These pedagogical models are also known as problem-based pedagogical approaches (Lohman, 2002) or

problem-based learning environments (PBLE) (Hung, Jonassen, & Liu, 2008; Jonassen, 2011a) because
unlike traditional models of instruction which assume that students must acquire and master content
knowledge before applying it to solve a problem, problem-based pedagogical approaches or PBLEs
reverse this order and assume that students will acquire and master content knowledge while solving an
authentic problem. In other words, the problem provides the purpose for learning, frames the learning
process, and drives all learning (Jonassen, 2011a). Subsequently, such problems should be capable of
revealing the underlying principles and concepts of a knowledge domain through descriptions of real life
events and experiences (Norman & Schmidt, 1992; Siegel et al., 2000; Stepien & Gallagher, 1993).
As Carter (1999, p. 167) posits, such problems become “a canvas on which various types of information
are combined and arranged to resolve an issue or dilemma”.

So what really makes a problem ill-structured and how does one go about developing such problems for
use in educational contexts? While there are several guidelines or frameworks for developing ill-
structured problems (e.g., Barrows, 1985; Brickell & Herrington, 2006; Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland,
2005; Duffy & Cunningham, 1996; Hmelo-Silver, 2002; Jonassen, 1997, 2000, 2011a; Lesh et al.,
2000; Reeves et al., 2002; Schmidt, 1994), research has revealed a high degree of variability across
problems used in PBLEs ranging from highly structured problems where context is of secondary concern
and the focus is on optimal solutions, to highly ill-structured problems where context is critical and the
problem solving process is valued more than the problem solution (Jonassen, 2000; Walker & Leary,
2009). Hence, this study sought to examine the specific characteristics of problems used in PBLEs in
order to better inform the selection and generation of ill-structured problems for teaching and learning
contexts. We present related research next.