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Popular Kheti
Volume -3, Issue-2 (April-June), 2015
Available online at www.popularkheti.info
© 2015 popularkheti.info
ISSN: 2321-0001

Acid Sulphate Soil: Management Strategy for Soil Health and Productivity
Shaon Kumar Das*1 and Suvo Kumar Das2
1
Scientist (Agril. Chemistry), ICAR RC for NEH Region, Sikkim Centre, Sikkim-737102
2
Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal-741252
*Email of corresponding author: shaon.iari@gmail.com

Acid sulphate soil is the common name given to soils and sediments containing
iron sulfides, the most common being pyrite. Management practices for its proper
use in terms of agricultural and non-agricultural planning requires not only the
knowledge of physical, chemical and biological properties of soil but also the
knowledge of climate, geographic positions of the landscape and its present land
use. Acid sulfate soils can be successfully managed. There are a variety of
management options available to treat acid sulfate soils. Selection of an appropriate
management option will depend on the physical and chemical characteristics of the
acid sulfate soil, the hydrological circumstances and the environmental sensitivity
of the site. It is essential that an acid sulfate soil investigation be carried out at each
site prior to any disturbance to help determine the most appropriate management.
Due to prevalence of diverse soil groups, acid sulphate soil requires differential
management approaches to boost agricultural production.

Introduction
Soil with sufficient sulphides to become strongly acidic (pH<3) when drained and aerated
enough for cultivation are termed as acid sulphate soils. Sometimes it is called cat clay also. It
includes all soils in which sulfuric acid may be produced that have a long lasting effect on main
soil characteristics. Acid sulphate soils are not always a problem. But, if the soils are drained or
exposed to air by a lowering of the water table, the sulphides react with oxygen and
form sulphuric acid. When this sulphuric acid is released from the soil, it can in turn
release iron, aluminium, and other heavy metals (particularly arsenic) within the soil. After
mobilization, the acid and metals can create adverse impacts on soil and plant like killing
vegetation, killing fish and other aquatic organisms, seeping into and acidifying,
degrading concrete and steel structures to the point of failure, and groundwater and water bodies.
Under the anaerobic reducing conditions maintained by permanent groundwater, the iron
sulphides are stable and the surrounding soil pH is often weakly acid to weakly alkaline. Such

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soils are called potential acid sulfate soils (PASS) as they have potential to produce sulfuric acid
when disturbed or exposed to air. Acid sulphate soils are generally found in coastal areas where
the land is inundated by salt water. In Thailand and India, area covered by acid sulphate soil is
about 2 million acres. The area of acid sulphate soils in India is approximately 390,000 hectares.
These are found in Kerala, Orissa, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The area in
Kerala is approximately 110 thousand ha which is highly organic sulfaquepts and among these
area, partly (26 thousand ha) is affected by salinity. In West Bengal, 280 thousands ha acid
sulphate soil belongs to great group sulfaquents and is mainly distributed in Sundarban region.
The estimate on the extent of acid sulphate soils in the coastal areas reveals that about 0.26
million hectares area in Kerala and the Andaman and Nicobar group of islands are occupied by
this type of soil.

Table 1: Global distribution of acid sulphate soils

Country Area(‘000’ ha) Source

Australia 3000 Galloway, Aust. draft nat.Strategy, 1997

Vietnam 2140 Bui Quan Tran, 1990
Venezuela 2000 Van Breman, 1980
Brazil 1111 FAO, 1974
Guyanas 1246 Brinkman and Pons, 1968
Indonesia 4109 Soekardi, 1990
Thailand 1500 Krishnamra, 1990
Malaysia 657 Dent, 1990
Central America 650 FAO, 1974
Madagascar 528 FAO, 1974
India 390 Van Breemen and Pons, 1978
*source: Attanandana et al., 1986; Angeloni et al., 2004

Acid Sulphate Soil Formation

Acid sulphate soils form due to oxidation of sulphides in soils. When soil is drained and after
then aerated, sulphide is oxidised to sulphate by biochemical reaction, form sulphuric acid.
Magnitude of this depends on how much amount of sulphides are present in soil. The impacts of
acid sulphate soil leachate may persist over a long time, and/or peak seasonally (after dry periods
with the first rains). In some areas of Australia, acid sulfate soils that drained 100 years ago are
still releasing acid. Below pH 4.0, bacteria called Thiobacillus ferroxidans are most active
oxidizers and responsible for acid sulphate soil. Thiobacillus ferroxidans bacteria convert
sulphate (dissolved salt) from seawater, groundwater or surface water into sulfide (another type
of compound that contains sulphur). This sulfide reacts with metals especially iron in the soil
sediments or water column, to produce metal sulfides (the main components of acid sulfate soils)

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Figure 1: Formation and accumulation of acid sulphate soil (National guidance for the
management of acid sulphate soils in inland aquatic ecosystems-environment protection and
heritage council and NRM ministerial council, 2011)

Characteristics of Acid Sulphate Soil

Acid sulphate soil contains a sulphuric horizon having pH < 3.5 along with sulphide content
(yellow colour). Sulphuric horizon is 15 cm or more thick and is composed of either organic or
mineral soil material that has a pH equal or less 3.5 due to sulfuric acid (1:1 soil: water by Wt or
in a minimum of water to permit measurement) and shows evidence that the low pH value is
caused by sulphuric acid. It also contain sulphidic materials having oxidizable sulphur
compounds. They are mineral or organic soil materials that have a pH > 3.5. Compared with
normal soil, the organic matter content of the acid sulfate soils are generally much higher; and
among the acid sulfate soils, the content of organic matter tend to be higher, the lower the pH of
the surface soil. Great group involved in acid sulphate soil are Sulphaquepts, Sulphaquents,
Sulphihemists and Sulphohemists. Hydrogen sulphide often formed in lowland rice and causes
akiochi disease which retard rice plant roots to absorb nutrients. This is because low pH is
unfavourable for organic matter decomposition andretard the ammonification, regardless of the
high organic matter content.

Fertility Problems
Acid sulphate soils are generally unproductive and reduce farm productivity. Their low
productivity may be due to soil acidity, salinity, aluminium toxicity, iron toxicity, low content of
major nutrients, low base status, and hydrogen sulfide toxicity. The sulphuric acid lowers pH,
which makes several soil nutrients less available to plants. The acid dissolves iron and
aluminium from the soil so that they become available to plants in toxic quantities in soil water.
The reported ills of acid sulphate soils may be due to the direct effect of hydrogen ions,
especially below pH 3.5 to 4. However, aluminium toxicity is probably more important in this
pH range. When acid sulphate soils are used as landfill they can affect plant growth and
landscaping. Animal productivity is affected by acid sulfate soils. The acid discourages good

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quality pasture. Grazing animals may take in too much aluminium and iron by feeding on acid-
tolerant plant species and drinking acid water. It produces so much sulfuric acid that nothing will
grow, giving the soil surface a bare, scalded appearance.

Management of Acid Sulphate Soils

Acid sulphate soil needs to be managed when they are disturbed or exposed to oxygen.
Typically, excavating or otherwise removing soil or sediment, lowering of groundwater levels or
filling or surcharging of low-lying land causes disturbance of acid sulphate soil. To reduce the
possibility of acid sulphate soils, there are many management techniques used to minimise this
possibility and its effects. The general approaches for reclamation are suggested below:
1. Avoidance: Avoidance is the most preferred management strategy for management of acid
sulphate soil, and should be considered at all sites. Acid sulfate soils are inert when left in
waterlogged, undisturbed conditions. Avoidance is often the most environmentally
responsible and cheapest option.
2. Minimisation of Disturbance: If acid sulphate soils cannot be avoided for crop production,
their disturbance should be minimised. Completion of a detailed acid sulphate soil
investigation is essential for minimisation of disturbance to be effective. Once the site has
been adequately characterised, strategies that minimise the disturbance can be investigated.
3. Neutralisation: Liming is the primary and most important way to reclaim acid sulphate soil. It
involves the physical incorporation of neutralising/alkaline materials into the soil. Lime has
an alkaline pH and buffers any acid produced whilst raising the soil pH to acceptable levels.
Proper mixing the appropriate amount and type of lime into disturbed acid sulphate soils will
neutralise soil acidity produced. If acid sulphate soils are leached during early stage of
acidification, lime requirement are lowered
4. Re-flooding: The objective of re-flooding is to neutralise actual acidity and reduce the pyrite
oxidation rate. Re-flooding relies on establishing conditions where the reduction of the Fe,
Mn, S and N can take place. The reduction of these elements is responsible for the increase in
pH commonly observed in acid soils after water logging. Re-flooding can also be used as a
water table height-management tool to prevent the oxidation of PASS or further oxidation of
ASS.
5. Seawater re-flooding: Re-flooding with seawater may trap the existing acid leachate and force
it deeper into the soil profile, limiting the export of oxidation products and slow diffusion into
the tidally exchanged seawater. The advantage of this approach is that it is simple, cheap and
improves the situation even if further improvement is eventually needed.
6. Hydraulic separation: Hydraulic separation is suitable for sandy material containing iron
sulphides. Sluicing or hydrocycloning are used to hydraulically separate the sulphides from
the sandy materials. This technique is very much effective in areas where the sediments
contain <10–20% clay and silt, and have low organic matter content. The separated sulfidic
material extracted via the process requires special management involving either neutralisation
or strategic reburial.

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7. Bioremediation: By re-establishing reducing conditions within the bunded area, pyrite

oxidation may be reversed by sulfate-reducing bacteria. In effect, it would re-establish the
sulfide formation processes that operate in the mangrove soils outside the bund wall.
Bioremediation causes chemical changes in the water and soil, and in sediment that may
accumulate. Bioremediation would be a natural process and cost-effective if in-situ microbial
generation of acid-neutralising capacity is significant.
8. Cover in-situ soils with clean fill: If groundwater levels are not affected by earthworks,
undisturbed in-situ potential acid sulphate soil can be covered with a significant volume of
clean fill. A minimum depth of fill cannot be specified for residential or commercial/industrial
development. A suitable depth of fill should rather be determined on a site specific basis,
dependent on the severity and extent of acid sulphate soil, as identified in the investigation.
Once a site has been covered by clean fill, any associated infrastructure may be placed within
the fill, thereby not disturbing any in-situ acid sulphate soil by excavation or dewatering.
9. Flooding and Intermittent drainage: Soils may be flooded (anaerobic) or buried in water to
maintain a saturated state to minimize acid sulphate soil. This solution almost limits the use of
the area to rice growing. But, sometimes drought occurs unfortunately and causes soil
acidification in short time period. The water used to flood the potential acid sulphate soils
often develop acidity and injure crops. Rice grown under intermittent drainage had healthier
root systems, less empty grains, heavier weight per panicle. Rice in continuous submergence
showed strong bronzing symptoms but had more tillers.
10. Water table management: Sometimes in acid sulphate soil, non-acidifying layer covers
sulphuric horizon. Then drainage to keep only the sulphuric layer under water (anaerobic) is
possible. By raising the water table, after damage has been inflicted due to over-intensive
drainage, the soils can be restored.
11. Deep soil mixing: It is carried out with a large diameter (one to three metres) hollow-flight
auger It also has special mixing ‘paddles’ which mixes soil. As holes are drilled into the soft
substrate lime or cement and a variety of binding agents are mixed with the soil slurry which
form solid supportive columns in the soil after cementation.
12. Growing of suitable crops: Rice is the most preferable crop which is highly acid tolerant.
Adoption of rice crop in acid sulphate soils increases the pH of soil and thus reduces the iron
and aluminium toxicity. Acid sulphate soils with a widely spaced subsurface drainage system
have yielded promising results for the cultivation of upland rice, peanut and soybean.

Conclusion
It may be concluded that proper management and planning can reduce extent of acid sulphate
soil for improving soil health and sustaining livelihood in order to meet the ever increasing
demand of food, fiber, fuel and fodder. Government should also take some initiatives in this
regard.

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References
Angeloni J, Peek A, Appleyard S, Wong S and Watkins R. 2004. Acid sulfate soils: distribution,
impacts and regulation (A western perspective). Corrosion & Prevetion, 106:1-13.
Attanandana T and Vacharotayan S. 1986. Acid sulfate soils; their characteristics, genesis,
amelioration and utilization. Southeast Asian Studies, 24: 154-180.
Brown AD and Jurinak JJ. 1989. Mechanism of pyrite oxidation in aqueous mixtures. Journal of
Environmental Quality, 18: 545—550.
Dent DL. 1986. Acid Sulphate Soils: a baseline for research and development. International
Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement Publication No. 39, Wageningen.
Palko J. 1986. Mineral element content of timothy (Phleum pratense L.) in an acid sulphate soil
area of Tupos village, northern Finland. Acta Agric. Scand., 36: 399-409.
Managing Acid Sulphate Soil, department of Environment and Resource Management.
http://www.nrm.qld.gov.au/factsheets/pdf/land/l62.pdf

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