of material. To tie the square
knot, tie a simple overhand knot. Then tie another overhand knot in the opposite direction, locking
the first knot. The surgeon’s knot is a modified form of the square knot. It is the same as the square
knot except that the first overhand knot is a double turn. This double turn keeps the cord from slipping
while the last overhand knot is made.

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Waxing Thread (Wax Pot)
Yellow beeswax is applied to hand sewing thread to prevent fraying and untwisting. Use only pure
beeswax, since the impurities in other waxes may cause oil or grease spots, which deteriorate the
thread. Beeswax is also crucial because it preserves cotton thread.

! WARNING !
Never place the wax pot in a busy area, because of the heat of the wax pot the wax may
cause serious burns or injure a passerby.

Other wax used in the survival equipment shop is made up of one part beeswax and one part paraffin
blended in a wax melting pot (Figures 10-57 and 10-58).
If you must wax an entire spool of thread, place the wax pot on a wide, level surface. Place the
electric cord of the wax pot so that you, or other personnel in your section, will not walk into it.
Gently lower the thread into the hot, molten wax; DO NOT let the thread rest on the bottom of the pot.
The size and type of thread you are using determine the time the thread should spend in the wax.
Follow these directions carefully to prevent the thread from burning or weakening because of
overcooking.

Figure 10-57 — Wax pot. Figure 10-58 — Hot wax pot.

When sewing, hold the needle between your thumb, index, and middle fingers. Push it forward with
the thimble on your fourth finger. Keep your fourth finger about two-thirds bent. Three fingers are
needed to guide the needle accurately and swiftly from right to left. Hold the material in a manner that
prevents you from tiring easily; crossing your legs and resting the material on them is helpful. Never
point the needle outward at arm’s length, because you may injure a passerby.

10-44
Purposes and Characteristics of the Basting Stitch
The basting stitch is used only for holding plies of material together temporarily before machine
sewing. This stitch is particularly helpful when you install a patch to a flight suit or a cover. Remove
basting stitches after making the machine seam.
Two types of needles can be used for basting: straight or creed. Use the curved needle for hard-to-
reach areas, such as basting a patch on a cover; otherwise, use a straight needle. To make the
basting stitch, thread the needle with a sufficient length of 16-4 thread, single or waxed. Tie an
overhand knot in the end of the single thread. Turn under the material edge 1/2 inch, unless specified
otherwise in the technical order. Make each stitch 1/4 inch in length and 1/8 inch from the folded edge
of the material. At the end of the row of basting stitches, lock the last stitch with two half hitches. Cut
the thread one-fourth inch from the knot. Figure 10-59 illustrates the basting stitch.

Figure 10-59 — Basting stitch.

10-45
Hand Sewing the Running Stitch
You can use a running stitch as a substitute for a machine-sewn seam. It is a permanent stitch to use
when a sewing machine is not available. Use a straight needle threaded with single- or doubled-
waxed cord or thread. Tie a knot at the end of the cord. Turn the material under 1/2 inch. Insert the
needle inside the 1/2-inch fold of one ply and push it through the three remaining plies so the starting
knot will be hidden. Continue sewing the pieces together by using the basting stitch. When you come
to the end of the row, turn the material around and go back in the opposite direction, filling in the
empty spaces as you sew, as in Figure 10-60. These two rows together become the running stitch.
Use four stitches per inch (each stitch one-fourth inch long) and one-eighth inch from the folded edge.
Lock the seam every 6 inches.

Figure 10-60 — Running stitch.

Keep enough tension on the thread to form firm, well-set stitches. When you make the last stitch,
insert the needle through two plies and bring it out in the center of the plies. Make two half hitches
around the stitch extending from the second to the third layer of material.

10-46
Hand-sewn Overthrow Stitch
Use the overthrow stitch to attach metal parts, such as cones and eyelet. For this type of attachment,
a sewing machine is not practical. The overthrow stitch is also used for harness tackings. Use a
curved needle when the stitch can only be sewn from one side of the fabric. Fold the material under
1/2 inch for reinforcement. Insert the needle in such a manner that the knot will be between the two
pieces of material. Form the overthrow stitch by inserting the needle 1/8 inch from the folded edge as
shown in Figure 10-61. Make each stitch by inserting the needle from the same side as the previous
stitch. For best results, make six stitches per inch. At the end of the row, tie off the thread with two half
hitches.

Figure 10-61 — Overthrow stitch.

10-47
Sewing the Baseball Stitch
The baseball stitch is a useful, permanent stitch that is very flexible and very elastic. It pulls the edges
of material (cloth or leather) evenly together to form a flat surface, and it is used for repairing or
closing an opening. The thread lies on both the top and bottom edges of the material. Like lacing, it
can be pulled as tightly as desired. Usually, a curved needle is best for sewing the baseball stitch.
Thread the needle with the required type of cord, waxed and tied with a knot at the end. If sewing
fabric rather than leather, turn the edges under 1/2 inch. Insert the needle through the fold of one ply
of material to hide the knot, as in Figure 10-62. Insert the needle from the outside of the lower ply and
bring it out the center of the plies, forming a straight overthrow stitch at the beginning of the seam,
also shown in Figure 10-62.

Figure 10-62 — Baseball stitch (top view).

Start the baseball stitch by inserting the needle in the center of the plies toward the outside of the
opposite piece of material. Proceed with the baseball stitch along the folded edges of the fabric (or
the edges of the leather). Insert the needle from the inside of the folded edges, only 1/6 inch from
the folded edge. Keep enough tension on the thread to remove all loops and slack the thread. Do not
apply too much tension because doing so tends to pucker or draw the seam out of line. Every time
you sew 6 inches of the baseball stitch, make a lock knot. After the last two stitches of the baseball
stitch, finish with a straight overthrow stitch and two half hitches.

10-48
Using the Hand-sewn Hidden Stitch
The hidden stitch is usually used to make repairs on upholstery and on clothing where good
appearance is important. To make this stitch, select a 2 1/2-inch curved needle and a length of
suitable thread. Thread the needle to sew with a single thread and tie a knot in the long end. Fold
under 1/2 inch of material and place it on the other piece of material, as shown in Figure 10-63. Start
the stitch by pushing the needle through the back of the fold, about one-eighth inch from the end. Pull
the needle through the bottom material at a point directly below where the needle came out of the
fold. Guide the needle so that the point comes out again about 1/4 inch along the line of the seam.
The point should come out directly below the creased edge, as in Figure 10-63, view A. Pull the
needle and thread out to draw the stitch tight. Push the needle into the front edge of the fold directly
above the point where the needle came out of the bottom material. Guide the needle point along the
inside of the fold so that it again comes out the creased edge about 1/4 inch from where it entered, as
in Figure 10-63, view B. Pull the stitch tight and repeat the previous steps until you reach the end.
Finish the seam off by coming back one stitch (through the opposite material) so that the needle
reappears alongside the exposed thread of the next-to-the-last stitch. Tie two half hitches around the
exposed thread.

Figure 10-63 — Hidden stitch.

10-49
Advantages and Characteristics of a Machine-Sewn Seam
Machine seams or stitchings have the following advantages over hand-sewn seams: speed,
appearance, and uniform tension. Their desirable characteristics are as follows:
• Strength – The strength of a seam of stitching depends on the type of thread, stitch type,
number of stitches per inch, the construction and tightness of the seam, and the size and type
of needle point used. The strength of the seam should equal that of the material it joins. Use
only the material specified for the assembly in the applicable technical order.
• Elasticity and flexibility – Elasticity and flexibility depend on the stretching qualities of the
material used, the quality and tension of the thread, the length of the stitch, and type of seam
or stitch used.
• Durability – Durability is determined by the wearing qualities of the material, the quality of
the thread used, and the use of proper tension to set stitches well into the material to reduce
abrasions. The relationship between the elasticity of the seam and the elasticity of the material
is very important in determining durability.
• Security – The security of a seam or stitching depends chiefly on the stitch type and its ability
to resist unraveling. The stitch must be well set in the material to prevent snagging, which can
cause thread breakage and unravel some types of stitches. Seam runoffs will weaken a seam.
Backstitch or anchor (backstitch and overstitch) all seam ends to prevent the seams from
unraveling, as Figure 10-64 illustrates.

Figure 10-64 — Properly anchored machine seam.

• Appearance – The appearance of a seam is controlled by its construction and neatness of

workmanship; however, appearance is less important than any of the four factors explained
previously—strength, elasticity, durability, and security. Size and type of thread as well as the
length of stitch may also affect appearance.

10-50
Stitches for Security and Reinforcement
An overstitch is a row of stitches that continues beyond the starting point and is used to secure a row
of stitches. A proper overstitch has one row of stitches that is placed on top of the first row of stitches
and should extend approximately 1 1/2 inches. In case the bobbin runs out, replace the bobbin,
overstitch 1 1/2 inches, and continue sewing.
A backstitch is a row of stitches that starts or finishes 1 1/2 inches back from the starting or finishing
point. It is used to secure a row of stitches that do not meet. A proper backstitch has one row of
stitches that is placed on top of the first row of stitches and should extend approximately 1 1/2 inches.
A cross box stitch is a rectangular stitch pattern used to attach and reinforce. When forming a box
stitch, always place the top three rows of stitches at the point of stress (the point that will receive the
most strain). To sew a cross box stitch and refer to Figure 10-65.
• In the remaining 2 inch square, mark and sew a 1 1/2 inch box stitch. Begin by measuring and
laying out the box stitch centered in the 2 inch square. Mark a point for each corner.
• Start sewing in the upper left-hand corner, and sew completely around the outside, forming a
box. Form an X in the center of the box by continuing to sew from the upper left-hand corner to
the lower right-hand corner. Then sew across the bottom from the lower right-hand corner to
the lower left-hand corner.
• Now, sew from the lower left-hand corner to the upper right-hand corner, then across the top to
the starting point. Turn the material 180 degrees and sew back to the upper right-hand corner.

Figure 10-65 — Cross box stitch.

10-51
Meanings and Symbols of Machine-Sewn Basic Stitches
The following paragraphs discuss the meanings and symbols of basic machine-sewn stitches.
• Stitch – A stitch is one unit of thread formation resulting from passing a thread through material
at uniformly spaced intervals. A specification number indicates the class of stitch. For example,
301 specifies a Federal Standard Lockstitch (one lock knot for each stitch). The class 31 and
111 sewing machines sew a Federal Standard Lockstitch 301.
• Seam – A seam is a joint where a sequence of stitches unites two or more pieces of material.
• Stitching – A stitching is a sequence of stitches for finishing an edge and/or for ornamental
purposes when preparing parts for assembly.
Seam or stitch formation is indicated by a symbol consisting of three parts:
1. The first denotes the class and consists of two uppercase letters, for example, SS.
2. The second denotes the type or the class of the seam or stitch formation and consists of one
or more lowercase letters, for example, a.
3. The third denotes the number of rows of stitches used and consists of one or more Arabic
numerals preceded by a dash, for example, –1.

NOTE
The three parts follow the three-digit number showing the type of
stitch the machine makes.

The complete seam specification for the examples given so far becomes 301-SSa-1 (remember that
the “301” is the machine class of stitch referenced above).
Some seams will be better than others. Experience shows that each seam best serves a certain
purpose. Therefore, seams have been standardized so that people who sew can produce congruent
work. Standardization also facilitates the use of drawings and blueprints that can specify a desired
seam. In this way, finished articles turn out strong and durable regardless of who produced them.

10-52
Varying Classes of Machine-sewn Seams and Stitchings
The following paragraphs cover the classes of machine-sewn seams and stitchings as well as
their practical applications. The three classes of seams are SS (superimposed seams), LS (lapped
seams), and BS (bound seams).
Class SS, Superimposed Seams — These seams are formed by placing one ply of material above
another with the edges together and the seam along one side.
Superimposed seams are usually made with two plies of material, although more than two plies can
be used for special projects. The edges may be folded under, but they never overlap when the
stitching is made. The two types of superimposed seams are SSa-1 and SSc-2, as shown in Figure
10-66.

Figure 10-66 — Superimposed seam.

1. The SSa-1 seam is the simplest method of joining two or more pieces of material. It is also
used as the first step in the formation of other seams, such as the LSak-2 seam.
2. The SSc-2 seam is used for making many different types of covers. The seam is also used to
make channels for sash cord when making handles on carrying bags and cases.

10-53
Class LS, Lapped Seams — Form the class LS seam by overlapping the material a sufficient distance
and stitching with one or more rows of sewing, as in Figure 10-67. The types of lapped seams are
LSc-2, LSc-4, LSd-1, and LSak-2.
1. The LSc-2 seam is used for the sectional seams, and the LSc-4 is for the channel seams of
the parachute canopy. The interlocking folds make the LSc seams the strongest of the seam
formations.
2. The LSd-1 seam is used in sewing pockets or patches. Also, use the seam to patch small
holes.
3. The LSak-2 seam is used for finishing seams of covers for shop equipment.

Figure 10-67 — Lapped seam.

10-54
Class BS, Bound Seams — BSa-2 seams are made by folding binding strips or tapes over the edges
of the material to reinforce and finish the edges. The BSa-2 seam, as shown in Figure 10-68, is used
to bind the edges of tool aprons, reinforcement panels, etc. Most soundproofing is bound with 3/4-
inch tape using the BSa-2 seam.

Figure 10-68 — Bound seam.

10-55
Form class EF (edge finishing) stitching by using the edge of a single ply of material to make the
hem. The EFb-4 stitching, as shown in Figure 10-69, is made by folding the edge back twice, thus
turning the cut edge inside the second fold to prevent fraying and reinforce the hem. The hem may
also include a piece of reinforcing tape or plain or tubular webbing for adding strength.
The survival equipment shop uses all seams and stitches pictured for modification and repair work on
the parachute canopy, pack, seat, and back pads or for making covers and bags for aircraft, shop
equipment, and tools.

Figure 10-69 — Edge finishing stitching.

10-56
Appropriately Spacing Machine-sewn Seams
The following rules will help you to space correctly more than one line of stitching and to place a
seam the correct distance from the edge:
1. Sew regular binding tape 1/16 of an inch from the selvage edge of the tape.
2. Sew heavier tapes from 1/16- to 1/8-inch from the edge. Sew the raw ends of the tapes 1/4-
inch from the raw edge.
3. Sew horsehide and thin leathers 1/8-inch from the edge in patching, trimming, etc.
4. Sew the raw edges of 8- to 15-ounce duck 1/2-inch from the edge.
5. Fold the material no less than 1/2-inch for reinforcement.
6. Sew the folded edges of 8- to 15-ounce duck 1/8 inch from the folded edge.
7. Make the second and succeeding rows of stitches 1/4-inch apart. In heavier material, it is
sometimes desirable to separate the rows as much as 3/8-inch.
8. Heavy duck, heavy fabric, or the heavier leathers may be sewn approximately 1/4-inch from
folded edges for best results, while the raw edges of such heavy fabrics need at least 1/2- to
3/4-inch seams for security.
9. Sew light nylon or aircraft fabric 1/16-inch from the folded edge. Raw edges of these light
materials are seldom sewn together, except as the first step of another seam.
10. When you are sewing a row of stitches and the thread breaks, start sewing again 1/2-inch
behind the break, and sew on top of the existing stitches. This is called backstitching.
The stitches that form the various classes of seams should be tight, even, and well-set into the
material. Understanding how the machine functions to form the stitch and feed the material is the
basis for sewing high-quality seams consistently.

10-57
Knots
Knots serve a vital role in servicing parachutes. Think of knots as the treads on your automobile tires.
The tire can perform its basic function without treads, but treads are necessary for the tire to achieve
optimum grip and to stop the automobile in the shortest time and distance possible. Just as treads on
tire are small details that optimize a vehicle’s performance, so are knots crucial to the performance of
rigging.
Change all knots and tackings as often as possible to prevent deterioration and loosening.
Parachutes must perform under the most unpredictable situations, at remarkable speeds and
configurations. One poorly made knot and tacking could cause burned suspension lines, excessive
opening shock, or oscillation—all of which could result in the failure of the parachute. Remember, no
matter how small the task, treat each area of the parachute with the greatest care and concern.
The type of knot to use in assembling component parts of parachutes depends on the purpose for
which the knot is intended, the strength required, and the kind of thread, rope, or cord to be used.
Remember that knots, hitches, and turns decrease the tensile strength of rope, cord, or thread, as
shown in Figure 10-70.

Figure 10-70 — Tensile strength decreased by knot.

Some knots are tied for the purpose of breaking during parachute deployment, and other knots are
tied so as not to break. This is why it is so important only the specified knots for a particular job. The
following text discusses the knots you will have to tie as you go about your job servicing parachute
assemblies.

10-58
Overhand Knot
The overhand knot, shown in Figure 10-71, is
the simplest knot. It is very important, however,
since it forms a part of many other knots. The
overhand knot is a stopper, especially when
used alone, and hence it is very secure, to
the point of jamming badly. Use it if the knot is
intended to be permanent. It is often used to
prevent the end of a rope from unraveling. You
will also use the overhand knot at the end of a
single thread when you are hand sewing.

Figure 10-71 — Overhand knot.

Binder’s Knot
The binder’s knot, shown in Figure 10-72, is the
simplest method of joining two cords or threads
together. You will also use it at the end of a
double cord when hand sewing to prevent the
cord from pulling through the material as you
sew.

Figure 10-72 — Binder’s knot.

10-59
Square Knot
The square knot, shown in Figure 10-73, is the
most common and simplest knot for joining two
ropes or cords. It can be easily tied and untied,
it is secure and reliable when made with ropes
and cords of the same size. This knot works
because the friction between the two rope ends
holds the knot together. Make sure both parts
of the rope exit the knot together.
A useful phrase to remember the steps of tying
a square knot is: Right over left and left over
right.

Figure 10-73 — Square knot.

Surgeon’s Knot
The surgeon’s knot, shown in Figure 10-74 is
a modified form of the square knot. In fact, it
is the same as the square knot except that the
first overhand knot is a double turn. This double
turn keeps the cord from slipping while the last
overhand knot is tied.

Figure 10-74 — Surgeon’s knot.

10-60
Surgeon’s Knot Topped with a Square Knot
The first loop of the knot has two turns rather
than a single turn. The second loop has only
one turn and is placed in a square-knot fashion,
leaving the free ends in the same plane as the
first loop. Parachute assembly and other
related aircrew survival equipment tackings use
this combination of knots extensively. Figure
10-75, is a surgeon’s knot topped with a square
knot.

Figure 10-75 — Surgeon’s knot topped with a

square knot.

Bowline Knot
A bowline is knot formed by making a small
overhand loop a desired distance from the end
of the line. The end of the line is then passed
through the loop from the underside of the main
part of the line and around behind standing line
then back through the small loop. When this
knot is drawn tight, it will not slip but can be
easily untied. This knot can’t be untied while
there is a load on its standing end. The bowline,
pronounced ‘Bowlin’ not ‘bow-line’ is commonly
used to connect survival items in the survival
vest the aircrew wears (Figure 10-76).

Figure 10-76 — Bowline knot.

10-61
Half Hitch
The knot is formed by passing a cord or line
around an object, then passing the free end
around the mainpart of the cord and bringing
the free end up through the loop thus formed.
The knot is formed by making a small overhand
loop a desired distance from the end of the line.
The end of the line is then passed through the
loop from the underside of the main part of the
line and around behind standing line then back
through the small loop. When this knot is drawn
tight, it will not slip but can be easily untied.
The half hitch, shown in Figure 10-77 is used
to form the tie for the safety ties on ripcord pins
on the various types of personnel, cargo, and
deceleration parachutes. Normally, three half
hitches in a series are used for the safety tie.

Figure 10-77 — Half hitch.

Clove Hitch
The clove hitch, shown in Figure 10-78, is used
to secure the suspension lines to the connector
links on many parachute assemblies.

Figure 10-78 — Tying a clove hitch.

10-62
Lark’s Head Knot
The knot is formed around an attachment ring or bar by passing the free ends of the line around the
bar or through the ring and then through a loop or bight in the line (Figure 10-79). The thicker the line,
the easier it is to loosen the knot.
The knots listed above are the most common in
parachute rigging, but for even greater security,
these knots can be modified to form several
other knots. The lock knot, for example, is an
overhand knot tied adjacent to many other
knots. To prevent the square and lock knot or
the surgeon’s and lock knot from slipping, you
may tie overhand knots at each end of the
thread or cord. Also, the overhand knot can be
tied in a series, as can the surgeon’s knot.
The binder’s knot leaves a loose end to form
a slip knot, used to temporarily tie an excess
amount of cord. The AS28A deployment bag
uses this type of knot. Also, when you secure
the automatic ripcord release’s arming knot
guide on the automatic seat style parachute,
you will use a slip knot tied off with a lock knot.
The specific knots you use are determined by
the engineers who design, test, and establish
criteria for the operation and function of Figure 10-79 — Lark’s head knot.
parachute assemblies.

SUMMARY
PRs hold a particularly demanding position. You must learn to analyze a job, assign personnel to
perform the various tasks included, and then show them how to do the work, if necessary. You have
to advise them on working safely, observe them at work, and then inspect their work. Naval technical
publications and TDs are very important sources of reference for ALSS equipment. It is extremely
important that you use the correct and most up-to-date references to ensure the safety of personnel
and equipment. Be critical of all your measurements, measure twice and cut only once.
This chapter has dealt with various types of fabrication and manufacturing equipment, as well as the
basic knowledge required to perform some of the tasks of a PR. While the PR rate involves many
small-scale, ALSS technical inspections, the fabrication and manufacture knowledge is a basic
requirement of the rate. As a supervisor and someone responsible for training new PRs, you must be
very knowledgeable in all areas of ALSS. Remember, safety always comes first.

10-63