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Reservoir Drive Mechanism
Reservoir Drive Mechanism
Drive Mechanisms
CONTENTS
1 DEFINITION
4 SUMMARY
4.1 Pressure and Recovery
4.2 Gas / Oil Ratio
1
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Having worked through this chapter the Student will be able to:
• Describe briefly with the aid of sketches solution gas drive distinguishing
behaviour both above and below the bubble point.
• Describe briefly with the aid of sketches the reservoir performance characteristics
of a solution gas drive reservoir.
• Describe briefly with the aid of sketches the reservoir performance characteristics
of a gas drive reservoir.
• Describe briefly with the aid of sketches the reservoir performance characteristics
of water drive reservoir.
• Describe briefly with the aid of sketches the rate sensitivity aspect of water
drive reservoir.
• Summarise the characteristics of solution gas drive, gas cap drive and water
drive reservoirs.
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Drive Mechanisms
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RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
In the previous chapters we have considered the physical properties of the porous
media, the rock, within which the reservoir fluids are contained and the properties and
behaviour of the fluids. In this chapter we shall examine the various methods used to
calculate the performance of different reservoir types, we will introdunce the various
drive mechanisms responsible for production of fluids from a hydrocarbon reservoir.
In this qualitative description of the way in which reservoirs produce their fluids we
will see how the various basic concepts come together to give understanding to the
various driving forces responsible for fluid production. One of the main preoccupa-
tion’s of reservoir engineers is to determine the predominant drive mechanism, for
dependant on the drive mechanism different recoveries of oil can be achieved.
As well as presenting natural drive mechanisms we will also review various artificial
drive mechanisms.
1 DEFINITION
A reservoir drive mechanism is a source of energy for driving the fluids out through
the wellbore. It is not necessarily the energy lifting the fluids to the surface, although
in many cases, the same energy is capable of lifting the fluids to the surface.
There are a number of drive mechanisms, but the two main drive mechanisms are
depletion drive and water drive. Other drive mechanisms to be considered are
compaction drive and gravity drive. These drive mechanisms are natural drive
energies and are not to be confused with artificial drive energies such as gas injection
and water injection.
In figure 1 the hydrocarbons are enclosed in isolated sand lenses which have been
generated by a particular depositional environment. Over geological time the hydro-
carbons have found their way into the porous media. The surrounding rocks may have
permeability but it is so low as to prevent energy transfer from other sources.
In figure 2 is illustrated another depletion type reservoir where a mature reservoir has
been subjected to faulting, resulting in the isolation of a part of the reservoir from the
rest of the accumulation. In a total field system, such a situation can give rise to parts
of the reservoir having different drive mechanism characteristics.
Gas Figure 1
Oil
Water
Depletion reservoir:
No aquifer. Isolated sand
lenses
Gas
Oil
Water Figure 2
Depletion reservoir:
Aquifer limited by faults
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Drive Mechanisms
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Gas
Oil
Figure 3 Water
Water drive:
Active aquifer
A water drive reservoir is one in which the hydrocarbons are in contact with a large
volume of water bearing sand. There are two types of water drive reservoirs. There
are those where the driving energy comes primarily from the expansion of water as
the reservoir is produced, as shown in figure 3 The key issue here is the relative size
and mobility of the water of the supporting aquifer relative to the size of the
hydrocarbon accumulation.
Water drive may also be a result of artesian flow from an outcrop of the reservoir
formation, figure 4. In this situation either surface water or seawater feeds into the
outcrop and replenishes the water as it moves into the reservoir to replace the oil. The
key issues here are the mobility of the water in the aquifer and barriers to flow from
the outcrop to the reservoir. It is not often encountered, and the water drive arising
from the compressibility of an aquifer, figure 3, is the more common.
Outcrop
of sand
Oil well
Figure 4
Reservoir having artesian Water flow
water drive.
Old land
surface
New land
surface
Oil
Figure 5
Compaction drive
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Drive Mechanisms
11
with the later stages of drive for reservoirs where other drive mechanisms have been
the more dominant energy in earlier years. Gravity drainage can be significant and
effective in steeply dipping reservoirs which are fractured.
Of the drive mechanisms mentioned the major drive mechanisms are depletion drive,
which are further classified into solution gas drive and gas cap drive and water drive.
Gravity Drive typically is active during the final stages of a depletion reservoir.
Closed in
1000
Initial
Z GOC
Present
GOC
ΟWC
Gas
Oil
Water
Figure 6
Gravity drive Inactive aquifer
As pressure is reduced, oil expands due to compressibility and eventually gas comes
out of solution from the oil as the bubble point pressure of the fluid is reached. The
expanding gas provides the force to drive the oil hence the term solution gas drive.
It is sometimes called dissolved gas drive (Figure 7). Gas has a high compressibility
compared to liquid and therefore the pressure decline is reduced. Solution gas drive
only occurs once the bubble point pressure has been reached.
Gas cap
Oil
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Drive Mechanisms
11
2.6 Water Drive Reservoirs
Water drive reservoirs are also of two types. There is an edge water drive reservoir.
The reservoir is thin enough so that the water is in contact with the hydrocarbons at
the edge of the reservoir (Figure 9). The other type of water drive reservoir is the
bottom-water-drive reservoir; where the reservoir is so thick or the accumulation so
thin that the hydrocarbons are completely underlain by water (Figure 10).
Edge water
Figure 9
Edge water drive reservoir
Bottom water
Water coning
Figure 10
Bottom water drive
reservoir
It is rare for reservoirs to fit conveniently into this simple characterisation. In many
of them a combination of drive mechanisms can be activate during the production of
fluids. Such reservoirs are called combination drives (Figure 11). In the case in figure
11, which is not unusual, we have a gas cap with the oil accumulation underlain by
water providing potential water drive. So both free gas and water are in contact with
the oil. In such a reservoir some of the energy will come from the expansion of the
gas and some from the energy within the massive supporting aquifer and its associated
compressibility.
Gas Cap
Oil zone
Water Water
Original condition
Gas Cap
Figure 11
Oil zone
Combination water and gas
Water Water
50 % Depleted - cap drive
Sometimes it may be only water drive in the above situations. If the hydrocarbons are
taken out at a rate such that for every volume of oil removed water readily moves in
to replace the oil, then the reservoir is driven completely by water. On the other hand
there may be only depletion drive. If the water does not move in to replace the oil, then
only the gas cap would expand to provide the drive.
Having considered the basic aspects of the drive types we will now examine their
respective characteristics in relation to production, recovery and pressure decline
issues.
Once the bubble point is reached gas comes out of solution. Initially the gas bubbles
are small and isolated. The size and number of the bubbles increase until they reach
a critical saturation when they form a continuous phase and become mobile. At this
stage the gas has relative permeability. The impact of the first bubbles of gas on the
oil is very significant. The relative permeability to the oil is reduced by the presence
of the non wetting gas. (See gas-oil relative permeabilties in chapter 7. Figure 44) As
the increase in saturation of gas increases at the expense of oil saturation, the relative
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Drive Mechanisms
11
permeabilties move in the same directions giving rise to reduced well productivity to
oil and increased productivity to gas, figure 12. That is the oil relative permeability
decreases and the gas relative permeability increases. The gas although providing the
displacing medium is effectively leaking out of the system. Not only does the gas
progress to the wellbore, depending on vertical permeability characteristics it will
move vertically and may form a secondary gas cap. If this occurs it can contribute to
the drive energy. Well location and rate of production can be used to encourage gas
to migrate to form such a gas cap as against being lost through production from the
wellbore.
Figure 12
Oil relative permeability
Schematic of solution gas
drive.
We will now review the various production profiles, specific to the drive mechanisms
but before doing so we will review the various phases of production.
Plateau phase
Production
Decline phase
Production
build up
Figure 13 0 Abandonment
The next stage represents the period when the productivity of the production facility
is at its design capacity and the wells are throttled back to limit their productivity. This
period is called the plateau phase when production is maintained at the design
capacity of the facilities. Typical production rates for the plateau period cannot be
presented since it depends on the techno-economics of the field. Clearly for a field
with a very large front loaded capital investment there is an incentive to have a high
production rate during the plateau phase , say 20% of the STOIIP, whereas for a lower
cost onshore field 5% might be acceptable. Governments will also impose their
considerations on this aspect as well.
A time will come when the reservoir is no longer able to deliver fluids to match the
facilities capacity and the field goes into the decline phase. This phase can be delayed
by methods to increase production. Such methods could include artificial lift, where
the effort required to lift the fluids from the reservoir is carried out by a downhole
pump or by using gas lift to reduce the density of the fluid system in the well.
There comes a time when the productivity of the reservoir is no longer able to generate
revenues to cover the costs of running the field, This abandonment time again is
influenced by the size and nature of the operation. Clearly a single, stripper well,
carrying very little operational costs, can be allowed to produce down to very low
rates. A well, as part of a very high cost offshore environment however, could be
abandoned at a relatively high rate when perhaps the water proportion becomes too
high or the productivity in relation to all production is not sufficient to meet the
associated well and production costs.
Oil Reservoir
G.O.R Prod Pressure
Oil
Prod
G.O.R
Reservoir
Pressure
Figure 14
Time-Year
Production for solution gas
drive
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Drive Mechanisms
11
A good analogy for this type of reservoir is the champagne bottle opened by a
champion to spray the contents over enthusiastic supporters - a short lived high
production senario followed by rapid decline!
When the bubble point is reached in the near well vicinity, the initial gas which comes
out of solution is immobile and therefore oil entering the wellbore is short of the
previous level of solution gas. Theoretically at the surface the producing GOR level
is less than the original GOR 2-3 in figure 15.
As the pressure further reduces the released gas becomes mobile and moves at a
velocity greater than its associated oil due to the relative permeability effects. Oil
enters the well bore, with its below bubble point solution GOR value, but also gas
enters the well bore from oil which has not yet arrived. The net effect is that at the
surface the producing GOR increases rapidly as free gas within the reservoir, which
has come out of solution, moves ahead of the oil 3-4 in figure 15.
As the pressure continues to decline the productivity of the well continues to decline
from the combined impact of reducing relative permeability and drop in bottom hole
pressure. The production GOR goes though a maximum as oil eventually is produced
into the well bore with a low solution GOR and the associated gas which has come out
of solution has progressed much faster to the well and contributed to earlier gas
production 4-5 in figure 15.
GOR constant
above bubble 4
point pressure
Producing GOR.
Rsi
1 2 5
3
Figure 15
Producing GOR for Pb
solution gas drive reservoir Pressure
When the pressure drops below the bubble point throughout the reservoir a secondary
gas cap may be produced and some wells have the potential of becoming gas
producers.
3.1.3 Pressure
At first the pressure is high but as production continues the pressure makes a rapid
decline.
3.1.4 Water Production, Well Behaviour , Expected Oil Recovery and Well Location
Since by definition there is little water present in the reservoir there should be no water
production to speak of. Because of the rapid pressure drop artificial lift will be
required at an early stage in the life of the reservoir. The expected oil recovery from
these types of reservoirs is low and could be between 5 and 30% of the original oil-
in-place. Abandonment of the reservoir will depend on the level of the GOR and the
lack of reservoir pressure to enable production. Well locations for this drive mecha-
nism are chosen to encourage vertical migration of the gas, therefore the wells
producing zones are located structurally low, but not too close to any water contact
which might generate water through water coning. Figure16
Secondary
gas cap
Gas Cap
Oil zone
Water Original condition Water
Gas Cap
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Drive Mechanisms
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3.2.1 Oil Production
The producing characteristics for a gas cap drive reservoir are illustrated in Figure 18.
Although the production may be high as in the solution gas drive, the oil production
still has a significant decline but not as rapid as for solution gas drive. This decline
in oil production is due to the reducing pressure in the reservoir but also from the
impact of solution gas drive on the relative permeability around the well bore. If the
well is allowed to produce at too fast a rate, the very favorable mobility characteristics
of the gas, arising from its low viscosity compared to the oil, are such that preferential
flow can cause gas breakthrough into the wells and the well is then lost to oil
production. Indeed it is this condition which will determine well abandonment.
3.2.2 Pressure
With an associated gas cap a loss of volume of fluids from the reservoir is associated
with a relatively low drop in pressure because of the high compressibility of the gas.
In solution gas drive much of the driving gas is produced, but with a gas cap the fluid
remains till later in the life of the reservoir. The pressure drop for a gas cap system
therefore declines slowly over the years. The decline will depend on the relative size
of the gas cap to the oil accumulation. A small gas cap would be 10% of the oil volume
whereas a large gas cap would be 50% of the volume.
Oil Prod (1000)
Pressure
G.O.R
500 10 5000
Oil
5 Prod
250 2500
Rate
G.O.R BSW %
20
10
Figure 18 0 0
Reservoir performance gas 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time-Year
- cap drive.
3.2.4 Water Production, Well Behaviour, Expected Oil Recovery and Well
Locations
Like solution gas drive there should be negligible water production. The life of the
reservoir is largely a function of the size of gas cap but it is likely to be a long flowing
life. The expected oil recovery for such a system is of the order of 20 to 40% of the
original oil-in-place. The well locations, similar to solution gas drive, are such that
the production interval for the wells should be situated away from the gas oil contact
but not too close to the water oil contact to risk water coning.
Three sketches below illustrate the various types of production profiles for different
aquifer types and the influence of rate sensitivity. In figure 19 we have the artesian
type aquifer where there is communication to surface water though an outcrop. In this
case if oil is produced at a rate less than the aquifer can move water into the oil zone,
then the reservoir pressure, as measured at the original oil water contact, remains
constant. The producing gas-oil ratio also remains constant since the reservoir is
undersaturated. These reservoirs will enable a plateau phase, however as in all water
drive reservoirs the decline of the reservoirs is not due to productivity loss through
pressure decline but the production of water. The encroaching aquifer with perhaps its
favourable mobility will preferentially move through the oil zone and if there are high
permeability layers will move through these. Eventually the water-cut, the proportion
of water to total production becomes too high and the well is abandoned to oil
production.
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Drive Mechanisms
11
Outcrop
of sand
Oil well
Water flow
Reservoir pressure
Pi
Production
Rsi GOR
Producing characteristics
Time
for artesian water drive.
Figure 20 illustrates a more typical water drive reservoir where the drive energy comes
from the compressibility of the aquifer system. In this case if the oil withdrawal rate
is less then the rate of water encroachment from the aquifer then the reservoir pressure
will slowly decline, reflecting the decompression of the total system , the oil reservoir
and the aquifer. Clearly this pressure decline is related to the size of the aquifer. The
larger the aquifer the slower the pressure decline. As with all water drive reservoirs
productivity of the wells remains high resulting from the maintained pressure,
however the productivity of the well to oil reduces as water breakthrough occurs. So
a characteristic of water drive reservoirs is the increasing water production alongside
decreasing oil production.
Pi
Oil production rate
Reservoir
Production pressure
Rsi GOR
Figure 20
Producing characteristics Water production
for water drive (confined
Time
aquifer).
Figure 21 illustrates the rate sensitive aspect of water drive reservoirs. If the oil
withdrawal rate is higher than the water influx rate from the aquifer then the oil
reservoir pressure will drop at a rate greater than would be the case with aquifer
support alone, as the compressibility of the oil reservoirs supports the flow. If this
pressure drops below the bubble point then solution gas drive will occur, as evidenced
by an increase in the gas-oil ratio. Cutting back oil production to a rate to less than the
water encroachment rate restores the system to water drive, with the gas-oil ratio going
back to its undersaturated level.
When two drive mechanisms function as above then we have what is termed
combination drive ( water drive and solution gas drive).
Water drive reservoirs have good pressure support. The decline in oil production is
related to increasing water production as against pressure decline.
GOR
2000 10000 BSW 500
Reservoir pressure
Ps
ratio
B/d
psi
PROD
50 250
1000 5000 Oil pressure
Producing gas / oil
Reservoir pressure
Water production
GOR
25
Water
Bsw
Figure 21
0 Reservoir performance -
0 0 69 0
70 71 72 73 74 75
Water drive.
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Drive Mechanisms
11
not available during the exploration and development phase, the characteristics of the
aquifer are only determined once production has been operational and the support
from the aquifer can be calculated from production and pressure data. (History
Matching). Getting such information may require producing a significant proportion
of the formation say 5% of the STOIIP. RFT surveys have provided a very effective
way of determining the aquifer strength as well as the communicating layers of the
formation. Pressure depth surveys taken in an open hole development well after
production has started will give indications of pressure support in the formation
Because water drive, through pressure maintenance provides the most optimistic
recoveries, artificial water drive is often part of the development strategy because of
the uncertainties of the pressure support from the associated aquifer. In the North Sea
for example many reservoirs have associated aquifers. The risk of not knowing either
the extent or activity of the aquifers is such that many operators are using artificial
water drive systems to maintain pressure so that solution gas drive does not occur with
the consequent loss of oil production.
4 SUMMARY
The following summaries and tables give the main features associated with the various
drive mechanisms.
Water-drive -pressure declines slowly and abandonment occurs when the water cut
is too-high at around 50% of recovery, but depends on local factors.
Gas-cap drive - the pressure shows a marked decline and economic pressures are
reached around 20% of the original pressure when about 30% of the oil is recovered.
Solution- gas drive - the pressure drops more sharply and at 10% of the pressure
reaches, an uneconomical level of recovery at about 10% of the oil-in-place.
Water drive - the curve for a water drive system shows a gas/oil ratio that remains
constant. Variations from this indicate support from solution gas drive or other drive
mechanisms
Gas-cap drive - for this drive the gas/oil ratio increases slowly and continuously.
Solution- gas drive - the curve for a solution gas drive reservoir shows that the gas/
oil ratio increases sharply at first then later declines.
Characteristics Trend
1. Reservoir Pressure Declines rapidly and continuously
2. Gas/Oil Ratio First low then rises to a maximum and then
drops
3. Production Rate First high, then decreases rapidly and continues
to decline
4. Water Production None
5. Well Behaviour Requires artificial lift at early stages
6. Expected Oil Recovery 5-30% of original oil-in-place
Characteristics Trend
1. Reservoir Pressure Falls slowly and continuously
2. Gas/oil ratio Rises continuously
3. Production Rate First high, then declines gradually
4. Water Production Absent or negligible
5. Well Behaviour Cap Long flowing life depending on size of gas cap
6. Expected Oil Recovery 20 to 40% of original oil-in-place
Characteristics Trend
1. Reservoir Pressure Remains high
2. Gas/Oil Ratio Remains steady
3. Water Production Starts early and increases to appreciable
amounts
4. Well Behaviour Flow until water production gets excessive
5. Expected Oil Recovery up to 60% original oil-in-place.
Figures 22 and 23 give the pressure and gas-oil ratio trends for various drive
mechanism types
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Drive Mechanisms
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60
20
Dissolved
gas drive
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Oil produced - percent of original oil in place
Figure 22
Reservoir gas - oil ratio trends for reservoirs under various drives.
5
1
Water drive
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Oil produced - percent of original oil in place
Figure 23