Chapter 1-The School as a System

Preview of Chapter

Organizational theory- a set of interrelated concepts, definitions and generalizations that systematically
describes and explains patterns of regularities in organizational life.

Functions of theory-to explain, to guide research, to generate knowledge and to guide practice.

Theory informs practice by:

1. Forms a frame of reference

2. Provides a general model for analysis
3. Guides reflective decision making

The evolution of theory can be viewed using three competing system perspectives: rational, natural and
open.

Rational systems-organizations as formal instruments designed to achieve organizational goals;

structure is the most important feature.

Natural systems-organizations as typical social groups intent on surviving; people are the most
important aspect.

Open systems-has the potential to combine the rational and natural elements in the same
framework and provide a more complete perspective.

Schools are open social systems with 5 important elements/subsystems (the structural, the individual,
the cultural, the political, and the pedagogical). Organizational behavior is a function of the interaction
of these elements in the context of teaching and learning.

The teaching learning process is the technical core of the school social system; it is a complex process
that can be usefully viewed from three perspectives: the behavioral; cognitive and constructivist.

The environment is also a critical aspect of organizational life; it not only provides resources for the
system but also provides additional constraints and opportunities. (Socioeconomic?)

We theorize a congruence claim: Other things being equal, the greater the degree of congruence
among the elements of the system, the more effective the system.

Our open-systems model of schools provides a conceptual basis for organizational analysis and
administrative problem solving.

The role of theory in educational administration is to provide general explanations, which guide research
and practice.

Kerlinger definition of theory: a set of interrelated concepts, assumptions, and generalizations that
systematically describes and explains regularities in behavior in educational organizations. Moreover,
good theory is testable, coherent, economical, general and useful (Higgins, 2004).

Concepts/theoretical generalizations
Theory

Theories are by nature general and abstract; they are not strictly true or false, but rather useful or not.

We all use theory to guide our actions.

Knowledge in any discipline is expanded by research that is guided by hypotheses that are derived from
theory. Facts from research are not as important as the general patterns and explanations that they
provide.

Notes about hypotheses: specifies the relationship between at least two variables; clearly and concisely
describes that relationship; the concepts can be empirically tested.

Theory is both the beginning and end of scientific research.

The relationship between theory and practice

Theory forms a frame of reference for the practitioner.

The process of theorizing provides a general mode of analysis of practical events

Theory guides decision making

Most important qualification for the job is the ability to use concepts. Theory guides administrative
decision making (with administration defined as both the art and science of applying knowledge to
administrative and organizational problems).

A Systems Perspective

Rational systems-organizations as formal instruments designed to achieve organizational goals;

structure is the most important feature.

A Rational and Closed Machine Model

Fredrick Taylor-Human engineers worked from the individual upward-administrative managers

worked from the managing director downward.

Gulick-POSDCoRB-Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting and

Budgeting

Administrative manager principles:

Division of labor-Standardization of work.

Span of Control-number of workers directly supervised, pyramid model

Principle of homogeneity-a single department could be formed of positions grouped in any of

four different ways:

Major purpose-joined those who shared a common goal

Major process-combined those with a similar skill or technology

Clientele-grouped those who dealt similar clients or materials

 Location-workers brought together due to location or geographic area, regardless of

function.

A Rational and Open Structural Model:

Cotemporary rational system theorists stress goal specificity and formalization because these
elements make important contributions to the rationality and efficiency of organizations. They view
organizations as both open and rational. Key buzz words: efficiency, optimization, rationality, design

Goals are the desired ends that guide organizational behavior.

Formalization produces standardization and regulation of work performance. Is the organization’s

means to make behavior predictable by standardizing and regulating it.

MBO-Management by objectives, PPBS-Planning, programming and budgeting systems, strategic

planning, PERT-Performance evaluation and review techniques are examples of technical tools
managers use to facilitate rational decision making.

Exception Principle: dictates that superiors must deal with exceptional situations not covered in the
rules.

A hierarchy structure, top-down promotes disciplined compliance to administrative directives.

**Downside to rational systems perspective:

Rigid conception of organization-the structure and functioning of an organization may be greatly

affected both by events outside the organization and by events imperfectly coordinated with it, and
neither of these occurrences can be fixed in advanced.

Restricting attention to the parts of an organization and believing that optimizing each part amounts to
maximizing the whole is shortsighted because it neglects the primacy of the whole, as well as the
environment, forces artificial distinctions and denies the systematic functioning of organizations.

Natural Systems Models: Closed to Open:

Natural systems perspective views organizations as more akin to organisms than machines. Early
analyses viewed organizations from a closed systems, but moved to an open systems perspective., like
the rational systems perspective.

Mary Parker Follet-the fundamental problem is all organizations was developing and maintaining
dynamic and harmonious relationships. Conflict was not necessarily a wasteful outbreak of
incompatibilities but a normal process by which socially valuable differences register themselves for
enrichment of all concerned **streaker response?

The Hawthorne Studies (Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company)-the development of human
relations. Three experiments designed conducted to study the relation of quality and quantity of
illumination to efficiency in the industry.
1st experiment-the level of illumination intensity in three departments was increased at stated intervals.
increased production rates did not correspond with increased lighting nor did production decline with
reduced illumination.

2nd experiment-illumination intensities were varied compared to control group with illumination
intensities held constant-both groups showed increase in production rates that were not only
substantial but also nearly identical.

3rd experiment-lighting for the test group was decreased and that for the control group was held
constant, the efficiency of both groups increased. The production rates increased in the test group until
the light became so poor that the workers complained they could no longer see what they were doing.

Mayo and Roethlisberger studies-1927-1932

Workers behavior did not conform to the official job specifications. An informal organization emerged
that affected performance. Informal organization-an unofficial social structure that emerges within the
organization that has informal leaders as well as informal norms, values, sentiments, and
communication patterns.

Etzioni suggests that the human relations approach grossly over-simplifies the complexities of
organizational life by glossing over the realities of work.

Clark and Scott argue that the concern for workers was not authentic; rather, management used it as a
tool or strategy to manipulate subordinates.

Natural systems perspectives emphasize that the informal organization rather than the formal, people
rather than the structure, and human needs rather than the organizational demands.

Rational systems stresses importance of structure over individuals vs the natural systems emphasizes
individuals over structure.

Open Systems Perspective-An Integration

Views organizations as not only influence d by environments but also dependent on them

Schools are social systems that take resources such as labor, students and money from the environment
and subject these inputs to an educational transformation process to produce literate and educated
students and graduates.

Barnard (President of Bell Telephone Co) important dynamic concepts were free will, cooperation,
communication, authority, the decision process, and dynamic equilibrium.

9 central concepts: inputs, transformational process, outputs, feedback, boundaries, environment,

homeostasis, entropy, equifinality.

Social Systems: social systems are open systems; social systems consist of interdependent parts; social
systems are peopled; social systems are goal oriented; social systems are structural; social systems are
normative; social systems are sanction bearing; social systems are political; social systems have
distinctive cultures; social systems are conceptual and relative. All formal organizations are social
systems, but all social systems are not formal organizations.
Structure-bureaucratic roles

Individual-needs, goals, beliefs, and cognition. Work motivation

-Bureaucratic expectations vs individual needs (principal example, desire for social acceptance)

Culture-organizational culture distinguishes one organization from another and provides members with
a sense of organizational identity; the unwritten, feeling part of the organization.

Politics-political dimension that spawns the informal power relations that emerge, often to resist other
systems of legitimate control.