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Luteal Regression in the Primate: Different Forms of Cell Death During Natural
and Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Antagonist or Prostaglandin Analogue-
Induced Luteolysis
prostaglandin treatment on the hormone-producing lutein plasma progesterone concentrations were 186 and 124 ng/
cells. It was postulated that differences in response to the ml; they were 20 and 12 ng/ml in the late luteal phase
treatments would reveal divergent pathways of luteal cell marmosets. Values obtained during the early and midfolli-
death. Finally, by compressing the time scale of luteal re- cular phase marmosets were , 4 ng/ml. Both GnRH and
gression with such treatments, it was anticipated that the prostaglandin treatment resulted in a dramatic fall in pro-
model might show changes in the corpus luteum more read- gesterone concentrations, such that even after 12 h, pro-
ily than by examination of the more protracted process of gesterone was , 4 ng/ml, i.e., at follicular phase levels.
natural luteolysis.
Light Microscopic Observations
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Treatments and Collection of Tissue Normal corpus luteum. In contrast to observations in
most other primate species studied, distinct enfoldings of
Adult female common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) lutein cells derived from the theca layer and separate from
showed combinations of dense granules and minute clear no significant changes in histology compared to the mid-
vacuoles in the cytoplasm (Fig. 1C). The nuclei, where luteal control tissue (not shown). In the two animals from
present, were at times considerably smaller than in com- which tissue was collected during the early follicular phase,
parable cells in control tissues. Some lutein cells showed and whose corpora lutea had ceased to function, numerous
intact nuclei within heterogeneous clumps of granular ma- condensed, intensely stained structures that had probably
terials in the cytoplasm. In the more advanced state, nu- been lutein cells were observed together with smaller bod-
merous lutein cells showed larger vacuoles that often gave ies and fragmented structures of unknown identity (Fig. 2,
the impression of coalescence into extensive clear areas of a and b). Often these dense bodies were associated with
cytoplasm with a minor proportion of granular material at spaces or vacuoles that appeared to be empty (Fig. 2b), but
times surrounding a small central nucleus or condensed ma- whether these were intracellular or extracellular could not
terial. Nuclei of the supporting tissue were seen, but often be determined with light microscopy. At this stage, the cor-
no clear distinction could be determined between the cap- pora lutea also exhibited lutein cells without apparent de-
illary endothelial cells and the fibroblasts of the connective generative change.
tissue. The corpora lutea from ovaries of the late follicular
Naturally regressed corpus luteum. Corpora lutea from phase were markedly decreased in volume compared to
the late luteal phase, prior to functional luteolysis, showed those within the midluteal control tissues, and they were
surrounded by an abundance of connective tissue. Numer-
b ous lipid inclusions, partly extracted, were present in most
of these cells. Scattered at random throughout the luteal
FIG. 1. A) Normal midluteal phase corpus luteum showing lutein cells tissue were pyknotic elements, at times showing morpho-
with central nucleus, and abundant cytoplasm containing mitochondria
and lipid. Capillaries containing erythrocytes are evident. B) Luteal tissue logical features suggesting cell degeneration and/or cell
after GnRH antagonist treatment illustrating a complex mixture of rec- death (Fig. 2c). Because of their small cross-sectional area,
ognizable lutein cells with small and large cytoplasmic inclusions (curved it was not possible to determine the nature of the degen-
arrows) and fragments of cells, vacuoles, and debris within the connective erating cells. Small arterioles and venules were structurally
tissue. When present, most lutein cell nuclei appeared morphologically normal, but the close aggregation of atrophic lutein cells
normal (arrowheads). C) Luteal tissue after prostaglandin treatment show-
ing two types of structural alterations, with most lutein cells with or with-
and the supporting cells and matrix of the connective tissue
out a nucleus displaying many cytoplasmic vesicles while others con- made it difficult to determine the morphological status of
tained mostly dense inclusions. Scattered cellular debris and necrotic-type the capillaries.
structures were noted in the connective tissue. 3920. Since apoptosis had been expected in luteal tissue, an
1472 FRASER ET AL.
FIG. 3. A) A typical normal lutein cell with central nucleus (N), abundant mitochondria (M), and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). 33500. B)
Lutein cell 24 h after GnRH antagonist treatment showing multiple myelin bodies (Mn) of various densities, forming membranous whorls at times in
association with areas of compact membranes. 33300. C) Lutein cells after prostaglandin treatment showing many vesicles of variable size. Nuclei (N)
were intact. 32800. D) Higher magnification of part of C showing small and large vesicles often closely associated or coalesced (arrows). The nucleus
(N) showed peripheral aggregations of heterochromatin. 38050.
LUTEAL CELL DEATH IN THE PRIMATE 1473
established source of such cells, the granulosa layer of an or fragments of lutein cells, or of connective tissue origin,
atretic follicle, was examined to demonstrate nuclear con- was not determined.
densation (Fig. 2d). Degeneration of granulosa cells con- Prostaglandin analogue treatment. After prostaglandin
sistent with apoptosis was shown by the rounded cell con- analogue treatment, the smooth ER of lutein cells had a
tours, single or multiple dense aggregations of nuclear chro- vesicular appearance, and large dilated membrane-bound
matin or condensed cytoplasmic inclusions/organelles, and vesicles occupied much of the cytoplasmic volume (Fig.
numerous dense cell fragments 2–4 mm in diameter, com- 3C). When apposed, the larger vesicles were often conflu-
monly referred to as ‘‘apoptotic bodies.’’ ent, and in many lutein cells the coalescence of vesicles
gave rise to extensive interconnected structures resembling
Ultrastructural Observations an alveolar-type morphology (Fig. 3D). In contrast, the nu-
clei remained intact, but often the heterochromatin was con-
Normal corpus luteum. In control and mid and late lu- densed into many small irregular clumps subjacent to the
teal phase corpora lutea, the lutein cells were characterized nuclear membrane (Fig. 3, C and D), a feature not observed
by a central circular nucleus in cross section and a single in lutein cells from the normal corpus luteum. As the lutein
nucleolus. In the cytoplasm, the dominant components were cells became shrunken, the nuclear heterochromatin in
vesicles or short anastomosing tubules of smooth endo- some cells aggregated into several clumps (Fig. 4A), the
plasmic reticulum (ER), variable numbers of small lipid cytoplasm showing many vesicles together with abnormal
droplets, and many mitochondria (Fig. 3A). The morphol- mitochondria in which the cristae showed disruption into
ogy of the mitochondria was variable between the hor- particulate matter. In the more degenerate cells, multiple
mone-producing cells, some cells having lamellar-type cris- vesicles occupied much of the cell volume, while in others,
tae and others displaying tubular cristae that filled the mi- fewer vesicles were noted but their large size again made
tochondrial matrix. them the dominant feature (Fig. 4B). In these cells, the
GnRH antagonist treatment. The striking accumulation nuclei were involuted and often misshapen.
of a variety of dense bodies within lutein cells, as noted Within the connective tissue, the morphology of the cells
with light microscopy, was confirmed by ultrastructural and the extracellular matrix was suggestive of tissue dis-
analysis. Where present, the nuclei and mitochondria of lu- ruption with ruptured cell membranes and transformation
tein cells appeared normal, but the cytoplasm contained nu- of cellular organelles into fragments, particulate matter, and
merous large structures of variable form and density sug- residual bodies.
gestive of phases of degeneration and condensation of Naturally regressed corpus luteum. In corpora lutea of
membranes during formation of myelin-type inclusions ovaries collected from the early follicular phase of the cy-
(Fig. 3B). Similar myelin bodies, disrupted cytoplasm, and cle, the tissue contained morphologically normal lutein
cellular debris occurred external to the identifiable lutein cells in addition to degenerating lutein cells identified by
cells; but whether these structures were slender extensions their increased electron density, irregular contours, and
1474 FRASER ET AL.
FIG. 5. A) Early natural regression of the corpus luteum showing shrinkage of lutein cells into condensed, irregular fragments (fr) and small, dense
circular bodies (arrows) scattered within the extracellular space or within macrophages (Ma). Intact lutein cells (N), a neutrophil (Ne), and fibroblasts
(F) are indicated. 34000. B) Early regressing corpus luteum showing fragmentation of lutein cells into smooth membrane structures (S), mitochondria-
rich components (M), and condensed cellular material (arrow). Note densely stained clustered mitochondria in adjacent lutein cells. 34000.
LUTEAL CELL DEATH IN THE PRIMATE 1475
fragmentation (Fig. 5A). Small, dense circular elements 7D). Within the tissue examined, not every lutein cell was
representing clumps of cellular debris were numerous, and either fragmented or engulfed by phagocytes. Some were
most of these had been engulfed by macrophages located atrophied, often aggregated together, and their markedly
in the connective tissue between normal or degenerating shrunken cytoplasm contained secondary lysosomes, large
lutein cells. The presence of neutrophils suggested an in- lipid inclusions, and crystalline bodies (Fig. 7E). The nuclei
flammatory-type response associated with the destruction of these cells retained a morphologically normal appear-
and removal of dead and dying cells. The ultrastructural ance.
response of lutein cells was markedly variable; it included
clustering and increased density of the mitochondria, or
changes in the smooth ER to form innumerable small ves- DISCUSSION
icles, or giant whorls of tubular smooth ER (Fig. 5B). Con-
densation of cytoplasm was a universal feature either within To our knowledge, this is the first report of ultrastructural
focal regions of lutein cells, or as distinct, often extracel- changes in the corpus luteum following GnRH antagonist-
lular clumps of cellular debris. induced luteolysis. In addition, while extensive information
At higher magnification of recognizable lutein cells, or is available on the luteolytic effects of prostaglandin F2a
fragments derived from them, numerous particulate bodies analogue in the nonprimate, this is the first description of
were seen in the cytoplasm (Fig. 6A). With further con- such effects on luteal morphology in the primate corpus
densation, portions of degenerating lutein cells were phago- luteum.
cytosed by macrophages and became fully or partly sur- Recently, there has been an emphasis on apoptosis as
rounded by the macrophage plasma membrane (Fig. 6, B representing the principal form of luteal cell death, primar-
and C), indicating enclosure by a vacuole or phagosome. ily stemming from the localization of fragmented DNA
By the late follicular phase, the corpora lutea were in an [16–21]; and, in the case of nonprimates, there is also un-
advanced stage of regression characterized by general cell equivocal evidence for apoptosis based upon ultrastructural
atrophy, fragmentation, and increased proportion of extra- studies. However, it is emphasized that our observations do
cellular matrix and collagen. In some of the atrophied lutein not indicate rapid or widespread cell degeneration via ap-
cells, lipid inclusions had accumulated together with ex- optosis, as defined by accepted histological or ultrastruc-
tracted, oblong cytoplasmic structures resembling choles- tural criteria [35–37]. With the exception of a very small
terol-rich crystalline inclusions known to occur in other ste- number of degenerating lutein cells, including some en-
roidogenic cells, particularly in association with a decline gulfed by macrophages (e.g., Figs. 4A and 7D), classic ap-
in metabolic or synthetic activity (Fig. 7A). Fragments of optotic-type nuclei of lutein cell identity were rare. Our
condensed lutein cell cytoplasm were occasionally noted findings indicate that, during luteolysis in the marmoset,
within the lumina of capillaries (Fig. 7B) and often within death of the vast majority of lutein cells proceeds via non-
macrophages (Fig. 7C). In the latter, whole condensed nu- apoptotic mechanisms. During natural luteolysis, this in-
clei had been ingested by the macrophages, and the asso- volves cell atrophy with phagocytosis of cytoplasmic de-
ciated presence of lipid inclusions and crystalline-type bod- bris. This contrasts with both GnRH antagonist and pros-
ies suggested their identity as degenerating lutein cells (Fig. taglandin-induced luteolysis, which are associated with au-
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FRASER ET AL.
1476
LUTEAL CELL DEATH IN THE PRIMATE 1477
tophagocytosis and nonlysosomal cell disintegration, smooth ER becoming markedly swollen and forming many
respectively. vesicles such that in the advanced state, these vesicles co-
Ultrastructural changes during natural luteolysis in the alesced into large vacuoles. This observation may be sim-
marmoset are consistent with earlier reports on luteal re- ilar to the heavily vacuolated cells described in paraffin
gression in the human [5–7, 26, 38] in that the atrophied sections in the naturally regressing human corpus luteum
lutein cells show persistence of an intact nucleus, with a [6], and implies the production of a fluid that is not released
cytoplasm that contains autophagocytic vacuoles and both from the cell—an event indicating disrupted cell metabo-
lipid and crystalloid inclusions. Cellular debris is present lism, synthesis, or secretion.
in the involuting lutein cells and in adjacent macrophages. The primary action of GnRH antagonist treatment is to
Furthermore, heterochromatin does not condense or mar- suppress LH secretion [3], direct effects on the corpus lu-
ginate into aggregates or crescentic caps; the nucleus does teum being unlikely in the marmoset [39]. The fall in pro-
not convolute into separate protuberances or ‘‘blebs’’; and gesterone secretion after GnRH antagonist administration is
many of the cytoplasmic organelles do not remain intact dependent upon the prior decline in LH [3]. In contrast, the
but exhibit spontaneous autolysis and are degraded by ly- luteolytic action of prostaglandin F2a in the marmoset is
lutein cell, where it causes an inhibition of steroidogenesis, structures within one cycle, while in the rat, the luteal tissue
together with an increase in oxytocin release that in turn of previous cycles remains in the ovary.
stimulates prostaglandin secretion from the uterus. At the There is evidence that death of the endothelial cells by
same time the lumina of small blood vessels within regress- apoptosis, with attendant reduction in blood supply, could
ing corpora lutea become filled with cellular debris, most play an important part in the luteolytic process, at least in
of which represents fragments of capillary endothelial cells some species [23, 24]. There was little evidence of endo-
[22, 24]. This cascade would result in ischemia and hypoxia thelial cell death by apoptosis in the present study, but this
leading to apoptosis of endothelial cells, followed later by is likely to be underestimated because of the small size of
the apoptosis of lutein cells. the blood vessels and the attenuated nature of the endothe-
In previous reports we described the occurrence of ap- lial lining. Dead and dying cells would exfoliate into the
optosis following natural and induced luteolysis in the mar- lumina of affected vessels, with the remaining viable en-
moset using light microscopy and 39 end-labeling to detect dothelium and basal lamina normally forming a barrier be-
apoptotic cells [14, 30, 45]. The same protocols and study tween dead cells and other cell types [23]. The engulfment
of the apoptotic cells would be limited to the adjacent (en-
7. Adams EC, Hertig AT. Studies on the human corpus luteum. I. Ob- function of follicle and corpus luteum status. J Clin Endocrinol Metab
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8. Clement PB. Histology of the ovary. In: Sternberg SS (ed.), Histology death during luteal regression in the marmoset monkey (Callithrix
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959. 31. Kirton JT, Koering MJ. Prostaglandin F2a and primate corpus luteum:
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and bovine corpora lutea from various reproductive states. Biol Re- 32. Smith KB, Lunn SF, Fraser HM. Inhibin secretion during the ovula-
prod 1991; 44:1148–1156. tory cycle and pregnancy in the common marmoset monkey. J En-
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controlled apoptotic process. Endocr Rev 1994; 15:707–724. 73:133–138.
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172. distribution of luteal cells from pregnant and non-pregnant marmoset
13. Rodger FE, Fraser HM, Krajewski S, Illingworth PJ. Production of monkeys and a comparison of the morphology of marmoset luteal