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 Marine Sedimentary Evidence for Monsoon Strengthening,
Tibetan Uplift and Drainage Evolution in East Asia
1
Peter D. Clift , Graham D. Layne, and Jerzy Blusztajn
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,
Woods Hole, Massachusetts

Uplift of the Tibetan Plateau has caused an increased flux of clastic material from
Asia into the surrounding marginal seas. This flux reflects increased regional ero­
sion, partially caused by topographic uplift of Tibet, but dominantly by higher pre­
cipitation linked to monsoon intensification. Using regional seismic profiles from
East Asia as proxies for the Cenozoic accumulation history we constrain the timing
of enhanced erosion and thus climate change and plateau uplift. Most of the seas show
sedimentation increasing after -45 Ma following India-Asia collision. Rates rose
sharply at ~33 Ma, and again around 18 Ma, possibly caused by stages in monsoon
strengthening enhancing regional erosion. Erosion of gorges in eastern Tibet is a mod­
est source of sediment to the marginal seas. The late Miocene (5-11 Ma) is a time
of reduced sedimentation in all basins except in the Mekong area, which alone is influ­
enced by exhumation of the Vietnamese Central Highlands. The slower regional
erosion reflects a drier climate and strong winter monsoon during the late Miocene,
while the Plio-Pleistocene (<5 Ma) sees a return to fast accumulation rates, possi­
bly triggered by global climatic deterioration. Single grain Pb and bulk sediment Nd
isotopic characteristics of modern river and Eocene sediments from the Gulf of
Tonkin support models of drainage capture in the Red River system since the Eocene.
This drainage has lost flux from sources similar to the Yangtze Block, possibly
reflecting capture of flow from the middle and lower Yangtze from the Red River
linked to Tibetan uplift.

1. INTRODUCTION involves the suggested links between crustal thickening, sur­

The relationships between the tectonic evolution of the solid
earth, the development of the climate system and the erosion
of the continents remain a source of debate for geoscientists,
because of the complexity of these different systems. Of all the
postulated solid earth-climate systems the most dramatic
Present address: Department of Geology and Petroleum Geology,
University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom.
Continent-Ocean Interactions Within East Asian Marginal Seas
Geophysical Monograph Series 149
Copyright 2004 by the American Geophysical Union
10.1029/149GM14
face uplift, monsoon intensification and mountain erosion
following the collision of India and Asia at -50 Ma. Chemi­
cal erosion of the uplifting mountains has also been linked
to the long-term cooling of the global climate, culminating
in the Plio-Pleistocene glaciation of the northern hemisphere
[Raymo et al, 1988]. Existing models explaining a direct
linkage between these systems suggested that at ~8 Ma a
rapid, technically triggered uplift of the Tibetan Plateau
resulted in the intensification of the Asian monsoon [Harri­
son et al, 1992; Molnar et al, 1993]. However, in recent
years the simple relationship between plateau uplift, climate
change and erosion has been called into question, as the devel­
opment of each of these systems has been re-dated, making a

255
256 MARINE SEDIMENTARY EVIDENCE OF MONSOON AND TIBETAN UPLIFT
simple linkage more difficult to sustain. In this study we pres­
ent new marine stratigraphic data from the East Asian marginal
seas constraining the erosional history of East Asia, including
the eastern Tibetan Plateau, which may then be compared to
paleoceanographic and continental tectonic histories in order
to understand their linkage.The vast majority of the sediment
eroded from Asia during the Cenozoic lies in the submarine
fans of the Indian Ocean, as well as the foreland basins of the
Indian subcontinent [e.g., Metivier et al, 1999]. Although
only about 11% of the rock erodedfromAsia during the Ceno­
zoic is preserved in the marginal seas of East Asia [Clift,
2002], those sequences are important measures of regional
continental erosion because they drain the Tibetan Plateau
and are not swamped by the erosional signal of the Himalayas.
Clearly the altitude of the Tibetan Plateau is not readily
extractable from a marine clastic sequence, which is by def­
inition an erosional record and is just as likely controlled
by regional climate change. Indeed, debate continues as to
whether tectonically driven surface uplift or precipitation is
the primary control on erosion [e.g., Burbank et al, 2003;
Wobus et al, 2003]. Nonetheless, because of the proposed
link between Tibetan elevation and monsoon strength [e.g.
Prell and Kutzbach, 1992; An et al, 2001] the two signals
may to a certain extent reinforce one another and be inti­
mately interlinked, so that the marine erosional record may
provide some constraints on when climate changed follow­
ing India-Asia collision.
1.1. Evolution of the Monsoon
The development of the Asian monsoon has been the focus
of many studies that have attempted to show how monsoonal
intensity is controlled by a number of variables, including
land-sea interactions between Asia and the Indian Ocean
[Webster et al, 1998], the withdrawal of shallow seas from
central Asia [Ramstein et al, 1997], the uplift of the Tibetan
Plateau [Ruddiman and Kutzbach, 1990; Raymo and Rud­
diman, 1992; Harrison et al, 1992; Molnar et al, 1993], and
the intensity of northern hemispheric glaciation [Sirocko et
al, 1993; Schulz et al, 1998]. In particular, there is a com­
mon consensus that the monsoon strengthened significantly
at 8.5 Ma, largely based on the increased abundance along
the Oman margin of Globigerina Bulloides, an upwelling-lov-
ing foraminifer [Kroon et al, 1991]. The significance of
this date was further reinforced by the recognition that this
was a time of increased biogenic production in the Arabian
Sea [Prell et al, 1992], of change in the type of flora in
Pakistan [Quade et al, 1989; Hoorn et al, 2000], in the
chemistry of associated pedogenic carbonates [Dettman et al,
2001], and also in the onset of red clay accumulation in the
Loess Plateau of China [An, 2000; Ding et al, 2001]. The
older history of the monsoon has been less well studied,
although some indicators now raise the possibility of a much
earlier strengthening of the cycle [e.g., Clift et al, 2002a; Guo
et al, 2002; Jia et al, 2003].
2. C L I M A T E - T E C T O N I C C O U P L I N G
Climate modeling has shown that uplift of Tibet to mod­
ern or greater altitudes results in a significant strengthening
of the East Asian monsoon [Prell and Kutzbach, 1992; An et
al, 2001]. Determining the paleo-altitude of Tibet has how­
ever been complex. A correspondence in the start of E - W
extension in Tibet with the age of proposed monsoon inten­
sification, was interpreted to support a direct link between
uplift and monsoon strength at ~8 M a [Harrison et al, 1992;
Molnar et al, 1993]. However, although erosion is often
increased by greater precipitation [e.g., Reiners et al, 2003;
Dadson et al, 2003], sedimentation rates in the Ganges Basin
and on the Bengal Fan fell after 8 M a [Burbank et al, 1993].
Burbank [1992] noted that because the transport of eroded
sediment from source to basin is affected by other factors, as
well as erosion rate, the decrease in late Miocene sedimenta­
tion rate might be compatible with faster erosion in the
Himalaya. However, over long periods of geologic time faster
rates of sediment production must be reflected in faster marine
sedimentation due to a lack of accommodation space onshore.
Indeed, Goodbred and Kuehl [2000] demonstrated that sedi­
mentation in the Ganges delta region accelerated after 11 k.y.
when monsoon intensity was also strong. Thus, either ero­
sion has a different relationship with precipitation over long
periods of geological time scales, or our present correlations
between peak erosion and peak monsoon strength need refine­
ment.
2.1. Tibetan Uplift
Attempts to document links between erosion, climate change
and tectonics have been further complicated by studies of the
age of Tibetan extension, which has been linked to the timing
of surface uplift [Molnar et al, 1993]. Parts of southern Tibet
were likely elevated well before India-Asia collision [Eng­
land and Searle, 1986; Murphy et al, 1997], but the age of sub­
sequent uplift has been contentious. Models for Tibetan growth
generally follow one of two styles gradational and staged
growth. For example Tapponnier et al. [2001] have proposed
a plateau growing northward through time in three major steps
following Eocene India-Asia collision, with rapid uplift since
the Pliocene now focused in N E Tibet [Meyer et al, 1998].
This history contrasts with the more gradual growth predicted
by models such as England and Houseman [1989] and Clark
and Roy den [2000]. In this second class of model additional

rapid uplift of the plateau can be accounted for by the loss of
a dense lithospheric mantle root that could raise Tibet a fur­
ther 1-2 km, close to, or in excess of its present altitude [Mol­
nar et al., 1993; Piatt and England, 1994]. Such an uplift
event is then usually seen as being followed by extension,
magmatism and plateau collapse. Chang et al. [1998] have
recorded potassic magmatism in eastern Tibet dated to 40
Ma, which they linked to loss of the mantle root and uplift
from that time, though most workers prefer young ages. Major
normal faulting in southern Tibet is dated at -8 M a [e.g., Pan
and Kidd, 1992], although lesser E - W extension is now dated
as starting at 18-20 M a in the Lhasa Block [Williams et al,
2001], and no later than 13.5 M a in central Tibet [Blisniuk et
al, 2001].
3. T H E E R O S I O N A L R E C O R D OF T I B E T A N UPLIFT
The evolving altitude of Tibet has long been a contentious
issue because of the lack of well dated mid- to late Tertiary sed­
imentary rocks on the plateau itself, and the ambiguity of
paleo-altitude indicators to differentiate between elevation
and climate [Molnar et al, 1993]. In this study we present
marine sedimentary evidence in an attempt to constrain the age
of plateau uplift via sediment accumulation rates. Plateau
uplift might be expected to drive faster clastic sedimentation
rates offshore partly as a result of surface uplift that would
drive gorge incision of rivers that originate on the plateau.
However, the link between uplift and erosion is not always
simple. In the Kunlun Shan, on the northern edge of the
plateau, apatite fission track cooling ages favor initial uplift
after 20 M a [Sobel andDumitru, 1997], but major erosion is
not seen until the Pliocene [Zheng et al, 2000], possibly due
to climatic deterioration following the initiation of northern
hemispheric glaciation [e.g., Zhang et al, 2001].
Faster erosion and marine sedimentation may not be linked
directly to erosion of an uplifting Tibet, but may instead
reflect monsoon intensification and thus higher rainfall, run­
off and erosion, at least in those areas affected by the sum­
mer monsoon. Nonetheless, Tibet is a source of limited
sediment. It is incised by the Indus River in the west, and by
a series of deep gorges along the eastern plateau margin
accounting for about a third of the total plateau area. The
delivery of sediment from source to sink is a complex
process, even in relatively simple systems, and especially
so in East Asia. Sediment may be sequestered onshore, either
temporarily in floodplain settings, or it may be permanently
trapped in continental basins. The Qaidam and Qilian Shan
Basins in N E Tibet capture some of the sediment flowing
from that region, while the flux of material towards the East
China Sea may have been disrupted by Cenozoic basins,
such as the Jianghan Basin [Ren et al, 2002], dampening
CLIFT E T A L . 257
the flow of material into the modern offshore regions. Fur­
ther south in Indochina there no major Cenozoic sedimen­
tary basins to capture material carried by the Pearl or Red
Rivers en route to the sea. The Khorat Basin suffered inver­
sion during the latest Cretaceous [Carter and Moss, 1999],
so that only limited sequestering in river terraces, mostly in
Cambodia can buffer the flux of sediment to the Mekong
delta. Metiver and Gaudemer [1999] showed that the ero­
sional flux from major Asian rivers is relatively constant
during the Pleistocene, suggesting that short term seques­
tering is not a major influence on the marine record.
Although Cenozoic sedimentation rates have already been
reconstructed in the Asian marginal seas [e.g., Rea, 1992;
Davies et al, 1995; Metivier et al, 1999], previous studies
have mostly been based on widely spaced drilling sites,
located on the distal edges of sediment bodies, and whose
relationship to the overall flux of sediment to the basin is
unclear due to a lack of regional seismic coverage. Accu­
mulation rates at the base of continental slopes are often
related to periods of low sea level [Haq et al, 1987], and are
not representative of the net mass flow from the source river.
Proximal drill sites located on the continental shelves record
shallow-water accumulation over long periods of geologic
time that tend to reflect, not onshore erosion rates, but instead
tectonic subsidence of the basement. This is because shelf
basins, like their onshore equivalents are typically full of
sediment and are unable to accommodate and preserve
increased fluxes of sediment delivered to the ocean from
the rivers incising Tibet. Representative sediment budgets
need to account for sediments deposited across the entire
margin in order to be robust indicators of erosion rate and not
accommodation space. As a result sediment budgets based
only on borehole data are unlikely to be representative of
the mass flow. The most comprehensive study to date by
Metivier et al [1999] did employ some seismic profiles, as
well as borehole data, in order to better assess regional accu­
mulation rates, but these data were from confidential indus­
trial sources and were not presented, making their
re-examination and critical assessment impossible.
Two recent reconstructions of sedimentation rates that
attempted to account for the bulk of the sediment in shallow
and deep water in the Arabian Sea [Indus Fan; Clift and
Gaedicke, 2002] and on the South China margin [Clift et al,
2002a] showed that in both regions sedimentation had started
to increase by at least the early Miocene (16-24 Ma) and
peaked during the middle Miocene (11-16 Ma), in contrast to
the predictions of earlier budgets based on borehole data.
These reconstructions both showed a fall in sedimentation
rates during the late Miocene, similar to that seen by Bur-
bank et al. [1993] in the Indian foreland and on the Bengal Fan.
While the case of the Indus appears to be relatively simple,
258 MARINE SEDIMENTARY EVIDENCE OF MONSOON AND TIBETAN UPLIFT
being the only major river in the western Himalaya, the record
from South China Sea must be interpreted in the context of
other drainage systems in East Asia. Because topographic
uplift in eastern Tibet is predicted to cause the rivers draining
that region to interact and capture each other's drainage basins
[Clark et al., 2004], it is essential to account for sedimenta­
tion rates throughout the region if changes in accumulation rate
in a single basin are to be interpreted in the context of regional
tectonic and climate change. While marine geophysical data
are not yet sufficiently dense to allow a definitive answer to
emerge, initial findings are now able to allow broad patterns
to be defined.
In this study we test models for drainage evolution in con­
tinental Asia through examination of the offshore stratigraphic
records. Growth of high topography in Tibet has been sug­
gested to cause a re-organization of the drainage patterns in
East Asia, which must influence the nature of sediment in the
marginal seas of East Asia. The marine record can be used to
date this reorganization and thus also constrain the timing
and extent of Tibetan uplift. The major rivers of eastern Tibet
have attracted considerable attention due in part to their pecu­
liar drainage morphology. Many studies cite examples of indi­
vidual river capture events as a partial explanation for one or
more of the unusual drainage basin morphologies and the
apparent discrepancies between modern drainage area and
associated offshore sedimentation [e.g. Treager, 1965; Brook-
field, 1998; Metivier et al., 1999].
A recent synthesis of topographic and geomorphic data
suggests a history of drainage reorganization (by which the
headwaters of one drainage systems is diverted or "cap­
tured" into another system) that reflects the uplift and devel­
opment of the eastern Tibetan Plateau margin [Clark et al,
2004]. A particularly outstanding example of the conse­
quences of drainage reorganization is the proposed change
in river course experienced by the Yangtze River. Clark et al.
[2004] proposed that the upper and middle portions of the
Yangtze River once flowed south through the Red River into
the Gulf of Tonkin, but have been captured into their mod­
ern course by a reversal of the middle Yangtze, redirecting
flow originating in central Tibet from the South China Sea
to the East China Sea. Such a capture event should have a
strong influence on the sedimentation in both the Gulf of
Tonkin and the East China Sea. In a similar fashion, sev­
eral of the other major river courses are proposed to have
been captured away from the Red River into their respec­
tive modern drainage basins. Evidence for drainage reorga­
nization affecting the rivers draining eastern Tibet underscores
the requirement to investigate the sedimentation history of
multiple drainage basins in order to understand the first
order signal of uplift of the Tibetan Plateau. With enough
data resolution, delineation of changes in sedimentary source
from one basin to another provides critical information about
the spatial and temporal variation of uplift.
4. THE EAST ASIAN MARGINAL SEAS
In this paper we present a series of sediment budgets
derived from a number of regional geophysical profiles
through the marginal seas of East Asia. These data are partly
compiled from papers already published in the open litera­
ture and partly released by agreement with BP Exploration
Operating Company. In the latter case ages are derived from
dates derivedfromdrilling either on the line itself or by cor­
relation through intersecting lines. Figure 1 shows the loca­
tion and length of each of the profiles that we present here.
Positioned offshore the deltas of the major rivers whose head­
waters lie in eastern Tibet, these basins may be used to con­
strain long-term erosion rates within each of these drainage
basins. Such long profiles are more reliable than one-dimen­
sional boreholes as guides to regional sedimentation rates,
because they account for lateral variability in the thickness
of sediment in any given basin. The Burma Basin [Pivnik et
al, 1998] is used to trace the mass flux from the Irrawaddy
River (Figure 2). While no major rivers deliver sediment into
the Gulf of Thailand at the present time, the series of basins
found there and on the western Sunda Shelf (i.e., the Pat­
tani Trough, Malay Basin, Penyu Basin and West Natuna
Basin; Figure 3) may have been major depocenters for Tibetan
sourced rivers in the past, though local sources within the
Malay Peninsular must also have been significant [e.g., Kwan
et al, 1992]. The Cuu Long and Nam Con Son Basins
[Matthews et al, 1997; Lee et al, 2001] are used to recon­
struct flux from the Mekong River (Figure 4), while the
Hanoi and Yinggehai (Song Hong) Basins [Rangin et al,
1995; He et al, 2002] can account for the Red River (Figure
5). In addition, new seismic data were interpreted from the
Beibu Gulf Basin and the southwestern Yinggehai Basin in
order to further constrain the flux from the paleo-Red River
(Figure 5). Further new data were incorporated from the
South China margin (Figure 6) andfromthe East China and
southern Yellow Seas (Figure 7) in order to document flux
from the Pearl and Yangtze Rivers respectively. Additional
data from East China Sea and from the Bohai Basin come
from Yu and Chow [1997] and Wheeler [2000] respectively.
Interpreted seismic sections were converted from time to
depth sections using interval-stacking velocities derived from
the multichannel seismic analysis, with ground-lruthing of the
depths made possible by drilling data at intervals throughout
each basin. Numerical ages are assigned using the time-scale
of Berggren et al. [1995]. Each depth section can then be
"backstripped" to restore the basin to its configuration at
the time of a dated stratigraphic horizon.
 CLIFT E T A L . 259

Figure 1. Map of Asia and surrounding oceans showing the location of sections considered in this study. Mekong profiles
are numbered 1 to 7 based on their positions with MEI in the northeast and ME7 in the southwest.

4.1. Basin Analysis
Following the methodology of Sclater and Christie [1980],
we unloaded the stratigraphy from each successive dated
sediment package using the program Flex-Decomp™, so
allowing the underlying units to be restored to their original
thickness prior to burial compaction. B y so doing we are
able to compare deposited volumes at different time peri­
ods before compaction, which if unaccounted for would
result in an apparent and unrealistic reduction in sedimen­
tation rate in deeply buried (i.e. compacted) stratigraphic
units. The backstripping method is a standard basin analysis
approach, with numerous published results involving this
particular method [e.g., Kusznir et al, 1995]. The degree of
burial compaction depends on lithology, and we use the
lithologies sampled by drilling, together with typical rates of
burial compaction derived from numerous industrial wells to
correct for this process and to estimate sediment volumes
deposited during each time period. Until a high resolution
time-scale can be provided by continuously cored scientific
boreholes the age resolution of our reconstructed accumu­
lation rate model is constrained by the relatively broad scale
time divisions published by other authors or derived from
the age picks in petroleum industry boreholes.
For the large time periods considered here the major uncer­
tainties in the backstripping process are caused by variations
in the seismic velocity and in the deviation of sediments from
a typical compaction history. The former is by far the largest
260 MARINE SEDIMENTARY EVIDENCE OF MONSOON AND TIBETAN UPLIFT
uncertainty, and we estimate that errors could rise as high as
20%, given the lateral variability in the stacking velocities
and their comparison with down-hole logging data. While
overpressuring can affect passive margin sequences where
sedimentation is rapid [e.g., Burrus, 1998] this effect does
not typically influence the entire margin, limiting its effect
in distorting the reconstructed sediment budget. Nonetheless,
shale diapirism driven by overpressuring is recognized in the
deepest sections of the Yinggehai Basin [Fang et al., 2000].
Because the deepest units in this basin are undercompacted
they consequently will result in over-estimates of the clastic
sedimentation rate during the earliest phases of basin fill. The
results of the backstripping process are shown next to each
interpreted, depth-converted section.
5. RESULTS
5.1. Burma Basin
The long profile running north to south through the Burma
Basin shows initial slow accumulation rates during the Pale­
ogene, with a major increase after 32 Ma, suggesting faster
erosion during the Oligocene within the Irrawaddy drainage
basin (Figure 2). Sedimentation rates increased to a maximum
within the middle Miocene (11-16 Ma), falling to the pres­
ent day. This fall may not reflect decreasing sediment deliv­
BB1
NNW
Burma Basin
0 20 40 60
Distance (km)
Figure 2. Interpreted cross section through the Burma Basin [from Pivnik et al, 1998] and the calculated sediment flux
to the basin during the Neogene.
ery from the mountains, but merely the lack of accommo­
dation space within that part of the Burma Basin covered
by the profile. The exposure of Miocene strata at the south­
ern end of the profile indicates that the basin has experi­
enced at least partial inversion since 5 Ma, consistent with
a recent loss of accommodation space. The bulk of the
Irrawaddy sediment is now found within the offshore
Irrawaddy Delta for which no regional age structure is cur­
rently published in the public realm. The geologically recent
sediment flux from the Irrawaddy River is thus basically
unconstrained.
5.2. Gulf of Thailand
The basins lying within the Gulf of Thailand and the west­
ern parts of the Sunda Shelf away from the Mekong Delta are
largely filled to sealevel (Figure 4). The lack of accommo­
dation space is reflected in the sediment accumulation his­
tories of the individual profiles, which, with the exception
of the more distal West Natuna Basin, show strong decreases
in accumulation rates during the late Miocene to Recent.
Because water depth is shallow across the Sunda Shelf and
the Malay and West Natuna Basins in particular are known
to have experienced moderate structural inversion since the
early Miocene [e.g., Morley, 2001], it seems likely that falling
accumulation rates do not reflect the switching of sediment
SSE
80 100
 CLIFT E T A L . 261

Pattani Trough
PA1

0 30 40 50 60

Age (Ma)
Malay Basin

0 10 20 30 40 50
Age (Ma)

10 20 30 40 50 60
40 120 160
Penyu Basin Age (Ma)

10 20 30 40 50 60
Age (Ma)

NA1 west Natuna Basin

80
Distance (km) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Age (Ma)

Figure 3. Interpreted cross-sections through the basins in the Gulf of Thailand and Sundaland, i.e., Pattani Trough [Wheeler,
2000], Malay Basin [Madon and Watts, 1998], Penyu Basin [Higgs et al., 1999] and West Natuna Basin [Wheeler, 2000],
together with the calculated sediment flux to each section during the Neogene.

supply away from this area, but rather the filling of these mass balance the accumulation rates in these basins does
basins relatively soon after their rifting. Although this sed- not provide much information on the rate of sediment deliv-
iment needs to be accounted for in any regional sediment ery into the area.
262 MARINE SEDIMENTARY EVIDENCE OF MONSOON AND TIBETAN UPLIFT

0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280

Age (Ma) Distance (km) Age (Ma)

Figure 4. Interpreted cross sections through the Mekong (Cuu Long) and Nam Con Son Basins and the calculated sedi­
ment flux to each section during the Neogene (data from Lee et al. [2001] and Matthews et al. [1997]).

5.3. Nam Con Son Basin abilityfromnorth to south, likely reflecting changing accom­
modation space differences across the margin, caused by
The sediment budgets derived from profiles within the the tectonic evolution of that basin, as well as later minor
Nam Con Son and Cuu Long Basins show significant vari- structural inversion [Matthews et al, 1997]. In the northern
 CLIFT E T A L . 263

Cuu Long part of the margin sedimentation rates show a
rapid increase after 24 Ma, i.e. in the early Miocene, but
reduce in the younger part of the section because of a lack
of accommodation space. However, further south in the
Nam Con Son the rates are variable but generally increase
to the present. There is a clear increase in sedimentation
rates after 8 Ma, especially on the eastern edge of the area
covered, consistent with the recognition of major prograd-
ing clinoform deltaic foresets in seismic profiles taken from
the Mekong Delta region [Dorobek and Olson, 2001]. The
eastward shift in the depocenter during the Neogene largely
reflects increasing sediment flux and a lack of accommo­
dation space in the west.
5.4. Gulf of Tonkin
The sedimentation history of the Yinggehai and Beibu
Gulf Basins appears to be relatively complex. Strong dif­
ferences are shown between different parts of the basins.
The dominantly pull-apart tectonic origin of these basins
results in a complex deformation pattern than can drive
extension in some parts of region while other sub-basins are
suffering transpression and inversion [cf., San Andreas Fault;
Crowell, 1974]. 15.5 Ma has been identified as a special
time of structural inversion close to the Red River delta
[Rangin et al., 1995], and may have also affected the Beibu
Gulf Basin, which shows low rates of sediment preserva-

40 60 80 40 60 80
Distance (km) Distance (km)

Figure 5. Interpreted cross sections through the Yinggehai Basin and Gulf of Tonkin, together with the calculated sediment
fluxes to each part of the basin during the Neogene (data from Fang et al. [2000], He et al. [2002], Rangin et al. [1995]
and Wheeler [2000]).
264 MARINE SEDIMENTARY EVIDENCE OF MONSOON A N D TIBETAN UPLIFT

SC1
South China Margin: Profile 1212 —j SC1

It
CD j g

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Q

SC2 .

200 ] :
SC2
South China Margin: Profile 1554
r-: •
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

SC3-

] [

280

80
10 20 30 40 50 60
Distance (km) Age (Ma)

Figure 6. Interpreted cross sections through the South China margin and the calculated sediment flux to this margin dur­
ing the Neogene (new data for this study).
 CLIFT E T A L .

Figure 7. Interpreted cross sections through the East China Sea and the calculated sediment flux to the basin during the
Neogene (new data in Bohai Basin and Yellow Sea, and from Yu and Chow [1997] and Wheeler [2000] in East China Sea).
266 MARINE SEDIMENTARY EVIDENCE OF MONSOON AND TIBETAN UPLIFT

tion after that time. Beibu Gulf shows peak accumulation
at 28-30 M a (middle Oligocene), following an initial sharp
increase after 37 M a (latest Eocene). Similarly, the Hanoi
Trough, the northernmost part of the system considered here,
shows peak accumulation rates at 14.8-13.0 M a followed
by a rapid fall driven by the loss of accommodation space due
to structural inversion.
Further south, in the main Yinggehai depocenter west of
Hainan Island (Figure 1), the better dated section YI1 shows
rapid accumulation following 33 Ma, and fast and variable
sedimentation after than time, except for the 5.3-11 Ma period
(late Miocene), possibly related to the inversion noted fur­
ther north. Profile YI2 shows the general trend of increase
during the Oligocene followed by slower late Miocene accu­
mulation, but little other detail. Both profiles YI1 and YI3
show enhanced sedimentation in the recent geologic past, dat­
ing from 5.3 M a and 3.5 M a respectively.
5.5. South China Margin
That part of the South China margin fed by the Pearl River
shows a well characterized initial increase in sedimentation rate
after 32 Ma, during the initial extension of the margin. Along-
strike variability since that time largely reflects the location of
sediment delivery and availability of accommodation space,
which is most restricted at the western end of the margin,
close to the structural high of Hainan Island. We consider
Profiles SC3 and SC4 to be the best recorders of sediment
Pleistocene. Nonetheless, the best indicator of clastic flux to
the oceans is a long line traversing the East China Shelf,
almost as far as the Okinawa Trough (Profile EC2). This line
crosses several sub-basins and allows large volumes of sedi­
ment to be assessed. The reconstructed sedimentation rates
show an initial increase after 34 Ma, with the middle Miocene
(11-16 Ma) peak identified in other several other profiles
quite clearly defined. After a dip in rates during the late
Miocene these rise again in the Pliocene and reach a maximum
in the Pleistocene. Further north some of these same trends are
also seen in the southern Yellow Sea (Profile EC1), although
the lack of a good biostratigraphy means that only a low aver­
age value can be reconstructed for the late Miocene to Recent.
Accelerated Pleistocene accumulation may have occurred in
this basin, although the shallow water depths in this region
in any case indicate that this basin is close to being full, with
littlefreeaccommodation space. As a result, even if large vol­
umes of sediment were delivered they would mostly overspill
the surveyed region, finally being deposited in deeper water
further east, close to or within the Okinawa Trough. Accom­
modation space is clearly an issue in the Bohai Basin (BOl),
which despite being located close to the modern Yellow River
delta is mostly filled with Oligocene and Eocene strata.
Table 1. Volumes of sediment estimates for each of the basins
considered in this study. Basins are assigned into one of five
groups, considered to represent major regional depocenters.
Basin Volume, km 3

delivery by the Pearl River because of their proximity to the

estuary and because these lines are much longer than the oth­ Gulf of Thailand
ers and are able to account for slope sediments as well as the Malay Basin 384000
Pattani Trough 79200
shelf. In contrast, profiles SC2 and SC5 show a record dom­
Penyu Basin 40000
inated by the space-limited shelf. Rapid sedimentation is a West Natuna 45000
common characteristic on this margin during the early and Subtotal 548200
middle Miocene (24-11 Ma). Profiles SC2, SC5 and SC6
shows a middle Miocene peak, while SC3 is faster during the Mekong System
Mekong/Cuu Long 216000
early Miocene. Those lines that allow resolution of sedimen­ Nan Con Som 350000
tation rates during the Plio-Pleistocene typically show faster Subtotal 566000
rates than those reconstructed for the late Miocene (12-5.3
Ma). Red River System
Hanoi Basin 8750
Song Hong Basin 550000
5.6. East China SE Hainan 300000
Beibu Basin 87500
Little seismic data exists publicly for the East China region, Subtotal 946250
and consequently the results are less well defined than for
Pearl River System
others basins discussed here. At the southern edge of this
South China Margin 400000
region two short lines located close to Taiwan (Profiles EC3
and EC4) can be used to assess sedimentation rate. These East China System
show high rates during the Paleocene, probably largely a func­ East China Sea 420000
tion of localized rifting in this part of the shelf, while further Bohai 150000
Subtotal 570000
increases are noted in the early Miocene after 29 Ma and in the
 CLIFT E T A L . 267

Gulf of Thailand

30 40 30 40

Age (Ma] Age (Ma)

Figure 8. Sediment budgets for each of the major basin systems considered in this study (A) Mekong, (B) Gulf of Thai­
land, (C) South China margin, (D) Red River-Gulf of Tonkin, and (E) Eastern China. (F) shows the proposed integrated
sediment budget for all these basins, representing the net flux of material from Asia into the marginal seas.

5.7. Synthesis
The reconstructions presented above show significant vari­
ability between different basins and even along strike within
a single basin. In order to derive geologically meaningful sed­
iment budgets the sections from a given basin can be inte­
grated in order to quantify how the rate of accumulation has
changed through time. Estimates of the basin volume (Table
1) can then be used to calculate rates of sediment delivery,
assuming the sections are representative of the basin as a
whole. Furthermore, because a single river system may con­
tribute sediment to several basins during the Cenozoic we opt
to integrate the resultsfromgroups of basins, in an attempt to
quantify sediment flux from a given river, or at least on to a
limited part of the East Asian margin. Figure 8 shows the inte­
grated sediment budgets for five groups of basins, those in the
Gulf of Thailand/Sunda Shelf, the Mekong Delta, the Red
River-Gulf of Tonkin region, the South China-Pearl River
area and those in Eastern China. Because there is only one
linefromthe Burma Basin and no offshore data the Irrawaddy
system was not included in this analysis.
The general character of sedimentation is quite different
between the different sets of basins, and is summarized by
Figure 9, which highlights the ages at which sedimentation first
started to accelerate in each basin, together with periods of peak
sedimentation rates. The Gulf of Thailand is anomalous in
showing very little accumulation since the middle Miocene.
A start of rapid sedimentation in the Oligocene-early Miocene
is a feature of the Mekong, Pearl and Red River systems,
while the East China basins show only moderate increase in
sedimentation during the Miocene, but with a pronounced
Pleistocene influx. Increases in the rate of sedimentation do
not occur synchronously in the Mekong, Pearl and Red River
systems. The Red River basins show a major increase after
28 Ma, while this occurs at 24 Ma in the Mekong and after 16
Ma in the Pearl system. The Pearl River basins never again
268 MARINE SEDIMENTARY EVIDENCE OF MONSOON AND TIBETAN UPLIFT

rrrp
Pieist More dust
in Pacific

0 • & <=>'<=>
• P £) 0- & Reduced forefand
sedimentation rates,
5 i Climatic drier climate in H, China
changes in
Arabian Sea

V l
- . a • • c
10 H O' & o '•
Wetter climate
in S. China

o
^7
15 H Antarctic
r •
• ^ ' o - o •

giaciation
x

• ^ o • c
t? ^ c->
CP - r .
: > P 0
CO
^ 20
0)
< Minimum age] HP *
of loess
0 & c-->

0 63
25 H
I I

30 H

35

40 • I t i i I i i i t i il
3 1 Burma Mekong Red River South East Marine Tectonic Events
Basin system system China China events onland
Global (%«) margin margin

Significant clastic sedimentation

f
• p Peak periods of clastic sedimentation

Figure 9. Diagram showing the relative timing of initial rapid sedimentation in each of the marginal seas considered in this
study, compared to the timing of global climatic variability [Zachos et al, 2001], as well as the age of High Himalayan exhu­
mation, Tibetan extension and rapid cooling in the Karakoram. Also marked are periods of peak sedimentation.

reach the maximum rates seen in the middle Miocene. The
increasing sedimentation rate during the Late Oligocene-early
Miocene broadly corresponds with the maximum in sediment
flux identified in the Arabian Sea at the same time [Clift and
Gaedicke, 2002].
The late Miocene appears to have commonly been a time of
low rates of sedimentation, with the Mekong being the only
significant exception; indeed the rates in that increase after 8
Ma, correlating with a well-defined prograding delta recog­
nized in seismic profile in the northern Nam Con Son Basin
[Matthews et al, 1997; Dorobekand
Integrating the resultsfromthe different basin groups allows
the total sediment budget for the East Asian marginal seas to
be calculated (Figure 8F). In doing this we weight each basin
in proportion to the total estimated volume of sediment in
each, as shown in Table 1. This integrated budget shows a
gradual, steady increase in sedimentation rates after the Mid­
dle Eocene (-45 Ma), with sharp increases after 33 Ma and 18
Ma. Rates continue to increase into the middle Miocene,
where they reach a maximum that is not approached again
until the Pleistocene. The period 5-11 Ma shows a much lower
rate of sediment delivery than is seen at any other time dur­
ing the Neogene.
Olson, 2001]. 6. P R O V E N A N C E
As well as causing changes in sedimentation rates in the
marginal seas of East Asia the capture of drainage between the
 CLIFT E T A L . 269

major rivers onshore would be expected to cause changes in
sediment provenance. In the case of the rivers of East Asia
no continuous sedimentary record of their flux is exposed
onshore or has been cored offshore. In this study we compare
the isotopic characteristics of modern river sediments in the
Red and Yangtze Rivers with Eocene sedimentary rocks recov­
ered from a petroleum exploration well located in the Gulf
of Tonkin (Wushi 22-3-1; Figure 10). River sands from the
Yangtze River were taken from the first major bend in the
Yangtze, close to the point where drainage capture is pro­
posed to have occurred by Clark et al. [2004] (Figure 10;
Table 1). The Red River samples span a short distance within
the upper part of that catchment. Two isotopic techniques
were applied to the sediments in an attempt to test whether the
Eocene provenance of sediments in the Gulf of Tonkin differed
from those now being delivered by the Red River. While the
decreasing sedimentation rates seen in the Yinggehai Basin dur­
r
Is
ing the Miocene at a time of generally increasing sedimenta­
tion elsewhere is predicted by the capture hypothesis, this
same model would also require a significant change of prove­
nance at the same time.
6.1. Nd Isotopes
Because weathering and the sediment transport process are
not expected to result in isotopic fractionation, the measured
isotopic signature of any given sediment should reflect the
bulk composition of the source. Despite the suggestion that Nd
isotopes are sensitive to input from oceanic sources [McLen­
nan et al, 1989], values measured from Bengal Fan clays
were consistent with other measurements of fluvial and aeo­
lian particles, and are similar to those measured in modern
sediments from the Ganges River [Goldstein et al, 1984].
This probably reflects the very low concentration of rare earth
1

Tarim
Basin

120°

Figure 10. Shaded digital topographic map of central and eastern Asia showing the drainage basins of the major rivers now
feeding the East Asian Marginal Seas. Empty circles mark the location of samples taken for geochemical analysis in the
Red and Yangtze Rivers, as well as in the Gulf of Tonkin. SPG = Songpan-Garze Flysch, YB = Yangtze Block, DS = Dabie
Shan, SB = Sichuan Basin, KS = Konga Shan, CH = Central Highlands.
270 MARINE SEDIMENTARY EVIDENCE OF MONSOON AND TIBETAN UPLIFT

Table 2. Nd isotopic values measured from sands taken from the Red and Yangtze Rivers,
and the Eocene Gulf of Tonkin.
14 144
Sample Nd 7Nd eNd Location Latitude Longitude

LS-12-S 0.512019 ± 6 -12.1 Red River 23° 01.200' 103° 20.400'

LS-16-S 0.511951 ± 5 -13.4 Red River 23° 39.000' 101° 51.600'
LS-23 0.511959 ±16 -13.3 Red River 24° 10.200' 101° 31.200'
MC-01-75 0.512100 ± 7 -10.5 Yangtze River 26° 52.692' 99° 59.167'
MC-01-76 0.512022 ± 8 -12.1 Yangtze River 27° 04.643' 100° 04.033*
MC-01-77 0.512122 ± 7 -10.1 Yangtze River 26° 57.311' 99° 37.084'
Wushi 3260 0.512101 ± 5 -10.5 Gulf of Tonkin 20° 06.817' 109° 11.610'
Wushi 2820 0.512116 ± 7 -10.2 Gulf of Tonkin 20° 06.817' 109° 11.610'
Wushi 2920 0.512299 ± 3 1 -6.7 Gulf of Tonkin 20° 06.817' 109° 11.610*

Results corrected for La Jolla standard = 0.511847.

elements in seawater compared to the source terrains. The
successful application of N d isotopes to constraining the
provenance of fluvial marine sediments eroded from Neo­
gene Asia [e.g., Bouquillon et al, 1990] suggests that this
method is appropriate for resolving sediment source in marine
sediments within the East Asian marginal seas.
Three samples eachfromthe Red and Yangtze River, as well
the Eocene core samples were taken for analysis. 10 grams of
sediment were powdered from each sample to ensure a good
average composition. Each sample was then dissolved and the
Nd separated using standard column extraction techniques. Nd
isotopic compositions were determined on VG354 mass spec­
trometer at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. N d / N d
146 144
values are normalized to N d / N d = 0.7219 and are rela­
tive to 0.511847 for the La Jolla standard. The results are shown
in Table 2. We calculate the parameter e^ [DePaolo and Wasser-
d modern rivers. Although the paleo-Tsangpo River may have
1 4 3 1 4 4
burg, 1976] using a N d / N d value of 0.512638 for the
Chondritic Uniform Reservoir [CHUR; Hamilton et al, 1983].
were interpreted to have been delivered by the Pearl River by
erosion from the South China Block (Cathaysia) basement.
Thus a local origin for the Eocene sediments cannot be dis­
counted on the basis of these analyses alone.
Figure 11B shows the great range of possible crystalline
sources that may have provided sediment into the rivers. The
Red and Yangtze Rivers are somewhat more negative than
most of the South China Block or the Lhasa Block (southern
Tibet), and must reflect erosion of some of the isotopically
negative basement in the Yangtze Block. The upper Yangtze
River samples lie close to the range defined for the aeolian
loess sediment of central China itself eroded from Tibet, con­
143 144
sistent with an origin largely within the plateau. The arc units
of the Indus-Tsangpo Suture and Lhasa Block are too radi­
ogenic to have ever been a dominant source of any of these
delivered sediment to the Red River [Clark et al, 2004], the
e values of the Eocene sediment suggest that this was never
Nd

Figure 11 shows the range of measured Nd isotopic values
and compares them with the range of possible basement source
terrains. What is clear is that the Eocene from the Gulf of
Tonkin is uniformly less negative in e values than the mod­
Nd
ern Red River, indicating that the source of the Eocene sedi­
ment was more radiogenic, i.e. eroded from generally younger
crust, than the sediment now in the river. The Eocene sediment
does however lie much closer to two of the three Yangtze sam­
ples, which are presumed to represent the clastic flux from
the upper parts of that river, i.e., the eastern edge of the Tibetan
Plateau. This result is consistent with the idea of the Gulf of
Tonkin originally being fed by a river eroding the continental
interior including the region now uplifted in the eastern Tibetan
Plateau. The Eocene sediment from the Gulf of Tonkin shows
partial overlap with the range of compositions measured from
sediments deposited on the South China margin, and which
a dominant part of the bedload. The same argument can be
made with regard to the relatively unradiogenic rocks of the
Yangtze Block. Although this source is now eroded by the
middle reaches of the Yangtze River, and may have been a
source of sediment to the Gulf of Tonkin if the flow reversal
proposed by Clark et al [2004] occurred, the Nd isotope data
indicate that this source was not dominant over the flux from
the paleo-Tibetan Plateau.
The modern Red River overlaps with the most radiogenic
basement rocks of the South China and Yangtze Blocks and
must indicate erosion of relatively old continental crust, either
in southern China or the Qiangtang Block of central Tibet.
Yangtze River sediments show close correspondence with
values from the Chinese loess, a wind blown sediment inter­
preted to largely reflect erosion from the Gobi Desert region
of Central Asia [Nakai et al, 1993; Liu et al, 1994]. However
 CLIFT E T A L . 271

(A) Sediments

Pearl River
Mouth Basin

(B) Source terrains

Figure 11. (A) N d isotopic characteristics of the sediments in the modern Red and Yangtze Rivers compared to Eocene
sediments in the Gulf of Tonkin and Neogene sediments in the Pearl River area of southern China. (B) Potential crys­
talline source terranes for the sediments in the Asian marginal seas. Yangtze Block data are from Ma et al [2000]; South
China data are from Li et al [2000], Gilder et al [1996], Liu et al [1996], Zhong et al [1992], and Darbyshire and
Sewell [1997]. Lhasa Block data are from Debon et al [1986]. Indus-Tsangpo Arc data are from Petterson et al [1993],
Khan et al [1997] and Clift et al [2000]. Chinese loess values are from Nakai et al [1993], Jones et al [1994,2000], and
Pettkeetal [2000].

as both the Tibetan sources to the upper Yangtze River and
the loess have similar isotopic characters this system is not
effective at resolving between the two. The Nd isotope char­
acteristicsfromthe Eocene sedimentsfromthe Gulf of Tonkin
are also consistent with a dominant sourcefromTibet, although
the influence of more local southern Chinese erosion cannot
be constrained. We here employ single grain Pb isotope analy­
ses in an attempt to resolve these different sources that remain
obscure in the bulk sediment analysis.
6.2. Pb Isotopes
In order to better understand the provenance evolution of the
sediments delivered to the Gulf of Tonkin during the Eocene
we measure Pb isotopes in situ [Layne and Shimizu, 1998] in
single sand grains of K-feldspar using a high-resolution
Cameca 1270 ion microprobe of the Northeast National Ion
Microprobe Facility (NENIMF) at WHOI. K-feldspar was
chosen because it is a common detrital mineral and contains
relative high concentrations of Pb that allow accurate isotopic
determination. Its use as a provenance indicator has been
proven through earlier studies using both conventional ther­
mal ionization mass spectrometer (TIMS) [e.g., McDaniel et
al, 1994] and ion probe [e.g., Clift et al, 2002b]. Although pro­
ducing analytical uncertainties greater than the TIMS method,
the ion probe approach allows isotopic determinations on
individual sand and silt-sized particles. In order to exploit the
potential of this method to characterize heterogeneous feldspar
272 MARINE SEDIMENTARY EVIDENCE OF MONSOON AND TIBETAN UPLIFT

Table 3. Pb isotopic values measured by ion microprobe on detrital feldspars from the Yangtze River and the Eocene
Gulf of Tonkin
2 0 6 p 2 0 4 2 0 6 p 2 0 4 2 0 7 2 0 6 2 0 7 2 0 6 2 0 2 O 6 p 2 0 8 p 0 6
Sample Number Location b / p b b / p b p b / p b p b / p b 8 p b / b b / 2 p b

a(%) o(%) o(%)

Wushi 22-3-1 Gulf of Tonkin 18.7017 0.26 0.8393222 0.14 2.073818 0.13
Wushi 22-3-1 Gulf of Tonkin 17.7068 0.16 0.8778361 0.11 2.093955 0.08
Wushi 22-3-1 Gulf of Tonkin 18.6582 0.58 0.8382730 0.24 2.056315 0.22
Wushi 22-3-1 Gulf of Tonkin 18.4401 0.47 0.8553429 0.19 2.112297 0.20
Wushi 22-3-1 Gulf of Tonkin 17.4618 0.19 0.8863740 0.09 2.162911 0.08
Wushi 22-3-1 Gulf of Tonkin 18.5555 0.65 0.8426873 0.45 2.081796 0.64
Wushi 22-3-1 Gulf of Tonkin 18.4051 0.47 0.8465977 0.33 2.083592 0.42
Wushi 22-3-1 Gulf of Tonkin 18.4748 0.27 0.8500362 0.13 2.099672 0.12
MC-01-76 Yangtze River 18.5873 0.35 0.8405000 0.16 2.058240 0.14
MC-01-76 Yangtze River 18.7517 0.27 0.8365614 0.13 2.078150 0.13
MC-01-76 Yangtze River 18.5927 0.58 0.8338349 0.27 2.069490 0.21
MC-01-76 Yangtze River 18.6691 0.40 0.8367490 0.25 2.069920 0.21

populations several analyses were run from each sand sample procedures prior to conventional mass spectrometry [Gariepy
in order to define the range of isotopic ratios in a single sam­ etal, 1985].
ple, and in the case of the mixed sediment samples to identify Figure 12 shows the range of detrital Pb isotope character­
small populations of grains with distinct isotopic characters. istics in the modern upper Yangtze and Eocene Gulf of Tonkin
No analyses were run from the Red River since this drainage compared to possible basement sources and the modern Red
was well characterized by an earlier study by Bodet and River. The Red River sediments are seen to cover a broad, rel­
Schdrer [1999]. atively radiogenic array overlapping the Lhasa Block, as well
The sands were sieved, after which the size fraction 1 mm as the smaller number of analyses known from the Konga
to 200 urn, was mounted in epoxy and polished using alu­ Shan and the Songpan-Garze Flysch Belt [Roger, 1994], both
minum oxide abrasives. The K-feldspar grains were then parts of the central Tibetan Plateau (Figure 10). The modern
identified by area mapping of A 1 0 and K 0 using the
2 3 2 upper Yangtze River grains overlap with these Tibetan fields,
JEOL Superprobe electron microprobe at the Massachusetts but also trend to lower isotopic ratios, suggesting that some of
Institute of Technology. After gold coating the grains were the grains may be derived from accreted arc units within the
analyzed using a beam of negatively charged oxygen ions Bangong-Nujiang Suture Zone, the northern edge of the Song­
[O"] focused to a spot as small as 15-20 um. Analytical pan-Garze Flysch Belt. The range of values derivedfromthe
uncertainties are principally a reflection of the counting sta­ Eocene Gulf of Tonkin is consistent with many of these grains
tistics, typically averaging 2a <1%. The analytical results coming from Tibetan sources, similar to the modern upper
are shown in Table 3. Analysis of K-feldspar standards ver­ Yangtze River. However, two grains show especially low, unra-
ifies that there is no significant mass fractionation effect in diogenic Pb isotopic ratios, which are not found within the
analyzing Pb isotopes using the ion microprobe methodol­ modern Red River. Instead these show most similarity with the
ogy compared to conventional mass spectrometry [Layne measured ranges from the Yangtze Block. This observation
and Shimizu, 1998]. shows that an unradiogenic source has been lost from the
In order to minimize the risk of secondary Pb contamina­ catchment area of the Red River since the Eocene. I f the
tion from sources outside the feldspar, analyses were made Yangtze Block was the source of this material then this would
in the center of the grain, away from cracks, inclusions or imply that a flow reversal has occurred since the Eocene in the
alteration zones. The ion beam was trained on the spot to be Middle Yangtze, as suggested by Clark et al [2004], as a river
analyzed for five minutes before analysis began, so that any flowing S W from the Yangtze Block towards the Gulf of
surface Pb contamination was removed, which might have Tonkin would be required to transport the grains to the final
occurred during preparation of the grains mount. Through depocenter. Alternatively, the unradiogenic grains may be
probing grain centers and allowing the beam to remove sur­ derived from a source within East Tibet that has yet to be
face coating of the sectioned grains we avoid analysis of characterized and which does not form an important source of
excess secondary Pb that is normally removed by leaching material to either the upper Yangtze or Red Rivers.
 CLIFT E T A L . 273

6.3. Summary of Provenance Work
The combined Pb and Nd isotope work presented above shows
strong evidence that the sources of sediment to the Gulf of
Tonkin have changed significantly since the Eocene. Because of
a lack of a continuous record, it is not yet possible to say when
the loss of source areas occurred, although the falling sedimen­
tation rates seen in the Yinggehai Basin during the early-mid­
dle Miocene would suggest this as a likely time for capture. The
isotopic character of Eocene Gulf of Tonkin sediment compared
to the modern Red River could be accounted for by erosion
from either the Cretaceous arc basement of the South China
Block or the Yangtze Block. We consider the former less likely
since these rocks are centered in eastern China in Fuzhou
Province, adjacent to modem Taiwan and do not extent much fur­
ther west than Hong Kong [Li et al, 2000]. In contrast, models
for drainage evolution indicate that the middle Yangtze may
have delivered material from the Yangtze Block before experi­
encing drainage capture and flow reversal. The isotopic data are
consistent, if not uniquely applicable to the drainage capture
model of Clark et al. [2004] and demonstrate significant changes
in provenance of the Red River since the Eocene.
7. D I S C U S S I O N
The sediment budgets presented above mark a significant
revision to the previously published reconstructions of Metivier
et al. [1999]. The present study shows similar patterns to
Metivier et al. [1999] in the Mekong, East China and the Gulf
of Thailand Basins, though rapid sedimentation ceases around

16

15.9 W

15.8 U

-Q
15.7 h

8 15.6

15.5

15.4

15.3
17 17.5 18 18.5 19 19.5
206 204
Pb/ Pb
Figure 12. Pb isotopic discrimination diagram showing the range of compositions found in the Eocene of the Gulf of
Tonkin compared to several of the modern rivers, as well as selected source terrains, and mantle compositions. Note the
unradiogenic composition of two Tonkin grains that show their incompatibility with anything presently known to con­
tribute to the modern Red River. Range for modern Red River is defined from Bodet and Scharer [2001]. Analyses from
Songpan-Garze Flysch Belt and the Yangtze Block are from Roger [1994]; those from the Transhimalaya are from Vidal
et al. [1982] and Gariepy et al. [1985], while those from the Konga Shan are from Roger et al. [1995]. MORB fields are
from Sun [1980], Ben Othman et al. [1989], Mahoney et al. [1992] and Castillo et al. [1998].
274 MARINE SEDIMENTARY EVIDENCE OF MONSOON AND TIBETAN UPLIFT
11 M a in the latter according to this study and at 24 Ma accord­
ing to Metivier et al [1999]. Greater differences are apparent
in the Yinggehai/Gulf of Tonkin, where Metivier et al [1999]
indicated at gradual increase since the Eocene, followed by a
dramatic Pleistocene pulse. In this study rates increase with
time, but show a sharp jump after 28 M a and period of reduced
sedimentation at 5-11 Ma. Finally this study contrasts with
Metivier et al [1999] in identifying the middle Miocene, not
the late Miocene-Recent, as the time of peak sediment flux in
the Pearl River system
The new sediment budgets also differ from the budgets of
Davies et al [1995] and Rea [1992] for the Indian Ocean,
who proposed a sharp rise in sedimentation rates in the Pleis­
tocene and after 12 M a respectively. The reasons for the mis­
match between these budgets and the new budget advanced
here are not completely clear. The basis of the Metivier et al
[1999] budget is obscure because it was based on proprietary
industrial data, whose extent and coverage were not detailed
in that study. The lack of a regional coverage in both shelf
and deep-water settings, or reliance on one-dimensional bore­
holes in earlier studies may explain much of the apparent
problem. It is noteworthy that the shorter profiles in this pres­
ent study tend to produce sediment budgets that diverge sig­
nificantly from the regional average, due to local variability
in sediment supply, basin structure and accommodation space.
Use of boreholes alone to derive regional sedimentation rates
would be even more susceptible to yielding unrepresentative
accumulation rate histories. This study reinforces the need
for long, regional profiles, tied to well-dated, drilled sections
if the sediment flux from Asia is to be better constrained. This
present study can represent only the first step towards a more
robust understanding of the Cenozoic erosion history of Asia.
Reconstructing sediment flux is only the first stage to
charting changes in continental erosion that may or may not
be linked to Tibetan uplift. Debate continues as to whether
technically driven surface uplift is the primary control on
erosion rates, as argued by Burbank et al [2003] for the
Himalaya. An alternative explanation indicates that it is pre­
cipitation that is more important at focusing erosion [Dad-
son et al, 2003; Reiners et al, 2003; Wobus et al, 2003],
which if true means that the sedimentary record in East Asia
may be largely a record of summer monsoon intensifica­
tion. However, because the rivers of East Asia incise a relict,
pre-uplift landscape in eastern Tibet, surface uplift is a pre­
requisite to the formation of the deep river gorges and
increased sediment flux to the ocean.
7.7. Eocene-Oligocene
Our analysis demonstrates that since the Middle Eocene
sedimentation rates began to rise throughout East Asia. Rates
in the Red River system and the Gulf of Thailand were par­
ticularly high at that time. The Pearl River shows its first
rapid increase in sediment flux after -33 M a (early
Oligocene), with the Red River following after 28 M a (ear­
liest Miocene). Accumulation in the Mekong system was
insignificant before 36 Ma, but this largely reflects extension
of the basin after that time. Increasing regional rates after -45
M a , makes sense in the context of India-Asia collision,
which general consensus dates at 50-55 M a [e.g., Garzanti
et al, 1987; Rowley, 1996; Searle et al, 1987]. Initial col­
lision might be expected to have driven orogenic uplift,
increasing orographic precipitation along the collision zone
and increased erosion. While parts of southern Tibet were
uplifted prior to collision [e.g., England and Searle, 1986;
Murphy et al, 1997], others have argued for significant
uplift of that region during the Eocene [Clift et al, 2001;
Tapponnier et al, 2001], consistent with the increased sed­
iment flux reconstructed here. The step in sedimentation
rates at 33 M a may related to faster erosion of the hinterland
driven by increased surface uplift. Tapponnier et al [2001]
argue for a stepped uplift of central Tibet at around that time.
We also note the possible role of global climatic deteriora­
tion at 33-34 M a [Zachos et al, 2001; Figure 9] in driving
faster erosion. Resolving whether mountain uplift and
enhanced erosion is driven by climate or tectonics, or both,
is not always easy [e.g., Molnar and England, 1990; Burbank
et al, 2003; Wobus et al, 2003]. It is possible that global
cooling at this time, caused a drying of the continental cli­
mate in Asia, leading to a more erosive weathering regime,
such as proposed by Molnar [2001] for the Plio-Pleistocene,
though glaciation did not directly affect the drainage areas
of the east Asian rivers discussed here.
Unequivocal evidence for tectonically driven uplift of cen­
tral Tibet during the Oligocene is absent. However, there is lim­
ited support for the start of tectonic extrusion of Indochina prior
to -24 M a [Leloup et al, 1993, 2001], presumably preceded
by crustal thickening and uplift in central Tibet [Tapponnier
et al, 2001]. We propose that the early Oligocene may be the
time of uplift of the central plateau, although does not seem
to have affected those regions now forming the eastern edge
of the plateau.
At least some of the Paleogene increase simply reflects
faster sedimentation during extension and basin formation
throughout East Asia at that time [Hall, 2002]. Sedimenta­
tion in the Gulf of Tonkin, as well as South China [Clift and
Lin, 2001] and East China Seas [Li, 1984; Park et al, 1998]
indicates that extension had begun during the latest Creta­
ceous and was strong during the Paleogene. Localized rapid
erosion of tilted fault blocks can account for much of the sed­
iment volume, with little need to appeal to Tibet as a sedi­
ment source.

7.2. Early to Middle Miocene
The early-middle Miocene increase in sedimentation rates
identified here may be explained as reflecting both increased
elevation of Tibet and especially to the strengthening of the
monsoon caused by this uplift. We also note that this is a
time of strong global cooling, which would enhance erosion
of central and East Asia independent of surface uplift. Marine
sedimentation rates appear to increase in several parts of
the world at this time [e.g., New Jersey, Miller et al, 1997;
Mississippi, DeVay et al, 2000; west Africa, Lavier et al,
2001], indicating that at least some of the erosion pulse
reflects global climate change, which may be unconnected
to the tectonic development of Tibet. While the moderate
erosion of Tibet precludes this as a major source of sedi­
ment a strengthening monsoon would drive faster erosion
throughout East Asia. Recent radiometric dating of N-S
trending normal faults in Tibet now favors E-W extension
starting at 20-15 Ma [Coleman and Hodges, 1995; Blisniuk
et al, 2001; Williams et al, 2001], not around 8 Ma as orig­
inally suggested. If E-W extension represents a gravitational
collapse of the plateau, possibly as it achieved maximum
altitude, then initial uplift must have pre-dated this time.
The start of Tibetan extension approximately correlates with
the faster sedimentation rates seen regionally after 18 Ma,
especially in the South China Sea.
It is noteworthy that although the Pliocene is the period of
peak sedimentation along the northern edge of Tibet in the
Tarim Basin [Zheng et al, 2000] there is also an earlier increase
in sedimentation rates in this area during the middle Miocene
[Metivier et al, 1999]. Thus, although elevation of the north­
ernmost parts of Tibet might be relatively recent, the marine
erosional record reconstructed here is consistent with major
surface uplift of the central plateau, involving elements of the
Lhasa, Qiangtang and Songpan-Garze Blocks, as well as
along the major shear zones in eastern Tibet early in the
Miocene (16-24 Ma).
Regional climatic data is now supportive of an early-mid­
dle Miocene start to the monsoon strengthening, consistent
with either significant topographic uplift at this time, or at
least the time at which progressive uplift had advanced to the
stage where it influenced the regional climate. Guo et a l
[2002] now argue that loess sedimentation, which is generally
linked to winter monsoon strength, started prior to 22 Ma.
Jia et a l [2003] used changes in carbon isotope signatures
from terrestrial organic matter in the South China Sea to indi­
cate an initial change in climate and flora in the early Miocene.
Similarly Clift et al [2002a] document a change in weather­
ing regimefromarid to wetter monsoonal conditions in south­
ern China prior to 15 Ma. Because global cooling generally
results in drier continental climates the wettening of the south
CLIFT E T A L . 275
Chinese climate prior to 15 Ma is most readily explained by
regional monsoon strengthening.
Paleoaltitude datafromTibet now supports the idea of an
early Miocene or older uplift. Rowley et al [2001] used oxy­
gen isotope datafromlacustrine carbonates in southern Tibet
to show that significant elevation occurred before 10 Ma.
Similarly Spicer et al [2003] analyzed paleobotanical evi­
dence from southern Tibet to constrain uplift there to being
before 15 Ma. If Tibet was elevated before that time then it is
logical that the monsoon was stronger too, driving faster ero­
sion in the earlier part of the Miocene.
7.3. Late Miocene
The significance of the lower sedimentation rates recog­
nized over much of the region during the late Miocene (5-11
Ma) is not presently clear. The decreasing trends identified here
follow patterns recognized in the Bay of Bengal [Burbank et
al, 1993] and Arabian Sea [Clift and Gaedicke, 2002]. How­
ever, some of the apparent decrease from middle to late
Miocene seen in the Yellow Sea, Gulf of Thailand and Burma
Basin may not reflect reduced erosion onshore, but simply
the overfilling of these basins and the bypassing of the excess
sediment flux into basins located further offshore. However,
our compilations from the Red River, East China and South
China margins do account for sediment accumulating further
offshore and these also show the same decrease, indicating
reduced continental erosion at that time. Only the Mekong
basins do not show this trend, indeed, these show accelerated
sedimentation after 8 Ma. This Mekong pulse probably reflects
tectonically driven rapid exhumation of the Central Highlands
of Vietnam at this time [Carter et al, 2000].
It is noteworthy that this fall in clastic sedimentation occurs
at a time when thermochronology work indicates exhuma­
tion of the gorges in Eastern Tibet [Clark, 2003]. WHiile this
might seem surprising, the volume of material removed from
the gorges is small compared to the volumes generated by
even modest erosion of wider areas of the continental inte­
rior. In the Mekong system several areas may be important
generators of sediment, apartfromthe Tibetan gorges. Ther­
mochronology now shows that the shear zones of the Ailao
Shan/Red River system exposed in the upper Mekong have
experienced major cooling since 33 Ma [Harrison et al, 1996;
Leloup et al, 1993,2001]. WTiether this cooling is dominantly
tectonically or erosionally driven is not clear, yet this would
correspond to exhumation from depths of ~18 km, for geot­
hermal gradients of 30°C/km, potentially resulting in a large
flux of sediment, especially during the early-middle Miocene.
Less dramatic exhumation (~4.5 km) linked to faulting has
been reconstructed in the Wang Chao Fault Zone of NW Thai­
land [Lacassin et al, 1997]. Finally Carter et al. [2000] have
276 MARINE SEDIMENTARY EVIDENCE OF MONSOON AND TIBETAN UPLIFT

Table 4. Estimates of sediment volumes deposited versus volumes of rock eroded from the major possible source terrains within the current
Mekong drainage system

Basin Sediment Rock Deposited rock volume (km )3

Proportion
volume equivalent of total
3
3
(km ) (km ) 36-24 Ma 24-8 Ma 8-0 Ma (%)

Cuu Long Basin 75000 52500 13125 26775 12600 7

Nam Con Son 360000 273600 68400 139536 65664 36
West Natuna 85000 56950 21641 20502 14807 8
Pattani Trough 178500 133875 0 107100 26775 18
Malay Basin 300000 234000 100620 95940 37440 31
Total 998500 750925 203786 389853 157286

Source Area Area within

3
drainage Depth of exhumation (km) Volume of eroded rock (km )
2
(km ) 36-24 Ma 24-8 Ma 8-0 Ma 36-24 Ma 24-8 Ma 8-0 Ma

Vietnam C. Highlands 45000 0.75 0.75 2 33750 33750 90000 20

Tibetan Gorges 3200 0 0.5 1.5 0 1600 4800 1
Ailao Shan Shear Zones 35000 5 10 3 175000 280000 70000 68
Wang Chao Fault Zone 18500 1 3 0.5 18500 55500 9250 11
Total 227250 370850 174050

used fission track data to reconstruct 3.5 km of erosion in

Figure 13. Map showing the modern drainage of the Mekong River,
with major possible source terrains highlighted. Budgets for the
amount of sediment eroded from these regions since 36 Ma and 8 Ma
are shown. Note the strong influence of the Vietnamese Central
Highlands on the mass flux to the Mekong delta since 8 Ma compared
to the minor influence from the Tibetan gorges.
Central Highlands of Vietnam. Table 4 shows an estimate of
the sediment volumes derivedfromthese sources and compares
them with the amount of rock removed by incision of gorges
in eastern Tibet. A 400-km-long Mekong Gorge, averaging 2
3
km depth and 16 km in width, would yield only 6400 km of
3
rock, compared to 180,000 km produced by 2 km of erosion
across the Vietnamese Central Highlands. Figure 13 shows
the relative contribution of each source to the total sediment
flux since 36 M a and 8 Ma. We estimate that the Tibetan
gorges contribute only about 1% of the total flux.
The marine erosion record preserved in the Asian marginal
seas is consistent with the late Miocene (<8.5 Ma) being a
time of greater regional aridity [Derry and France-Lanord,
1996, 1997], rather than the greater precipitation previously
favored. The suggestion of a late Miocene drying phase is
based on an increase in smectite production on the Bengal
Fan [Bouquillon et al, 1990], an increase in arid-loving C4
plants in the Pakistan-Indian foreland [Quade et al, 1989], and
a reduced erosional flux charted by Sr isotopes [Derry and
France-Lanord, 1996]. Isotopic data from bivalves of this age
in the Pakistan foreland (Siwalik Group) also supports this
hypothesis [Dettman et al, 2001]. In that context decreasing
sedimentation in the Asian marginal seas is consistent with
reduced run-off at that time. Oceanographic change in the
Arabian Sea at ~8.5 M a [e.g., Kroon et al, 1991], may reflect
a global, rather than local Asian climatic event, since evi­
dence for increased biogenic sedimentation is also found over
wide areas of the Indian and Pacific Oceans at this time [Peter­
son etai, 1992].

7.4. Pliocene-Pleistocene
Our reconstructions broadly support earlier hypotheses of
increased sedimentation during the Plio-Pleistocene [e.g.,
Metivier et al, 1999]. Although this increase is not seen in all
the budgets, this may reflect a lack of accommodation space,
such as in the Burma Basin that would prevent a pulse of
eroded rock being preserved on the Asian margin. Alterna­
tively, several of the sections lack sufficient age resolution to
define faster sedimentation during the Plio-Pleistocene com­
pared to slower sedimentation during the late Miocene. This
reflects a common lack of interest in the shallower strati­
graphic levels by the petroleum industry and thus a lack of
detailed age picks in the wells that date the industrial seis­
mic profiles used in this analysis. Improved dating by scien­
tific drilling is required to improve our understanding of the
Plio-Pleistocene if we are to test the hypothesis of Zhang et
al. [2001] that this pulse is triggered by more efficient conti­
nental erosion during global climatic deterioration driven by
intensification of northern hemispheric glaciation. The Yangtze
in particular is noteworthy in showing a major pulse in the
Pleistocene, consistent with a synthesis of stratigraphic data
from deep drill holes in the onshore area that shows deltaic sed­
imentation since the Pleistocene [Wu and Li, 1987; Li et al.,
2000]. No older submarine delta has yet been found
8. C O N C L U S I O N S
The revised sediment budgets for east and Southeast Asia
presented here support data from the Indian Ocean fans [Clift
and Gaedicke, 2002] in showing faster continental erosion
after the early Oligocene (-33 Ma), rising to a maximum in
the early-middle Miocene. Although some of this increase
could be driven by global climatic change, especially after 15
Ma, the first order correlation between the sediment flux,
new radiometric ages for Tibetan Plateau extension [Blisniuk
et al, 2001] and magmatism [Williams et al, 2001] indi­
cates a correlation with tectonic activity and surface uplift at
that time. Although the southern Lhasa Block appears to have
been elevated even before India-Asia collision, the marine
record suggests that the Oligocene marked a time of signif­
icant surface uplift in the central plateau [Tapponnier et al,
2001]. Moreover, the initiation of loess sedimentation [Guo
et al, 2002] and the wettening of the climate in southern
China during this period of accelerating erosion suggests
that the monsoon was also intensifying during the early
Miocene, when the plateau may have reached a crucial thresh­
old elevation. Subsequently the plateau appears to have grown
by eastward expansion [Clark and Royden, 2000], driving a
late Miocene excavation of the gorges now found in eastern
Tibet [Clark, 2003].
CLIFT E T A L . 277
Provenance data from sediments in the Yinggehai Basin
indicate that the Eocene paleo-Red River was then draining
sources that are less radiogenic with respect to Pb than any now
known in the modern drainage basin. A possible link to the
Yangtze Block is consistent with the middle Yangtze formerly
flowing in the opposite direction than it does today [Clark et
al, 2004], delivering this material into the paleo-Red River.
These isotopic data support models predicting loss of drainage
from the paleo-Red River due to plateau surface uplift [Clark
et al, 2004]. Sedimentation rates in the Yinggehai fell after the
early Miocene (profiles YI1 and YI3), at a time when other
basins show accelerating sedimentation, indicating that this was
the time of drainage capture away from the Red River driven
by surface uplift.
Together these data support erosion models that link the
development of the solid earth and climate [e.g., Harrison et al,
1992; Molnar et al, 1993]. However, in the revised scheme
increased surface uplift and monsoon strength started during the
Oligocene and peaked in the early-middle Miocene (-15-20
Ma), not in the late Miocene (-8.5 Ma). The new model is how­
ever more comprehensive than the original, because now the ero­
sional response to greater uplift and monsoon strengthen is
positive, not negative [cf, Burbank et al, 1993], as might be pre­
dicted given the recent relationship between monsoon strength
and erosion rates [Galy and France-Lanord, 2000].
Acknowledgments. This work was made possible through fund­
ing from JOI. PC thanks BP Exploration Operating Company for
access to seismic and drilling data. N.J. Kusznir and A.M. Roberts
provided valuable help in using Flex-Decomp™. The NENIMF at
WHOI is supported by grant EAR-9904400 from the National Sci­
ence Foundation. PC thanks Marin Clark for comments on the ideas
presented here. We thank Peter Molnar and David Rea for their
reviews that helped improve the original manuscript.
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