Challenges and strategies for

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ELF-aware teacher development
Koun Choi and Yongcan Liu

Teachers play a crucial role in the implementation of an English as a lingua

franca (ELF) perspective in the classroom. However, little research has been
conducted on what challenges teachers might encounter and what types
of support are needed to teach English from an ELF perspective. This study
thus explores the experiences of seven primary teachers enrolled in a teacher
development programme designed to support their attempts to teach from
an ELF perspective in South Korea. Drawing on in-depth interview data, the
paper provides detailed accounts of the challenges and strategies for developing
ELF-aware teachers. The main challenges encountered included a lack of
the pedagogical skills required to implement planned lessons, the paucity of
relevant instructional materials, and parents’ strong preference for Standard
English. It is possible, however, that these challenges could be addressed by
creating opportunities for guided reflection, peer collaboration, and effective
communication. Implications for future ELF-aware teacher development
programmes are also discussed.

Introduction Recent decades have seen remarkable developments in scholarly works

on the changing sociolinguistic landscape of English across the world. For
example, the field of World Englishes (WE) has showcased development
of diverse postcolonial and localized varieties of English (e.g. Kachru
2005). Scholars of English as a lingua franca (ELF) have demonstrated
the fluidity and hybridity of English used among speakers who do not
share a first language (e.g. Cogo and Dewey 2012). These fields of enquiry
challenge traditional ELT practice, where NS English has long been taken
as the sole yardstick of language competence and NSs are role models and
main target interlocutors.
Consequently, concrete suggestions have been raised to address the
implications of ELF or WE research for ELT. Dewey (2012) calls for a post-
normative approach to language teaching, suggesting ELT practitioners
move away from teaching English as a set of static NS norms and
critically reflect on conventional notions of ‘accuracy’ in ELT. Cogo and
Pitzl (2016) highlight the lack of ELT materials addressing the pragmatic
strategies required for successful ELF communication and the need to
include them in the ELT classroom. Matsuda and Friedrich (2011) point
out that teachers need to raise students’ awareness of the diverse varieties

ELT Journal; doi:10.1093/elt/ccaa036  Page 1 of 11

© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press; all rights reserved.
 of English used in the global community beyond certain varieties of NS
English.
Responding to the call to reflect the sociolinguistic reality of English in

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ELT, a growing body of research has been investigating how to facilitate
the development of teachers’ awareness of ELF and help translate it into
‘ELF-aware teaching’ (e.g. Blair 2015; Sifakis and Bayyurt 2015). ELF-aware
teaching refers to the process of constructing personal knowledge of how
to incorporate shared calls of ELF, and relevant fields of research such as
WE, into the teacher’s own classroom context (Sifakis and Bayyurt 2018:
459; Sifakis 2019: 288). More specifically, Sifakis and Bayyurt (2018)
suggest three phases of ELF-aware teacher development: exposure to
ELF and WE research and examples of successful ELF communication;
critical reflection on teachers’ own beliefs about English and ELT; and
development of an ELF-aware teaching practice relevant to teachers’
own contexts. Among the three phases, the last stage is least researched,
especially regarding what practical challenges teachers might encounter in
practice and how they might deal with these challenges.
Therefore, the present study investigates the experiences of seven
primary teachers who began to experiment with ELF-aware teaching,
particularly focusing on challenges they faced and the strategies they used
to overcome them. This paper aims to provide guidance for teachers who
wish to incorporate an ELF perspective into classroom practice as well as
for teacher educators who aim to support ELF-aware teacher development.

The practice An ELF perspective can be integrated into existing teaching practices
of ELF-aware such as corrective feedback and grammar teaching (Sifakis 2019: 301),
pedagogy or it can be incorporated into the classroom through specific activities
which aim to increase students’ awareness of ELF. For example, a specific
activity could be raising awareness of the diversity of English as a global
language by exposing students to a range of different varieties of English
or requiring them to research a single variety of English (Galloway and
Rose 2014, 2018). Teachers can also use online technology to create ELF
communication opportunities for students, allowing them to develop
communicative strategies and empowering their language identity (Kohn
and Hoffstaedter 2017).
Although such concrete suggestions have been made, ELF-aware teaching
may not seem straightforward from a teacher’s perspective. First of all,
dominant ideologies such as supposed native supremacy and linguistic
prescriptivism could pose a barrier to changing teaching practices. Parents
and school administrators’ beliefs in the superiority of NS English could
provoke discomfort in ELF-aware teachers (Sifakis and Bayyurt 2015:
480), and the native norm-driven ELT culture might also make teachers
reluctant to teach from an ELF perspective (Galloway 2017: 84). Also,
more practical difficulties seem to exist when delivering lessons. For
example, there is currently a lack of easily accessible ELF-related teaching
resources (Rose and Galloway 2019: 112), and the absence of specific
guidelines for ELF-aware pedagogy can cause frustration for teachers
when developing lessons (Lee 2012: 165). Research seems to indicate that
teachers, especially those who are just beginning to practise ELF-aware

Page 2 of 11 Koun Choi and Yongcan Liu

 teaching, might encounter a range of practical challenges. Therefore,
more research is required to look into effective strategies and supports
that teachers might need to deal with these challenges.

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The study This study investigates the experiences of seven South Korean primary
Research school teachers during an ELF-aware teacher development programme. In
questions particular, this paper seeks to answer two research questions:
1 What challenges did teachers encounter when carrying out ELF-aware
teaching?
2 How did teachers navigate the challenges of ELF-aware teaching?

Sampling The research was conducted with teachers enrolled in an EFL education
strategies and master’s course at a South Korean university. To recruit research
participants participants, 12 teachers taking the module ‘EFL Teaching Approaches in
Elementary Schools’ were invited to workshops which were administered
by the first author (hereinafter referred to as the facilitator). Primary
teachers were selected as target participants because they are considered to
have more autonomy over the curriculum, which may provide a conducive
environment for pedagogical innovation.
A series of workshops over four days were intended to raise the teachers’
awareness of ELF and its implications for ELT. Informed by ELF aware-
teacher development proposals by Sifakis and Bayyurt (2015), the
workshops were organized into three main types of activities:
■■ Theoretical discussions of ELF and WE—for example, reviewing relevant
literature and video lectures; listening to the facilitator’s explanations about
ELF- or WE-relevant concepts such as mutual intelligibility, diversity, and
fluidity of English, and ownership of English; and viewing video clips of ELF
communication
■■ Critical reflection on teachers’ beliefs about English and ELT through reflective
activities such as metaphor drawings, reflective writing, and peer discussion
■■ Development of sets of lesson plans suitable for teachers’ respective contexts.
At the end of the workshops, the purposes and procedures of the
subsequent teacher development programme were explained, and eight
out of twelve teachers voluntarily decided to participate. As one teacher
later withdrew from the programme due to personal reasons, this research
is based on the seven teachers who completed the programme. The
participants are all females in their twenties or thirties, whose teaching
experience ranged from two to ten years. Written consent was obtained
from the teachers and their schools before commencing the programme.

The practice- The purpose of the programme was to help teachers transform their
oriented understanding of ELF perspectives into effective practice. Over the course
ELF-aware teacher of a four-month-long academic semester, participants were encouraged
development to incorporate their awareness of ELF into their daily classroom practice.
programme They were also asked to deliver a lesson that explicitly reflected their
ELF perspective as frequently as they wished but at least once a month.
Although participants created lesson plans during the initial workshops,
these plans were modified as their understanding of ELF and pedagogy
developed. During regular school visits by the facilitator, teachers

Challenges and strategies for ELF-aware teacher development Page 3 of 11

 continued to discuss implications of ELF; for example, by considering
to what extent teachers should accept divergent features of a student’s
English as legitimate. They also shared ideas for lesson activities with
peer participants online to learn from each other. Classroom activities

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that participants implemented can be broadly categorized as either raising
awareness or promoting ELF interaction (see Table 1 for examples).
To facilitate teacher development, the programme was designed to be
teacher-driven, supportive, and reflective:
■  T
 eacher-driven: participants were encouraged to take control of lesson design
and execution, while the facilitator aided only upon request
■  S
 upportive: the facilitator set up communication channels via email and
a messaging app to discuss any concerns about the project. Participants
were also asked to share lesson plans and teaching materials with peers
online, encouraging collaboration in lesson planning and material
development
■  R
 eflective: participants were encouraged to reflect on their pedagogical actions
and beliefs throughout the programme through various activities, such as
video-mediated reflection, reflective dialogue, and journal writing.

Data collection The data analysis draws on in-depth interview data from a larger PhD
and analysis research project by the facilitator investigating ELF-aware teacher
development. The facilitator conducted semistructured interviews during
monthly visits to the participants’ schools, a total of three or four times
depending on the participant’s schedule. After observing a participant’s
lesson, the facilitator conducted interviews to discuss specific parts of
the lesson as well as the participant’s overall experience with ELF-aware

Main aim Learning activities

Awareness raising ■ Identifying features of varieties of English after listen-
ing to audio clips
■ Watching a video clip of a conversation in English
between well-known Korean and French footballers
and discussing how they communicated in English
■ Watching a video clip of Pakistani activist Malala
Yousafzai’s speech at the UN and discussing her
English
■ Keeping reflective diaries to record changes in stu-
dents’ own attitudes towards English.
Promoting ELF ■ Explaining ‘Konglish’ words to a native-speaking
communication English teacher
■ Exchanging hand-written traditional food recipes with
Pakistani students
■ Exchanging audio-recordings of self-descriptions
with French students and finding each other in group
pictures they exchanged
ta b l e  1
■ Exchanging self-video-recordings of how to play tradi-
tional games with French students and experiencing
Examples of participants’
each other’s traditions.
classroom activities

Page 4 of 11 Koun Choi and Yongcan Liu

 teaching. Interviews were administered in Korean, the first language of
both participants and the facilitator. All interviews were audio-recorded
and transcribed.

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At the first stage of data analysis, the interview transcript was read multiple
times to understand participants’ overall experiences with ELF-aware
teaching. Then, each participant’s statements indicating any difficulties with
ELF-oriented teaching were coded, and clusters of codes were developed
into themes. This was followed by cross-case analysis to discover commonly
occurring themes of challenges across participants, and these themes were
integrated into three broader themes of challenges, namely a lack of the
pedagogical skills required to implement planned lessons, the paucity of
relevant instructional materials, and parents’ strong preference for Standard
English. Next, the interview data were revisited to discover coping strategies
employed in relation to the themes of the challenges. To contextualize
interview data, where relevant the facilitator’s journal documenting personal
communication with the participants was referenced.

Research findings The findings are organized below according to the three main types of
challenges and strategies identified. Each section describes difficulties that
the participants experienced and presents the strategies employed by the
participants or the facilitator to overcome them.

Guided reflection All participants experienced challenges transforming their understanding

to improve ELF- of ELF-aware pedagogy into effective practice. A major obstacle was a lack
aware practices of knowledge of how to help students raise their awareness of ELF by
themselves. Having learnt and taught in a Korean educational culture where
knowledge transmission and teacher authority are norms, participants
were often puzzled as to how to facilitate students’ reflections and peer
discussions on ELF-relevant issues even if they wished to. For example,
when Dohee (pseudonyms used) attempted to nurture students’ positive
attitudes towards unfamiliar varieties of English, she often strayed into
imposing her own perspective, rather than facilitating autonomous and
reflective thinking. Dohee explained that even though she believed student
discussions are a useful way of raising awareness, her unfamiliarity with
how to organize them led her to exclude discussions from one lesson:
I think it would have been better if I suggested some questions for
group discussion. … To facilitate student discussion, I think teachers
should provide students with a set of sharp questions. But I don’t know
how to pose such questions as I am not experienced with this style
of teaching. So, I decided not to include discussion in today’s lesson.
Instead, I tried to tell students what I know. (Dohee, October)
Participants used supported reflection as a learning opportunity to
improve their practice. The facilitator used video-mediated reflection,
reflective questions, and clarification techniques to assist in their
reflection, helping participants critically interrogate their practices and
envision alternative actions. For example, through the reflective dialogue
shown below, Sujin identified the lack of opportunities for critical
thinking in her lesson as a problem and proposed a specific question that
could trigger critical thinking by students:

Challenges and strategies for ELF-aware teacher development Page 5 of 11

 Facilitator: Do you think there are parts of the lesson that require
improvement?
Sujin: … In both the previous and today’s lessons, I emphasized the

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need to be sufficiently exposed to different pronunciations of English.
But I feel this message was delivered in a rather unilateral manner.
The lessons would have been better if I had induced responses from
students by encouraging autonomous thinking.
Facilitator: In what ways can you do that?
Sujin: By asking a question that can guide students’ thinking and
allowing more time for reflection.
Facilitator: Ah, you mean asking a question. Can you explain more
specifically?
Sujin: Hmm, for example, I can provide them with a hypothetical
situation such as, ‘Imagine that you have to work with Australians
during a business trip in the future. Let’s say you had difficulties
communicating with them because you were unfamiliar with Australian
English. To prevent such a situation, what could you have done in
advance?’ (Sujin, October)
In the excerpt, the facilitator directs Sujin’s attention to a problematic
aspect of the lesson. Then, the facilitator asks multiple questions to
develop Sujin’s action plan from a broad intention (encouraging students’
autonomous thinking) to a specific action (providing a hypothetical
situation of encountering speakers of an unfamiliar variety). As in
Sujin’s case, engaging in guided reflection helped foster the growth of
participants’ personal knowledge of ELF-aware pedagogy.

Collaboration Another obstacle to adopting an ELF perspective in the classroom was

on developing a lack of suitable teaching resources. This hindered participants from
instructional carrying out lessons as intended. Although examples of ELF interactions
materials and non-native English are available online, the participants found
that most materials contained a level of English too advanced for their
students. They also mentioned that many materials included stereotypes
of English varieties. As Mina bemoaned:
YouTube is the most accessible place to find materials for ELF teaching,
but many of the video clips that I found unpleasantly described non-
native English. For example, a clip comparing Standard English and
Singlish made fun of Singlish whereas Standard English was portrayed
as a legitimate variety. Also, it is a lot more difficult to find video clips
that have a suitable level of English for young learners than those for
high proficiency adult learners. (Mina, September)
To compensate for the dearth of appropriate materials, some participants
created their own materials using personal networks. Hyerim asked a
Filipino friend to record video responses to students’ video recordings.
Sujin also used an audio-recording made by a Chinese friend in a lesson
introducing different countries. However, these attempts ended up as
one-off trials rather than sustainable efforts, because developing materials

Page 6 of 11 Koun Choi and Yongcan Liu

 from scratch was burdensome and time-consuming for teachers who
are extremely busy professionals. For instance, when Yuna was asked to
reflect on the biggest difficulty during the programme, she pointed to the
burden of creating teaching materials:

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There is not an existing database for ELF-related teaching materials. So,
most of the time, I had to plan and design them from scratch. (Yuna,
December)
Instead, sharing materials with peer participants appeared more
time efficient and practical than developing materials independently.
Participants regularly shared teaching resources on a website specifically
designated for this programme, and many reflected that the platform
helped them plan lessons and source teaching materials more efficiently.
As Mina stated:
It was easy to download teaching materials that other teachers shared on
the website, and we could also easily comment on each other’s lesson
plans. This helped me when planning my lessons. (Mina, December)
Co-constructing teaching materials with the programme facilitator was
another way of compensating for the lack of pre-made materials. When
Boram needed recordings of speakers of different English varieties
introducing unique jobs in their countries, she requested that the
facilitator help source recordings. The facilitator and Boram wrote scripts
together that were tailored to the students’ English proficiency level. Then,
the facilitator used personal networks to produce video-recordings of
the scripts. These recordings were also shared online and used by other
teachers in their lessons.
However, although collaborative material development helped ease
the burden of implementing a new teaching approach to some extent,
further support seemed necessary to sustain ELF-aware teaching after
the programme ended. For instance, Boram indicated that an ELF-
aware teacher community or extensive database of relevant instructional
materials should be made more readily available to make ELF-aware
teaching a more viable option in the classroom:
In terms of ordinary EFL lessons, we already have a large number
of accumulated teaching resources shared through online teacher
communities. Also, as the textbook is examined by the government,
supporting materials for teaching and evaluations are considerably well-
established. Compared to this, planning ELF lessons is a laborious task
as teachers must find individual teaching materials one by one. (Boram,
December)

Strategic Some participants expressed concerns about failing to meet parents’

communication expectations. Although participants informed parents about the semester-
with parents long project of ELF-aware teaching via a school letter or parent meeting,
concerns about parents’ reactions to the project persisted. Korean parents’
tendency to prioritize academic performance on high-stakes exams
seemed to lead some teachers to feel compelled to strictly adhere to the
native norms on which those exams are based. The dominant discourse of
Standard English that parents seemed to be assimilated into was another

Challenges and strategies for ELF-aware teacher development Page 7 of 11

 source of anxiety. Boram expressed the feeling of uneasiness arising from
such concerns:
To be honest, I feel a bit anxious about using ELF approaches in my

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teaching. Although I implement ELF teaching for a good purpose, there
might be parents who do not agree with my perspective. They might
think, ‘Is it necessary to teach an ELF perspective?’ There must be some
parents who think American English is superior to other varieties, just
like my students and I believed before. Some parents would think, ‘My
children do not need to meet Indians or Pakistanis in the future, so
I don’t want the teacher to waste time on this type of lesson.’ (Boram,
December)
Other participants such as Jisu had more intense concerns than Boram.
Jisu consistently expressed anxiety over parents’ attitudes towards her
ELF-aware teaching throughout the programme. Misaligning with
parents’ expectations brought feelings of discomfort and fear, which
led her to believe continuing to implement an ELF perspective in the
classroom could be a threat to her professional life:
If parents ask students what they learn from these lessons, students
might say, ‘Mum, it is not that important to have a native accent or
follow their grammatical rules. The most crucial thing is the ability to
communicate and deliver the intended meaning.’ We as adults all know
this is true. But if students have such a mindset, it is difficult for them
to achieve high marks on exams. So, I fear that parents might be critical
towards me and raise a question like, ‘What is this teacher teaching
about?’ (Jisu, November)
To involve parents in this change of teaching practice, Jisu sought a way to
introduce the value of ELF pedagogy to them. She asked a school colleague
in charge of organizing parent seminars whether the facilitator could be
invited to give a talk to parents about ELF-aware pedagogy and explain
this emerging paradigm. Although the seminar did not take place because
the academic semester was already fully booked, Jisu’s initiative was a
strategic attempt to resolve the challenge she faced. Jisu further explained
that informing parents about ELF pedagogy is key to cultivating positive
attitudes towards teachers’ pedagogical experimentation:
As I told you before, although the plan fell through, a seminar to
introduce parents to ELF teaching is necessary. Even if parents do not
change their beliefs through the seminar, I think it is still beneficial for
them to briefly learn about ELF teaching. I mean, regardless of whether
parents accept it or not, parents’ reactions towards their children or
advocators of ELF teaching would be completely different depending on
whether they are aware of ELF teaching or not. I think there should be
ways to inform parents about it. (Jisu, December)

Discussion and These findings both corroborate and extend the list of challenges proposed
implications by previous research (e.g. Sifakis and Bayyurt 2015; Rose and Galloway
2019). The results confirmed that teachers could become reluctant
to teach from an ELF perspective when they are faced with parents’
strong preference for Standard English or a lack of ELF-related teaching

Page 8 of 11 Koun Choi and Yongcan Liu

 resources. This research also identifies a new situational challenge that
less experienced ELF practitioners might experience. Participants reported
initial difficulties translating their understanding of ELF-aware teaching
into classroom activities that they believed to be effective at raising

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awareness of students, such as student discussion.
The significance of this study extends beyond existing literature by
exploring effective ways to resolve the aforementioned challenges
associated with ELF-aware pedagogy. Based on the strategies employed by
teachers and the facilitator, this study provides new insights into different
dimensions of ELF-aware teacher development, namely training approach,
learning environment, and curriculum design.
Firstly, the findings suggest supported reflection may be an effective
approach to developing teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge.
Although participants initially had inadequate knowledge of how to
effectively translate an ELF perspective into classroom activities, they
improved by engaging in reflection with the facilitator. Sujin’s case
provides a good example of how a set of reflective questions can help
participants identify areas of difficulty in their teaching and generate
better alternative actions.
Secondly, fostering collaborative learning environments may ease the
burden of implementing ELF-aware teaching. Teachers found planning
awareness-raising activities of different varieties of English and ELF and
developing lesson plans particularly laborious and time consuming due to
the paucity of instructional materials. However, teachers could continue
to experiment with an ELF perspective through synergistic efforts with
peers and the facilitator. For example, sharing lesson plans and teaching
materials online enabled teachers to more readily conduct ELF-aware
teaching compared to developing materials from scratch. However,
as suggested in an interview with Boram, further efforts, such as
establishing an extensive database for ELF-related instructional materials
or an active ELF-aware practitioner community, might be necessary for
continued sustainable ELF-aware teaching after teacher development
programmes finish.
The last insight that our research reveals is related to curriculum design
for ELF-aware teacher development. Most previous programmes only dealt
with issues directly related to ELF and pedagogy, but our findings suggest
that teachers need to learn additional skills to successfully implement
a pedagogical approach that could be considered quite radical in their
teaching contexts. Our participants’ concerns towards parents’ reactions
to their ELF-aware teaching suggests that ELF-aware teacher development
may need to provide guidance about how to communicate with parents
through either a formal seminar or informal parental meetings.

Conclusion Although participants had to grapple with several challenges while

learning to teach from an ELF perspective, this study suggests that those
challenges could be addressed through a reflective, supportive, and
comprehensive teacher development programme.

Challenges and strategies for ELF-aware teacher development Page 9 of 11

 There are a few limitations to this study. First, due to the relatively short
research period, it is unclear whether the strategies described in this
paper resulted in sustained impacts on participants’ ELF teaching after
the programme. We therefore suggest future research be conducted

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with a longitudinal design that enables researchers to monitor the long-
term impacts of these strategies. Second, some challenges and strategies
described could be contextual to the South Korean setting, although
they could apply to similar contexts where high-stakes English exams
and parents’ deep conviction regarding the supposed native supremacy
are prominent. This requires teacher educators working in different
educational contexts to be cautious when translating our findings to their
teaching contexts.
Despite these limitations, this study makes a valuable contribution as
there are few empirical investigations of teachers who are just beginning
to implement ELF-aware pedagogy. Together with similar future research
in different teaching contexts, this study can enrich our understanding
of the common or contextual challenges that beginning ELF-aware
practitioners face and, in turn, inform us how to provide effective and
situated support for their development into fully fledged ELF-aware
teachers.
Final version received June 2020

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The authors
Koun Choi is a PhD candidate in education at the
University of Cambridge. She previously worked as a
primary school teacher in South Korea for four years.

Page 10 of 11 Koun Choi and Yongcan Liu

She earned her BEd from Korea National University
of Education and MPhil from the University of
Cambridge. Her main research interests include ELF-
oriented teaching, critical language pedagogy, teacher
development, and transformative learning theory.
Email: kuc20@cam.ac.uk
Yongcan Liu is Reader in Applied Linguistics and
Languages Education at the Faculty of Education,
Challenges and strategies for ELF-aware teacher development
University of Cambridge and founder convenor of
the Cambridge Research in Community Language
Education Network. His research interests lie in
community/heritage language education language
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teacher development, and Vygotsky’s sociocultural
theory of mind. He has taught English/Chinese as a
foreign language and linguistics/applied linguistics
in China and the UK.
Email: yl258@cam.ac.uk
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