ELECTRIC MACHINE

1-Magnetism

A magnet is a piece of ferromagnetic material (such as iron, nickel or cobalt) which has
properties of attracting other pieces of these materials. This could be natural or artificial

Magnetic field- it is the area that the effects of the magnetic force produced by the magnet can
be detected. A magnetic field cannot be seen, felt, smelt or heard.

Magnetic field is produced whenever an electrical charge is in motion. The spinning and orbiting of the
nucleus of an atom produces a magnetic field as does electrical current flowing through a wire. As seen
below

Magnetic flux (spectrum) – these are imaginary lines which are assumed to pass through the
magnet, emerge from the North Pole and move through the space around the magnet to the South
Pole. See fig below
Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field (or the number of lines of force) produced by a
magnetic source. The symbol for magnetic flux is ɸ (greek letter ‘phi’). The unit of magnetic
flux is weber, Wb.

Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux passing through a defined area that is perpendicular
to the direction of the flux:

magnetic flux
Magnetic flux density =
area

1.1 the magnet ( fundamental properties magnet )

(a) All magnets have two poles, the north (N) pole and the south(S) pole.

(b) Two identical poles repel each other

(c) Two unlike poles attract each other.

(d) Iron filling cling mainly around the ends of a bar magnet.

1.2 field due to the current

 When a conductor carries an electric current, a magnetic field is set up around that conductor.
As seen below

The grip rule states that if the coil is gripped with the right hand, with the fingers pointing in the direction of the current,
then the thumb, outstretched parallel to the axis of the solenoid, points in the direction of the magnetic field.

1.3 induce flux

2-Electromagnetic Forces

2.1 interaction of the forces

2.2 direction of force (fleming ‘s right hand rules)
2.3 quantitative study (Laplace law)
2.4 work of electromagnetic forces

- Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction state:
(i) ‘An induced e.m.f. is set up whenever the magnetic field linking that circuit changes.’
(ii) ‘The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in any circuit is proportional to the rate of change of
the magnetic flux linking the circuit.’
Lenz’s law states:
‘The direction of an induced e.m.f. is always such that it tends to set up a current opposing the
motion or the change of flux responsible for inducing that e.m.f.’

An alternative method to Lenz’s law of determining relative directions is given by Fleming’s

Right-hand rule (often called the generator rule) which states:

Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the right hand be extended such that they are all
at right angles to each other (as shown in Figure below).
If the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field, the thumb points in the direction of
motion of the conductor relative to the magnetic field, then the second finger will point in the
direction of the induced e.m.f.
2.5 creation of induce e.m.f by flux variation across a closed circuit
2.6 direction of induce current Lenz law
2.7 value of induce e.m.f
2.8 e.m.f induce in a conductor

4-self inductance

It is the property of a coil due to which it opposes any increase or decrease to currents or flux through
it. This ability is measured in terms of coefficient of self inductance, L.

4-1 self induced e.m.f and direction

4.2 Inductance
4.3 Value of flux
4.4 Eddy current
This is the current induced in a magnetic material due to a changing magnetic flux. The e.m.f though
small, can set up a large current in the magnetic material due to its low resistance. In electrical
machines like motor, transformer etc, this is undesirable effect and so ways of minimizing it must be
sought. It however has advantages in some occasions. It is useful in energy meter (KWh) where it
cause the rotation of the disc. In some measuring instrument, it controls the movement of the
pointer and prevents oscillation.
 6 - DC MACHINES

Introduction
Although a far greater percentage of the electrical machines in service are a.c machines, the d.c
machines are of considerable industrial importance . The principle advantage of the dc machines
particularly dc motor it provide fine control of speed. Classifications of these machines are shown below.

Definition:
An electrical machine is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy or
vice versa. Electrical machines also include transformers, which do not actually make
conversion between mechanical and electrical form but they convert AC current from one
voltage level to another
voltage level.
Generator:

A generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical form of energy into electrical
form. Generator works on the principle that whenever a conductor moves in a magnetic field, an
e.m.f gets induced in the conductor. This principle is called as generator action.
Generators have generally two basic parts named "Stator" and "Rotor". Mechanical energy is
provided to the rotor of a generator by means of a prime mover (i.e. a turbine).

Motor:

A motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. When
a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a
mechanical force and this is the principle behind motoring action.
Just like generators, motors also consists two basic parts, stator and rotor. In a motor, we give
electric supply to both the stator and rotor windings which causes a mechanical force between
the stator and rotor. This force causes the rotor to rotate.

6-1 Principles of operation

As a generator, the conductor moves in a magnetic field an e.m.f is induced in that conductor. This is
the basic principle of generator. In a practical generator, when the armature is driven by a prime mover,
the armature conductor cuts the field produce by the poles. This causes an emf to be induced in them
which is then collected at the brushes. The direction of induced current is given by Fleming’s right hand
rule

As a motor- the motor action is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in
a magnetic field it experiences a mechanical force. In order to understand the operating principle of
DC motor we need to first look into its constructional feature. The very basic construction of a
DC motor contains a current carrying armature which is connected to the supply end through
commutator segments and brushes it is placed within the north south poles of a permanent or an
electro-magnet as shown in the diagram below.
Now to go into the details of the operating principle of DC motor it’s important that we have a
clear understanding of Fleming’s left hand rule to determine the direction of force acting on the
armature conductors of DC motor. Fleming’s left hand rule says that if we extend the index
finger, middle finger and thumb of our left hand in such a way that the current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field (represented by the index
finger) is perpendicular to the direction of current
(represented by the middle finger), then the conductor
experiences a force in the direction (represented by the
thumb) mutually perpendicular to both the
direction of field and the current in the conductor

Force (F) = BIL.

Where, B = magnetic flux density, I = current and L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.
6-2 Basic construction and working of a DC Generator
DC Generator
A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into direct current electricity.
This energy conversion is based on the principle of production of dynamically induced emf. This article
outlines basic construction and working of a DC generator.

Construction of a DC machine:

Note: A DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional changes and
vice versa is also possible. Thus, a DC generator or a DC motor can be broadly termed as a DC
machine. These basic constructional details are also valid for the construction of a DC motor.
Hence, let's call this point as construction of a DC machine instead of just 'construction of a dc
generator'.
The above figure shows the constructional details of a DC machine. A DC machine consist two
basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC machine are described above

 Stator – the static part that houses the field windings and receives the supply and
 Rotor –the rotating part that bring about the mechanical rotations
1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or steel.
It not only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries the
magnetic flux produced by the field winding.

5 Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding. They carry field
winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes
serve two purposes; (i) they support field coils and (ii)
spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
6 Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field
coils are former wound and placed on each pole and are
connected in series. They are wound in such a way that,
when energized, they form alternate North and South
poles.
7 Armature core (rotor) : Armature core is the rotor of the machine. It is cylindrical in shape with slots
to carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for reducing
eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling purposes.
Armature is keyed to the shaft.

5) Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots. The
armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core. Armature winding
can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding. Double layer lap or wave
windings are generally used. A double layer winding means that each armature slot will carry two
different coils.

i.e Lap Winding

In this case the number of parallel paths between conductors A is equal to the number of poles P.
i.e A = P ***An easy way of remembering it is by remembering the word LAP-----→ L A=P
Wave Winding

Here in this case, the number of parallel paths between conductors A is always equal to 2
irrespective of the number of poles. Hence the machine designs are made accordingly

6) Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a
commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the
current generated in armature conductors. Whereas, in case of a dc motor, commutator helps in
providing current to the armature conductors. A commutator consists of a set of copper segments
which are insulated from each other. The number of segments is equal to the number of armature coils.
Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the commutator is keyed to the shaft. Brushes are
usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on commutator segments and slide on the segments
when the commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the current.

6-4 Application

Some of the applications of dc motors are steel mills, paper mills, cranes and elevators electric
trains and more

6-5 Maintenance of commutator and brushes

8 - D.C GENERATORS
 Separately –excited generators, where the field winding is connected to a source of
supply other than the armature of its own machine.

Terminal voltage, V = E-IaRa or Generated e.m.f, E = V +IaRa

Example

1 - Determine the terminal voltage of a generator which developed an emf of 200V and has an
armature current of 30A on load assume armature resistance is 0.30Ώ

Solution

V =E -IaRa = 200-(30) × (0.30) = 200-9

=191Volt
2- a shunt generator supplied a 20KW load at 200V through cables of resistance,R = 100mΏ. if
the field winding resistance, Rf = 50Ώ,and armature resistance Ra = 40mΏ, determine (a) the
terminal voltage,and (b) the emf. Generated in the armature

Solution
 20000 watts
(a) Load current, I = =100 A
200 volt

Voltage drop in the cables to the load

= IR = (100) (100×10-3)

= 10V

Hence terminal voltage, V = 200+10 = 210volts

(b) Armature current Ia =If +I

V 210
Field current, If = = =4.2 A
R f 50

Hence Ia =If +I=4.2+100 =104.2A

Generated e.m.f. E =V +IaRa

= 210+ (104.2) (40 ×10 -3)
= 210+ 4.168
=214.17volts

7-4 shunts excited generators

In a shunt excited generator the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature as shown
below. The field winding has a relatively high resistance and therefore the current carry is only a
fraction of the armature current

Terminal voltage V = E- IaRa or generated e.m.f. E =V +IaRa

Ia = If + I from kirchoff current law

Where Ia = armature current

V
If = field current ( )
Rf
and I = load current

7-5 compound excited generators

In the compound –excited generator two methods of connection are used, both having a mixture
of shunt and series winding, designed to combine the advantages of each. Figure (a) show the
long shunt compound generator and figure (b) show the shunt compound generator.

Example

A short- shunt compound generator supplies 80A at 200V. If the field resistance, Rf = 40Ώ, the
series resistance, Rse = 0.02Ώ and the armature resistance Ra = 0.04Ώ, determine the e.m.f.
generated

Solution
Volt drop in series winding = IRsa = (80) (0.02) = 1.6v

p.d across the field winding = p.d. across armature

= V1 =200+1.6=201.6V
V 1 201.6
Field current If = = =5.04 A
Rf 40
Armature current Ia = I +If = 80+5.04 =85.04A
Generated e.m.f, E = V1 +Ia +IaRa
=201.6 + (85.04) (0.04)
= 201.6 + 3.4016
= 205volt

8 – D.C MOTORS

Separately excited motors: In separately excited dc machines, the field winding is supplied from a
separate power source. That means the field winding is electrically separated from the armature circuit

If = field current
Rf = resistance of field winding
Uf = field circuit voltage
E = emf generated
U = terminal voltage
Ra = resistance of armature winding
Ia = armature current
I = motor armature current
Rh = rheostat (resistance of )

Uf
If = Rf + Rh
and U = E +IaRa

Example

Series excited motor: In this type; field winding is connected in series with the armature winding.
Therefore, the field winding carries whole load current (armature current).

Shunt excited motor: Here, field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding. Hence,
the full voltage is applied across the field winding.

U sh
Ish = R sh
 Ia = I -Ish
E = U -IaRa
Example

o Compound wound – In this type, there are two sets of field winding. One is connected
in series and the other is connected in parallel with the armature winding. Compound
wound machines are further divided as -
 Short shunt – field winding is connected in parallel with only the armature
winding
 Long shunt – field winding is connected in parallel with the combination of
series field winding and armature winding

U sh
Ish = R sh

Ia = I - Ish
U = E + IaRa +IaRs
E = U – Ia(Ra + Rs)
Example